Why is stunting highest in Western Uganda?

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John Bosco Asiimwe, Abel Nzabona, Richard Tuyiragize, Christian Kakuba, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3802987/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Stunted children have high risk of death and over 40 percent globally are in Sub-Sahara Africa. In Uganda, 29 percent of children under-five are stunted and this has remained high over the last one decade but worse in the Western region of the country. Methods We used pooled Uganda Demographic and Health Survey (UDHS) data from 2001 to 2016 to establish factors that could explain stunting among children aged 24 to 59 months by applying a logit regression model. Results Results show that children whose mothers had attained higher levels of education were significantly associated with reduced odds (0.3) of stunting compared to those with no education. Children whose mothers had no access to health information were significantly associated with increased odds (1.4) of stunting compared to those who had access. Children who had had diarrhea two weeks prior to the survey were associated with higher odds (1.5) of stunting compared to those who did not have it. Conclusions The findings call for increased education of the girl child, increased access to health information to mothers, prevention and prompt treatment of diarrhea. Stunting Under-five Child Uganda Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Background Stunting which refers to short for age has a lifetime negative effect([1]). Twenty six percent of the world’s under 5 children are stunted ([2]) and in 2016, over 40 percent stunted children globally were in Africa ([3]). In Uganda, 29 percent of children under 5 are considered to be short for their age or stunted ([4]). Stunting has consistently over the last one decade been high in the Western region compared to the national average as shown in Figure 1. Contrary to the earlier UDHS series, the one of 2016 categorized the western region to include: Tooro, Bunyoro, Kigezi and Ankole sub-regions. Within the western region there also exist major variations in levels of stunting [(4)]. Tooro sub-region has the highest (41%) levels of stunting in the country but other sub-region in the west also has high levels compared to the national average: Bunyoro (35%), Kigezi (31%) and Ankole (29%). The first 1,000 days of the child’s growth are critical in terms of the nutrition for cognitive growth. The effects of stunting last a lifetime ([1]) and translates into impaired brain development, lower Intelligence quotient, weakened immune systems, and greater risk of serious diseases like diabetes and cancer later in life. A child who is stunted therefore has high risks of either deaths or falling into a vicious cycle of poverty. Conceptual framework We adapted and modified the UNICEF (2020) conceptual framework to come up with independent variables on malnutrition. The model was based on underlying and immediate factors. These factors were further categorized into demographic, social, economic, environmental and child level factors. We conceptualized these factors and summarized them in Figure 2. Methods Data management We used a pooled data from the UDHS of 2001 to 2016 to obtain enough observations for the western region. We used data from children aged 24 to 59 months interviewed from their mothers. The UDHS used a two-stage stratified sampling. In the first stage, Enumeration Areas were selected from the Uganda Nation Population Housing Census of 2002 and 2014 while the second stage of sampling was at household level. The total number of 2,020 of children aged 24 to 59 months were used in the analyses. Measurement of variables and statistical methods The outcome variable used in the analyses was a -2-standard deviation (sd) score ratio for height and age measure according to World Health Organization (WHO) standard. Children below the value of -2sd are considered to be stunted. We used background, demographic and socio-economic factors to determine factors associated with stunting. The variables considered included both household, mother and child variables. The household and mother’s variables included: residence (rural/urban), education level of the mother, wealth quintile, occupation, toilet facilities, and source of water. A women’s empowerment index was computed using: women’s ability to visit family relatives, decision-making on household purchases, and own health care. The index was categorized into: 0 for low empowerment; 1 for weak empowerment; and 2 for high empowerment. Child related variables included; whether child had diarrhea or fever at the time of the survey, birth order and whether child was put to breast milk immediately or not. To account for clusters of children within households, we used a logit regression model as specified below. $$\text{L}\text{o}\text{g} \left(\frac{{P}_{i}}{1-{P}_{i}}\right)={{\beta }_{0}+{\beta }_{1}X}_{1}+{{\beta }_{2}X}_{2}+\dots +{{\beta }_{i}X}_{i}$$ Where \({X}_{1} to {X}_{i}\) are the covariates \({\beta }_{0}\) to \({\beta }_{i}\) are the regression parameters to be estimated \({P}_{i}\) is the probability that the i th child aged 24 to 59 months will be stunted Results Descriptive statistics of respondents Table 1 provides results showing association between stunting and selected socio-economic factors. Results show that children whose mothers had no education level, were involved in agriculture and with no access to information were associated with high child stunting. Children who were living in rural areas, with no toilet facilities, lacking safe water for drinking, not put to breast immediately and had diarrhea were significantly associated child stunting. More of the children living in rural areas (49%) were stunted compared to those in urban areas (33%). Children whose mothers had no level of education were significantly associated with stunting compared to those who had attained atleast primary education. Results also show that children whose mothers were involved in agriculture were significantly associated with stunting (51%) compared to those involved in other forms of occupation. Children from households that did not have toilets were significantly stunted (57%) compared to those with toilets (47%). More children (51%) who did not have access to safe water for drinking were associated with stunting compared to those with safe water (44%). Newborns when put on breast milk immediately after birth were associated with low proportions of stunted children (50%) compared to those who were not (43%). Children whose mothers received information either through radio or television or any other media were less associated with stunting (44%) compared to those who did not (55%). Table 1: Socio-economic factors associated with children aged 24-59 months stunting Characteristics Not stunted Stunted n(weighted) p-value Sex of the child Male Female 50.8 54.2 49.2 45.8 881 934 0.1944 Type of place of residence Urban Rural 66.8 51.1 33.2 48.9 166 1,649 0.001 Highest educational level None Primary Secondary Higher 44.4 52.7 66.7 83.7 55.6 47.3 33.3 16.3 453 1,165 159 37 0.000 Marital status of the mother Never married Married Ever married 55.7 52.5 52.5 44.3 47.5 47.5 41 1,604 170 0.923 Wealth Quintile Poorest Poorer Middle Rich Richest 52.8 48.4 48.0 55.8 62.2 47.2 51.6 52.0 44.2 37.8 303 419 431 445 218 0.056 Occupation Not working Agriculture Others 53.9 49.0 64.4 46.1 51.0 35.6 203 1,260 353 0.000 Toilet Facility None Has toilet 42.6 53.3 57.4 46.7 122 1,693 0.016 Source of water for drinking Not safe Safe 49.2 56.1 50.8 43.9 939 876 0.011 When child was put to breast Not immediately Immediately 49.8 57.0 50.2 43.0 1,128 687 0.008 Had diarrhea No Yes 53.7 43.6 46.3 56.4 1,612 203 0.024 Had fever No Yes 53.2 50.7 46.8 49.3 1,323 492 0.420 Distance to health facility A big problem Not a big problem 50.2 55.3 49.8 44.7 982 832 0.070 Birth order 1-3 4-6 7+ 51.3 54.3 52.6 48.7 45.7 47.4 868 620 328 0.572 Women Empowerment Not empowered Some how Empowered 47.7 51.6 55.4 52.3 48.4 44.6 435 487 894 0.079 Receive information No Yes 45.1 56.1 54.9 43.9 591 1,224 0.000 Total 52.5 47.5 1,815 - Table 2 presents results from a logit model to establish factors associated with stunting. The main factors significantly associated with increased odds of stunting included; no education level, had diarrhea and lack of health information. Results show that children whose mothers had attained higher levels of education were significantly associated reduced odds (0.3) of stunting compared to those with no education. Children who had diarrhea two weeks prior to the survey were associated with higher odds (1.5) of stunting compared to those who did not have it. Children whose mothers had access to health related information were associated with increased odds (1.4) of stunted growth compared to those with received information. Table 2: Logit model results on demographic and socio factors associated with under5 stunting Variable Odds 95% CI Sex of child (ref: female) male 1.14 0.93 - 1.40 Child put to breast (Ref: immediately) Not immediate 1.15 0.92 - 1.44 Type of toilet facility (No toilet) With toilet facility 0.79 0.55 - 1.13 Wealth Quantile (Ref: Poorest) Poor Middle Rich Richer 1.20 1.40 1.02 0.98 0.81 - 1.78 0.92 - 2.14 0.66 - 1.57 0.60 - 1.60 Mother’s education level (Ref: None) Primary Secondary Higher 0.77* 0.57* 0.28* 0.60 - 0.98 0.35 - 0.91 0.10 - 0.75 Empowerment Index (Not empowered) Somehow Empowered 0.81 0.78 0.58 - 1.12 0.58 – 1.03 Had diarrhea recently (Ref: No) Had diarrhea 1.49* 1.03 – 2.16 Had fever in last two weeks (Ref: No) Yes 0.97 0.74 - 1.26 Access to safe water (Ref: No) Safe water 0.92 0.74 - 1.14 Type of place of residence (Ref: Urban) Rural 1.08 0.71 - 1.66 Access to information (Ref: Yes) No information 1.37** 1.09 - 1.73 Birth order number (Ref:<=3) 4-6 7+ 0.83 0.83 0.66 - 1.05 0.62 - 1.10 Respondent's occupation (Ref: Not employed) Agriculture self employed Other occupation 1.18 0.81 0.85 - 1.63 0.56 - 1.18 Distance to health facility (Ref: a problem) Small or no problem 0.90 0.71 - 1.13 Marital status of mother (Reference=single) Married Ever married 1.53 1.25 0.74 - 3.16 0.58 - 2.72 ** p<0.01, * p<0.05 Discussion We conducted an analysis of the underlying (background, demographic and socio-economic) and immediate (environmental, nutritional and empowerment) factors likely to be associated with stunting in Western Uganda. We used UDHS pooled data for the period 2001 to 2016 for children aged 24 to 59 months. Our analyses identify socio-economic, environmental and access to information being associated with stunting of children aged 24 to 59 months. Results show that stunting was significantly associated with increased odds of; children’s mothers with no education level, children who had suffered from diarrhea and those whose mothers had no access to health information. Our findings show that children whose mothers had no education level were associated with high levels of stunted children compared to those who had atleast primary level of education. Studies [(5–8)] have shown strong association between mother’s education level and child stunting. Studies have also shown that both maternal and paternal lower levels of education are associated with high risks to their children being stunted ([ 9 ]). The association between low education and stunting could be due to the fact that such mothers have low levels of incomes and hence a challenge to providing good diet to their children. Results show that children had no access health related information were associated with high odds of stunting compared to those who did not have([ 10 ]). Mothers are usually the primary caregivers of their children and when they are empowered with information, they are likely to make better decision on the health and feeding of their children to improve nutrition and hence reduce stunting. Children who had suffered from diarrhea were found to be associated with stunting compared to those who had not. Our findings collaborate with other studies on how diarrhea is associated with high stunting ([ 11 , 12 ]). Children who have had diarrhea are more likely to be associated with poor health environment like lack of access to clean water for drinking and consequently more likely to be stunted. Limitations Data for Western region was aggregated in the earlier surveys compared to the UDHS of 2016 making it difficult to compare variations within the sub-regions. Conclusions Finding show that stunting among children age 24 to 59 months were associated with lack of education level among mothers, had diarrhea and children whose mothers were not empowered. The findings calls for increased education of the girl child, increased access to health information to mothers, prevention and prompt treatment of diarrhea. Abbreviations UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistics UDHS Uganda Demographic and Health Survey WHO World Health Organization Declarations 1. Ethics approval and consent to participate This study utilized secondary data that was obtained with permission after registration with website https://dhsprogram.com. 2. Consent for publication Not applicable 3. Availability of data and materials The data sets used in the analysis are provided with this submission as supplementary information files. 4. Competing Interests There are no competing interests. 5. Funding This research was funded by College of Business and Management Sciences, Makerere University. 6. Authors' contributions The study was conceived and designed by Asiimwe John Bosco *1 , Nzabona Abel 1 , Tuyiragize Richard 1 , Kakuba Christian 1 , and Sendege Susan Habert 1 . The data were analyzed by Asiimwe John Bosco *1 and Tuyiragize Richard 1 . Asiimwe John Bosco *1 wrote the first draft of the manuscript and is responsible for the final content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. 7. Acknowledgements This study was undertaken with support from Makerere University, College of Business and Management Sciences. References Dewey K, Begum K. Long-term consequences of stunting in early life. Matern Child Nutr. 2011;Suppl 3:5–18. UNICEF-WHO-The World Bank. Levels and trends in child malnutrition. UNICEF-WHO-The World Bank joint child malnutrition estimates. [Internet]. 2012. Available from: http://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/jme_unicef_who_wb.pdf UNICEF – WHO – World Bank Group. Levels and trends in child malnutrition [Internet]. 2015. Available from: https://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/jme_brochure2015.pdf UBOS & ICF. Uganda Demographic and Health Survey 2016. Kampala, Uganda and Rockville, Maryland, USA: Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) & ICF; 2018. Abuya BA, Ciera J, Kimani-Murage E. Effect of mother’s education on child’s nutritional status in the slums of Nairobi. BMC Pediatr. 2012;12:80. Handayani F, Siagian A, Aritonang EY. Mother’s Education as A Determinant of StuntingamongChildren of Age 24 to 59 Months in North Sumatera Province of Indonesia. Journal Of Humanities And Social Science. 2017;22(6):58–64. Musbah E, Worku A. Influence of Maternal Education on Child Stunting in SNNPR, Ethiopia. Central African Journal of Public Health. 2016;2(2):71–82. Monteiro CA, Benicio MH, Conde WL, Konno S, Lovadino AL, Barros AJ, et al. Narrowing socioeconomic inequality in child stunting: the Brazilian experience, 1974–2007. Bull World Health Organ. 2010;88(4):305–11. Vollmer S, Bommer C, Krishna A, Harttgen K, Subramanian S. The association of parental education with childhood undernutrition in low- and middle-income countries: comparing the role of paternal and maternal education. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46(1):312–23. Puett C, Guerrero S. Barriers to access for severe acute malnutrition treatment services in Pakistan and Ethiopia: a comparative qualitative analysis. Public HEalth Nutrition. 2014;18(10):1873–82. Danaei G, Andrews K, Sudfeld C, Fink G, McCoy D, Peet E, et al. Risk Factors for Childhood Stunting in 137 Developing Countries: A Comparative Risk Assessment Analysis at Global, Regional, and Country Levels. PLoS Med. 2016;13(11). Berkman D, Lescano A, Gilman R, Lopez S, Black M. Effects of stunting, diarrhoeal disease, and parasitic infection during infancy on cognition in late childhood: a follow-up study. The Lacent. 2002;359(9306):P564-571. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files AnalysisData.csv UGBR2001.csv UGKR2006.csv UGKR2011.csv UGKR2016.csv Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3802987","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":266983971,"identity":"11e81b93-9806-431e-93ba-9d1f78d7ec67","order_by":0,"name":"John Bosco 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2016\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3802987/v1/5da64f620474289c645d8bf1.png"},{"id":49639997,"identity":"083db0c7-7991-47a4-92f8-56ec9e5c50fc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-15 18:59:09","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54745,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAdapted from UNICEF (2020)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePathways through which underlying and intermediate factors may affect malnutrition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3802987/v1/edd84d13bbc05fba36812002.png"},{"id":59896418,"identity":"a463790a-429a-480a-8be7-ad56db10f9cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-09 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Twenty six percent of the world\u0026rsquo;s under 5 children are stunted ([2]) and in 2016, over 40 percent stunted children globally were in Africa ([3]). In Uganda, 29 percent of children under 5 are considered to be short for their age or stunted ([4]). Stunting has consistently over the last one decade been high in the Western region compared to the national average as shown in Figure 1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eContrary to the earlier UDHS series, the one of 2016 categorized the western region to include: Tooro, Bunyoro, Kigezi and Ankole sub-regions. Within the western region there also exist major variations in levels of stunting [(4)]. Tooro sub-region has the highest (41%) levels of stunting in the country but other sub-region in the west also has high levels compared to the national average: Bunyoro (35%), Kigezi (31%) and Ankole (29%). The first 1,000 days of the child\u0026rsquo;s growth are critical in terms of the nutrition for cognitive growth. The effects of stunting last a lifetime ([1]) and translates into impaired brain development, lower Intelligence quotient, weakened immune systems, and greater risk of serious diseases like diabetes and cancer later in life. A child who is stunted therefore has high risks of either deaths or falling into a vicious cycle of poverty.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConceptual framework\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe adapted and modified the UNICEF (2020) conceptual framework to come up with independent variables on malnutrition. The model was based on underlying and immediate factors. These factors were further categorized into demographic, social, economic, environmental and child level factors. We conceptualized these factors and summarized them in Figure 2.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData management\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used a pooled data from the UDHS of 2001 to 2016 to obtain enough observations for the western region. We used data from children aged 24 to 59 months interviewed from their mothers. The UDHS used a two-stage stratified sampling. In the first stage, Enumeration Areas were selected from the Uganda Nation Population Housing Census of 2002 and 2014 while the second stage of sampling was at household level. The total number of 2,020 of children aged 24 to 59 months were used in the analyses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasurement of variables and statistical methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe outcome variable used in the analyses was a -2-standard deviation (sd) score ratio for height and age measure according to World Health Organization (WHO) standard. Children below the value of -2sd are considered to be stunted. We used background, demographic and socio-economic factors to determine factors associated with stunting. The variables considered included both household, mother and child variables. The household and mother\u0026rsquo;s variables included: residence (rural/urban), education level of the mother, wealth quintile, occupation, toilet facilities, and source of water. A women\u0026rsquo;s empowerment index was computed using: women\u0026rsquo;s ability to visit family relatives, decision-making on household purchases, and own health care. The index was categorized into: 0 for low empowerment; 1 for weak empowerment; and 2 for high empowerment. Child related variables included; whether child had diarrhea or fever at the time of the survey, birth order and whether child was put to breast milk immediately or not.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo account for clusters of children within households, we used a logit regression model as specified below.\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\text{L}\\text{o}\\text{g} \\left(\\frac{{P}_{i}}{1-{P}_{i}}\\right)={{\\beta }_{0}+{\\beta }_{1}X}_{1}+{{\\beta }_{2}X}_{2}+\\dots +{{\\beta }_{i}X}_{i}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({X}_{1} to {X}_{i}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e are the covariates\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\beta }_{0}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e to \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\beta }_{i}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eare the regression parameters to be estimated\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({P}_{i}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e is the probability that the i\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e child aged 24 to 59 months will be stunted\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDescriptive statistics of respondents\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1 provides results showing association between stunting and selected socio-economic factors. Results show that children whose mothers had no education level, were involved in agriculture and with no access to information were associated with high child stunting. Children who were living in rural areas, with no toilet facilities, lacking safe water for drinking, not put to breast immediately and had diarrhea were significantly associated child stunting.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMore of the children living in rural areas (49%) were stunted compared to those in urban areas (33%). Children whose mothers had no level of education were significantly associated with stunting compared to those who had attained atleast primary education. Results also show that children whose mothers were involved in agriculture were significantly associated with stunting (51%) compared to those involved in other forms of occupation. Children from households that did not have toilets were significantly stunted (57%) compared to those with toilets (47%). More children (51%) who did not have access to safe water for drinking were associated with stunting compared to those with safe water (44%). \u0026nbsp;Newborns when put on breast milk immediately after birth were associated with low proportions of stunted children (50%) compared to those who were not (43%). Children whose mothers received information either through radio or television or any other media were less associated with stunting (44%) compared to those who did not (55%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1: Socio-economic factors associated with children aged 24-59 months stunting\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharacteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNot stunted\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStunted\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en(weighted)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ep-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSex of the child\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e881\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e934\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1944\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eType of place of residence\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;51.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;48.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e166\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,649\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHighest educational level\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigher\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;52.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;66.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;83.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;47.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;33.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;16.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e453\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,165\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e159\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMarital status of the mother\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNever married\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEver married\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;52.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;52.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;47.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;47.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,604\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.923\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWealth Quintile\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoorest\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoorer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRich\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRichest\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;48.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;48.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;55.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;62.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;51.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;52.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;44.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;37.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e303\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e419\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e431\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e445\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e218\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOccupation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot working\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAgriculture\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;49.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;64.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;51.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;35.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e203\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,260\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e353\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eToilet Facility\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHas toilet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;53.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;46.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e122\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,693\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource of water for drinking\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot safe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSafe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;56.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;43.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e939\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e876\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhen child was put to breast\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot immediately\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImmediately\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;57.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;43.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,128\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e687\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHad diarrhea\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;43.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;56.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,612\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e203\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHad fever\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;50.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;49.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,323\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e492\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.420\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDistance to health facility\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA big problem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot a big problem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;55.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;44.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e982\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e832\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBirth order\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;54.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;52.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;45.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;47.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e868\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e620\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e328\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.572\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWomen Empowerment\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot empowered\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSome how\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmpowered\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;51.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;55.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;48.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;44.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e435\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e487\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e894\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.079\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReceive information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;56.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;43.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e591\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,224\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"34.69387755102041%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.306122448979592%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,815\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.224489795918368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 presents results from a logit model to establish factors associated with stunting. The main factors significantly associated with increased odds of stunting included; no education level, had diarrhea and lack of health information.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults show that children whose mothers had attained higher levels of education were significantly associated reduced odds (0.3) of stunting compared to those with no education. Children who had diarrhea two weeks prior to the survey were associated with higher odds (1.5) of stunting compared to those who did not have it. \u0026nbsp;Children whose mothers had access to health related information were associated with increased odds (1.4) of stunted growth compared to those with received information. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2: Logit model results on demographic and socio factors associated with under5 stunting \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"624\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOdds\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e95% CI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSex of child (ref: female) male\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93 - 1.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChild put to breast (Ref: immediately) Not immediate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92 - 1.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eType of toilet facility (No toilet) With toilet facility\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55 - 1.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWealth Quantile (Ref: Poorest)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRich\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRicher\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81 - 1.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92 - 2.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66 - 1.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60 - 1.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s education level (Ref: None)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigher\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60 - 0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35 - 0.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10 - 0.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmpowerment Index (Not empowered)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSomehow\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmpowered\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58 - 1.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58 \u0026ndash; 1.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHad diarrhea recently (Ref: No) Had diarrhea\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.49*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.03 \u0026ndash; 2.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHad fever in last two weeks (Ref: No) \u0026nbsp;Yes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.74 - 1.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccess to safe water (Ref: No) Safe water\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.74 - 1.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eType of place of residence (Ref: Urban) Rural\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.71 - 1.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccess to information (Ref: Yes) No information\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.37**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.09 - 1.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBirth order number (Ref:\u0026lt;=3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66 - 1.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62 - 1.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRespondent\u0026apos;s occupation (Ref: Not employed)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAgriculture self employed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOther occupation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.85 - 1.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56 - 1.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDistance to health facility (Ref: a problem) Small or no problem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.71 - 1.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"65.38461538461539%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarital status of mother (Reference=single)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEver married\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.346153846153847%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.26923076923077%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.74 - 3.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58 - 2.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e** p\u0026lt;0.01, * p\u0026lt;0.05\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe conducted an analysis of the underlying (background, demographic and socio-economic) and immediate (environmental, nutritional and empowerment) factors likely to be associated with stunting in Western Uganda. We used UDHS pooled data for the period 2001 to 2016 for children aged 24 to 59 months. Our analyses identify socio-economic, environmental and access to information being associated with stunting of children aged 24 to 59 months. Results show that stunting was significantly associated with increased odds of; children\u0026rsquo;s mothers with no education level, children who had suffered from diarrhea and those whose mothers had no access to health information.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings show that children whose mothers had no education level were associated with high levels of stunted children compared to those who had atleast primary level of education. Studies [(5\u0026ndash;8)] have shown strong association between mother\u0026rsquo;s education level and child stunting. Studies have also shown that both maternal and paternal lower levels of education are associated with high risks to their children being stunted ([\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]). The association between low education and stunting could be due to the fact that such mothers have low levels of incomes and hence a challenge to providing good diet to their children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults show that children had no access health related information were associated with high odds of stunting compared to those who did not have([\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]). Mothers are usually the primary caregivers of their children and when they are empowered with information, they are likely to make better decision on the health and feeding of their children to improve nutrition and hence reduce stunting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChildren who had suffered from diarrhea were found to be associated with stunting compared to those who had not. Our findings collaborate with other studies on how diarrhea is associated with high stunting ([\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]). Children who have had diarrhea are more likely to be associated with poor health environment like lack of access to clean water for drinking and consequently more likely to be stunted.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData for Western region was aggregated in the earlier surveys compared to the UDHS of 2016 making it difficult to compare variations within the sub-regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eFinding show that stunting among children age 24 to 59 months were associated with lack of education level among mothers, had diarrhea and children whose mothers were not empowered. The findings calls for increased education of the girl child, increased access to health information to mothers, prevention and prompt treatment of diarrhea.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eUBOS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUganda Bureau of Statistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eUDHS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUganda Demographic and Health Survey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eWHO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorld Health Organization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1. Ethics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study utilized secondary data that was obtained with permission after registration with website https://dhsprogram.com.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2. Consent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3. Availability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data sets used in the analysis are provided with this submission as supplementary information files.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4. Competing Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5. Funding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was funded by College of Business and Management Sciences, Makerere University.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6. Authors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conceived and designed by \u003cstrong\u003eAsiimwe John Bosco\u003csup\u003e*1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e, Nzabona Abel\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e, Tuyiragize Richard\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e, Kakuba Christian\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e, and Sendege Susan Habert\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e. The data were analyzed by \u003cstrong\u003eAsiimwe John Bosco\u003csup\u003e*1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e and Tuyiragize Richard\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e. \u003cstrong\u003eAsiimwe John Bosco\u003csup\u003e*1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e wrote the first draft of the manuscript and is responsible for the final content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7. Acknowledgements \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was undertaken with support from Makerere University, College of Business and Management Sciences. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDewey K, Begum K. Long-term consequences of stunting in early life. Matern Child Nutr. 2011;Suppl 3:5\u0026ndash;18.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUNICEF-WHO-The World Bank. Levels and trends in child malnutrition. UNICEF-WHO-The World Bank joint child malnutrition estimates. [Internet]. 2012. Available from: http://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/jme_unicef_who_wb.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUNICEF \u0026ndash; WHO \u0026ndash; World Bank Group. Levels and trends in child malnutrition [Internet]. 2015. Available from: https://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/jme_brochure2015.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUBOS \u0026amp; ICF. Uganda Demographic and Health Survey 2016. Kampala, Uganda and Rockville, Maryland, USA: Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) \u0026amp; ICF; 2018.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbuya BA, Ciera J, Kimani-Murage E. Effect of mother\u0026rsquo;s education on child\u0026rsquo;s nutritional status in the slums of Nairobi. BMC Pediatr. 2012;12:80.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHandayani F, Siagian A, Aritonang EY. Mother\u0026rsquo;s Education as A Determinant of StuntingamongChildren of Age 24 to 59 Months in North Sumatera Province of Indonesia. Journal Of Humanities And Social Science. 2017;22(6):58\u0026ndash;64.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMusbah E, Worku A. Influence of Maternal Education on Child Stunting in SNNPR, Ethiopia. Central African Journal of Public Health. 2016;2(2):71\u0026ndash;82.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMonteiro CA, Benicio MH, Conde WL, Konno S, Lovadino AL, Barros AJ, et al. Narrowing socioeconomic inequality in child stunting: the Brazilian experience, 1974\u0026ndash;2007. Bull World Health Organ. 2010;88(4):305\u0026ndash;11.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVollmer S, Bommer C, Krishna A, Harttgen K, Subramanian S. The association of parental education with childhood undernutrition in low- and middle-income countries: comparing the role of paternal and maternal education. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46(1):312\u0026ndash;23.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePuett C, Guerrero S. Barriers to access for severe acute malnutrition treatment services in Pakistan and Ethiopia: a comparative qualitative analysis. Public HEalth Nutrition. 2014;18(10):1873\u0026ndash;82.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDanaei G, Andrews K, Sudfeld C, Fink G, McCoy D, Peet E, et al. Risk Factors for Childhood Stunting in 137 Developing Countries: A Comparative Risk Assessment Analysis at Global, Regional, and Country Levels. PLoS Med. 2016;13(11).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBerkman D, Lescano A, Gilman R, Lopez S, Black M. Effects of stunting, diarrhoeal disease, and parasitic infection during infancy on cognition in late childhood: a follow-up study. The Lacent. 2002;359(9306):P564-571.\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Stunting, Under-five, Child, Uganda","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3802987/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3802987/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStunted children have high risk of death and over 40 percent globally are in Sub-Sahara Africa. In Uganda, 29 percent of children under-five are stunted and this has remained high over the last one decade but worse in the Western region of the country.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe used pooled Uganda Demographic and Health Survey (UDHS) data from 2001 to 2016 to establish factors that could explain stunting among children aged 24 to 59 months by applying a logit regression model.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults show that children whose mothers had attained higher levels of education were significantly associated with reduced odds (0.3) of stunting compared to those with no education. Children whose mothers had no access to health information were significantly associated with increased odds (1.4) of stunting compared to those who had access. Children who had had diarrhea two weeks prior to the survey were associated with higher odds (1.5) of stunting compared to those who did not have it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings call for increased education of the girl child, increased access to health information to mothers, prevention and prompt treatment of diarrhea.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Why is stunting highest in Western Uganda?","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-01-15 18:59:05","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3802987/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e8bef3c6-5d71-4625-9750-9222e93fcd68","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 15th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-07-09T03:59:47+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-01-15 18:59:05","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3802987","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3802987","identity":"rs-3802987","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"7rjqhiLT3MXkJMwkYKINL","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}