BREATHING MEDITATION CONSTRICTS THE PUPIL, REDUCES EYE BLINKS AND INCREASES BLINKING DURATION

The study aims to investigate the physiological correlates of attention during breathing meditation by focusing on two ocular parameters: pupil diameter and blinking behavior. We recruited 35 participants (after exclusions) who were novice meditators. They completed a short-term focused attention meditation (FAM) training. In the experimental phase, participants engaged in breathing meditation tasks with open eyes while pupil diameter and blink parameters were continuously measured using an eye tracker. Our results indicate that pupil diameter constricted significantly during breathing meditation compared to control tasks. Participants also exhibited fewer blinks and increased blink duration during the meditation task, with pupil dilation corresponding to periods of effortful attention in non-meditation tasks. Breathing meditation induces distinctive patterns in ocular physiology, such as pupil constriction and reduced blink rate, which could serve as reliable indicators of effortless attentional states in comparison to both mind wandering and effortful attention. These findings suggest that pupillometry and blink measurements can provide a reliable tool for unintrusive monitoring of mediation, and offer valuable insights into the effortless attention developed during meditation. BREATHING MEDITATION CONSTRICTS THE PUPIL, REDUCES EYE BLINKS AND INCREASES BLINKING DURATION Irene Laudanna 1,2, Massimo Zancanaro 1,2, Nicola De Pisapia 1, * ¹ Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto (TN), Italy 2 FBK - Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, Trento, Italy (*) Corresponding author: [email protected]

The study aims to investigate the physiological correlates of attention during breathing meditation by focusing on two ocular parameters: pupil diameter and blinking behavior. We recruited 35 participants (after exclusions) who were novice meditators. They completed a short-term focused attention meditation (FAM) training. In the experimental phase, participants engaged in breathing meditation tasks with open eyes while pupil diameter and blink parameters were continuously measured using an eye tracker. Our results indicate that pupil diameter constricted significantly during breathing meditation compared to control tasks. Participants also exhibited fewer blinks and increased blink duration during the meditation task, with pupil dilation corresponding to periods of effortful attention in non-meditation tasks. Breathing meditation induces distinctive patterns in ocular physiology, such as pupil constriction and reduced blink rate, which could serve as reliable indicators of effortless attentional states in comparison to both mind wandering and effortful attention. These findings suggest that pupillometry and blink measurements can provide a reliable tool for unintrusive monitoring of mediation, and offer valuable insights into the effortless attention developed during meditation.

Mindfulness, Attention, Eye-tracking, Pupillometry, Effortless Attention, Blinking IMPACT This study identifies pupil constriction, reduced blink rate, and increased blink duration as reliable ocular markers of effortless attention during breathing meditation in novice practitioners. By contrasting meditation with mind-wandering and effortful mental arithmetic, we demonstrate that ocular physiology offers a sensitive, non-invasive index of attentional states. These findings advance psychophysiological research and open practical avenues for real-time monitoring and biofeedback in mindfulness-based training and clinical applications.

Contemplative practices such as meditation, breathing exercises, and mindfulness techniques have demonstrated profound effects on both physiology and cognition, particularly in the domain of attention (Dahl et al., 2015; Tang et al., 2015). Among these practices, focused attention meditation (FAM)—often referred to as breathing meditation—is a central component of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) programs (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). FAM emphasizes maintaining attention on the breath, fostering a balance between vigilance and relaxation (Bhikkhu, 1996). Mindfulness within the MBSR framework is characterized by non-judgmental awareness of the present moment, encouraging curiosity, acceptance and emotional balance, also in team-work settings (Grecucci et al., 2015; De Pisapia & Grecucci, 2017; Chies et al., 2025). This form of awareness enhances attentional control, making FAM an effective tool for studying the regulation of attention (Bishop et al., 2004; Malinowski, 2013). Previous studies have consistently shown that mindfulness meditation improves sustained attention, attentional flexibility, and inhibitory control (Chambers et al., 2008; Moore & Malinowski, 2009). Notably, mindfulness practices reduce activity in the default mode network (DMN), which is associated with mind-wandering and self-referential thinking (Mason et al., 2007; Buckner et al., 2008; Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2014). Mindful meditation is characterized by a state of effortless attention that can be recognized with neuroimaging techniques (Farb et al. 2007; Yordanova et al., 2021). Yet, these techniques are rather invasive or not suitable for continuous monitoring of mindful practice in ecological settings. In this respect, pupillometry, the measurement of pupil diameter, might offer a promising tool for real-time tracking of attentional processes. The pupil’s size is regulated by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, providing insights into cognitive load and attentional states (Steinhauer et al., 2004). Generally, larger pupil diameters are associated with increased cognitive effort (Just & Carpenter, 1993), while smaller diameters signal lower arousal, fatigue and attentional relaxation (Morad et al., 2000). However, findings regarding pupil size during mind-wandering and focused meditation are inconsistent. Some studies suggest that mind-wandering episodes reduce pupil size (Van Orden et al., 2000; Grandchamp et al., 2014), whereas others report an increase in pupil diameter during these episodes (Franklin et al., 2013; Smallwood et al., 2015). These discrepancies may stem from varying cognitive demands of different tasks and the specific attentional requirements they impose. Similarly, eye-blinking has been proposed as an indicator of attentional state. Increased blink frequency is often observed during mind-wandering and periods of reduced external engagement (Smilek et al., 2010; Uzzaman & Joordens, 2011). Additionally, blink duration has been linked to cognitive effort and insight-based problem-solving, with longer blinks occurring just before reaching a solution (Salvi et al., 2015). Despite the potential of ocular parameters to reflect attentional processes during mindfulness practices, few studies have investigated these measures during meditation with open eyes. Vasquez-Rosati et al. (2017) examined pupil responses to emotional stimuli after meditation training but did not examine attentional processes. Brefczynski-Lewis et al. (2007) reported greater pupil dilation in response to interrupting sounds during meditation compared to rest, but did not analyze differences between meditation and resting states in terms of attentional dynamics. Kruis et al. (2016) showed that long-term meditators have significantly lower spontaneous eye-blink rates and altered blink patterns compared to non-meditators. This study linked reduced blink frequency to meditation-induced changes in dopaminergic activity, reinforcing the idea that eye-blink metrics are reliable indicators of cognitive states during meditation. More recently, Matiz et al. (2019) monitored ocular activity during closed-eye meditation using EEG and found that meditators exhibited less ocular movement, indicating greater attentional stability. Pomè et al. (2020) observed expert meditators and found that the amplitude of spontaneous low-frequency oscillations in pupil diameter (pupillary hippus) increased by approximately 53% during mindfulness meditation, compared to pre- and post-meditation baselines. This effect was specific to low-frequency oscillations (< 1 Hz); higher-frequency delta oscillations (1–5 Hz) remained unchanged. Building upon these findings, our study aims to specifically investigate changes in pupil diameter and blink rate during FAM in novice meditators. While usually mindfulness is practiced with closed eyes, many contemplative traditions advocate keeping the eyes open during meditation to maintain alertness and prevent drowsiness. It can also facilitate the integration of mindfulness into daily life, fostering a state of mindful awareness while engaged with the external world. (Wallace, 2006). We designed a within-subject study with two main experimental conditions involving FAM (with and without interruptions) and two control conditions: a mind-wandering state and a mental arithmetic task requiring sustained effortful attention. By comparing these conditions, we aim to clarify how ocular parameters reflect different attentional states and to address gaps in the existing literature regarding open-eyed meditation. Specifically, we hypothesize the following: • H1: During FAM, participants will exhibit decreased pupil diameter and reduced blink rate compared to the mental arithmetic task, reflecting an effortless attentional state. • H2: The mental arithmetic task will elicit increased pupil diameter and higher blink rate, indicative of greater cognitive load and effortful attention. • H3: During the mind-wandering condition, we expect pupil diameter and blink rate to fall between those observed during FAM and mental arithmetic, reflecting intermediate attentional engagement. By investigating these ocular parameters during FAM with open eyes, our study seeks to extend the understanding of physiological markers of attentional states in mindfulness practices. Furthermore, we aim to explore the potential of pupil diameter and blink rate as reliable, real-time, and non-invasive measures of attention, which could have significant implications for both research and practical applications in mindfulness training. Participants We recruited 43 students from the University of Trento to participate in the study. Inclusion criteria required that participants had no prior experience with mindfulness meditation and no history of neurological or psychiatric disorders. Individuals with dyscalculia were excluded due to the arithmetic tasks involved in the study. Prior to data analysis, we established an exclusion criterion based on meditation engagement to ensure adequate participation in the training phase. Participants who scored below 6 on a cumulative meditation engagement scale (ranging from 0 to 10) were excluded. This scale was based on self-reported adherence to daily meditation practice and subjective ratings of engagement collected throughout the training week. Five participants met this exclusion criterion. Finally, three participants were excluded due to data loss resulting from technical issues during data collection. Eventually, our study was conducted on a final sample of 35 participants (20 females, mean age = 28.3 years; 15 males, mean age = 31.1 years; age range = 20–41 years). All participants had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and the study protocol was approved by the Ethical Committee of the University of Trento. Participants were compensated with course credit or a small monetary reward. The study comprised two phases: a supervised training phase and an experimental session. Training Phase Participants underwent a seven-day training in FAM. Each day, they attended a supervised 10-minute meditation session in the laboratory, accumulating a total of 70 minutes of practice. During the first five sessions, participants were guided by an audio recording provided by the researchers, which instructed them to focus on their breath while keeping their eyes open and maintaining a gentle gaze on a fixed point. The final two sessions were unguided but supervised, allowing participants to practice independently while ensuring adherence to the meditation protocol. To ensure compliance and consistency, attendance was recorded daily, and participants completed brief questionnaires after each session to report on their engagement and any difficulties encountered. This supervised approach aimed to minimize variability in meditation practice quality and adherence. Experimental Session The experimental session took place one day after the completion of the training phase. Participants were tested individually in a dimly lit room designed to minimize external distractions and maintain consistent lighting conditions. They were seated approximately 60 cm from a computer monitor, with their gaze directed at a fixation cross in the center of the screen. The setup was standardized for all participants. The session included four tasks, presented in a randomized order to control for potential order effects: 1. FAM Task (M): Participants engaged in FAM, concentrating on their breath while keeping their eyes open and fixated on the cross. They were instructed to acknowledge any distracting thoughts without judgment and gently return their attention to their breath. This task lasted 7 minutes. 2. FAM with Thought Probes (MP): Similar to the M task, participants practiced FAM with the addition of intermittent auditory probes. Eight probes were presented at random intervals ranging from 45 to 75 seconds. Upon hearing a probe (a brief tone), participants verbally indicated whether they had been focused on their breath or if their mind had wandered just before the probe. This task lasted approximately 10 minutes to accommodate the interruptions. 3. Mind-Wandering Task (MW): Participants were instructed to let their thoughts flow freely without focusing on any specific object or task. They maintained an open-eyed gaze on the fixation cross. This task lasted 7 minutes. 4. Mental Arithmetic Task (A): Participants performed a mental arithmetic task, counting backward from 1000 in steps of three as quickly and accurately as possible. This task was designed to require sustained, effortful attention and working memory. It lasted 7 minutes. Before each task, a 1-minute baseline measurement was recorded while participants rested in a neutral state, fixating on the cross without engaging in any specific mental activity. This baseline was used for subsequent data correction. Measures Pupillometry and Blink Recording Pupil diameter and blink parameters were recorded continuously throughout each task using a Tobii X3-120 eye tracker (sampling rate: 120 Hz). The eye tracker measured pupil diameter and detected blinks for both eyes. Calibration was performed for each participant using a standard 9-point fixation grid prior to the experimental session to ensure accurate tracking. To maintain consistent luminance and minimize pupillary responses to changes in lighting, the monitor displayed a dark grey background with a light grey fixation cross throughout all tasks. The room’s ambient lighting was controlled to prevent fluctuations that could affect pupil measurements. Blink Detection Blinks were identified based on the eye tracker data, which included pupil size and eye position validity codes. A blink was defined as a period where the eye tracker lost the signal of one or both eyes, accompanied by a drop in pupil size to zero or near-zero values. To differentiate blinks from signal loss due to other factors (e.g., head movements), data were processed using established blink detection algorithms that consider the characteristic patterns of blinks in pupil data. Blink count and blink duration were extracted for each task. Blink duration was defined as the time interval between the disappearance and reappearance of the pupil signal, with durations between 100 and 400 milliseconds considered valid blinks, in line with established physiological parameters. Data Analysis Pre-processing and data analysis were performed using RStudio software. We discarded zero-validity values that resulted from signal loss occurring in at least one eye. To avoid distortion of pupil size measurements due to eye position, we considered only fixations recorded within a specific area of interest (gaze point x: 0–2000 pixels; gaze point y: 0–2000 pixels). The pupil dilation values from both eyes were averaged when data from both were successfully recorded. A subtractive baseline correction was applied using the data from the 1-minute baseline recorded before each trial (Mathôt et al., 2018). For the Focused Meditation with Probe (MP) condition, we selected 10-second epochs preceding each probe for analysis. Blink duration was defined as any instance lasting between 100–400 milliseconds, according to the Harvard Database of Useful Biological Numbers (https://bionumbers.hms.harvard.edu). We evaluated the distribution of pupil dilation data using the R package fitdistrplus. To compare pupil dilation across the three trials (M, MW, A), we performed a linear mixed model analysis using the lme4 package (Bates et al., 2015). We analyzed the M, MW, and A conditions separately from the MP condition. The pupil dilation data followed a normal distribution (see Figure n), so no data transformation was applied. We included ”Participants” as a random effect in the general analysis. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethical Committee of the University of Trento. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their inclusion in the study. Participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Data were anonymized to protect participant confidentiality.

The model comparison indicated that the model m2 (pupil_size ~ Trials + time + (1 + Trials | Participant)) best predicted pupil dilation across the three main conditions (Meditation, Mind-Wandering, and Mental Arithmetic) over time (Fig. 1). Figure 1. Time course of baseline-corrected pupil dilation within each experimental condition. The green line represents meditation, the blue line represents mind-wandering, the red line represents mental arithmetic, and the black line represents the zero baseline. As shown in Figure 1, the baseline-corrected pupil dilation over time clearly differentiates between the attentional demands of the three conditions, with meditation showing the most significant pupil constriction. Specifically: • The intercept for the M condition was significant (t = -3.79, p < 0.001), indicating reduced pupil size during meditation compared to baseline. • For the MW condition, a smaller but significant effect was observed (t = 2.18, p < 0.05). • The A condition showed the largest effect, with significant pupil dilation (t = 9.17, p < 0.001). We also found a strong general time effect (t = -159.53, p < 0.001), where pupil dilation decreased over time in both the M and MW conditions, but increased during the A condition compared to baseline. Figure 2. Pupil size results as a function of the three experimental conditions (a) and as a function of the time course (b). Dots represent the mean for each trial, and the vertical lines represent the standard error. For blink parameters, the distribution of blink numbers, as illustrated in Figure 3, reveals distinct attentional patterns, with meditation exhibiting a significantly lower blink count compared to mind-wandering and mental arithmetic. Kruskal-Wallis tests revealed significant differences across conditions (chi-squared = 15.12, df = 2, p < 0.001). Median blink counts were M = 62, MW = 117, and A = 147. Figure 3. Density plot of blink numbers across the three experimental conditions. The green line represents meditation, the blue line represents mind-wandering, and the red line represents mental arithmetic. Dotted lines represent the medians for each condition. Figure 4 illustrates instead the distribution of blink durations, with meditation showing significantly prolonged blink durations, suggesting deeper attentional relaxation. Significant differences were observed (chi-squared = 421.05, df = 2, p < 0.001), with median durations being M = 175 ms, MW = 167 ms, and A = 150 ms. Figure 4. Density plot of blink durations across the three experimental conditions. The green line represents meditation, the blue line represents mind-wandering, and the red line represents mental arithmetic. Dotted lines represent the medians for each condition. For the MP condition, we conducted a separate Kruskal-Wallis test on pupil size for the 10-second epochs before the probe, comparing the focused and non-focused states. As shown in Figure 5, pupil size decreases more significantly in focused states, providing further support for the link between pupil constriction and attention during meditation. The test was significant (chi-squared = 423.97, df = 1, p < 0.001), with median pupil sizes of -0.118425 for the focused state and -0.076225 for the mind-wandering state. Figure 5. Pupil size variations in the 10 seconds before the probe presentation in focused versus non-focused states. Green represents focused states, blue represents non-focused states, and gray represents the standard error.

The primary objective of this study was to investigate how ocular parameters—specifically pupil diameter and blink metrics—vary during FAM performed with open eyes, and to compare these changes across different attentional states, including mind-wandering and mental arithmetic tasks, as an effortful attentional tasks to contrast with effortless attention during meditation. Our findings provide robust evidence supporting our hypotheses that FAM induces distinct ocular patterns indicative of an effortless attentional state. Consistent with Hypothesis 1 (H1), we observed a significant decrease in pupil diameter and a reduction in blink count during FAM compared to the mental arithmetic task. This suggests that FAM engages an effortless form of attention characterized by lower cognitive load and heightened parasympathetic activity. The reduced pupil size aligns with previous research indicating that decreased pupil diameter is associated with relaxation and attentional ease (Steinhauer et al., 2004; Morad et al., 2000). In contrast, supporting Hypothesis 2 (H2), the mental arithmetic task elicited increased pupil diameter and higher blink rates, reflecting greater cognitive effort and sympathetic nervous system activation (Just & Carpenter, 1993). The elevated ocular activity during this task underscores the demands of sustained, effortful attention required for complex cognitive operations (Karatekin et al., 2004). Regarding Hypothesis 3 (H3), the mind-wandering condition exhibited intermediate levels of pupil diameter and blink metrics. This finding suggests that mind-wandering involves a moderate level of cognitive engagement, situated between the focused relaxation of meditation and the intense concentration of mental arithmetic. The variability in ocular parameters during mind-wandering may reflect the fluctuating nature of spontaneous thoughts and attentional shifts (Smallwood et al., 2012). Our analysis of the thought probe (MP) condition further substantiates these interpretations. Participants demonstrated significantly smaller pupil diameters and fewer blinks during self-reported focused states compared to mind-wandering episodes. This real-time differentiation of attentional states via ocular measures highlights the sensitivity of pupillometry and blink analysis in capturing moment-to-moment fluctuations in attention during meditation practices. These findings contribute to the theoretical framework distinguishing between effortful and effortless attention in mindfulness practices (Bruya & Tang, 2018). Our results empirically support the notion that FAM facilitates a shift towards effortless attention, characterized by reduced cognitive load and enhanced parasympathetic activity. The ocular parameters observed—decreased pupil diameter and lower blink rates—serve as physiological markers of this attentional state. The reduced pupil size during FAM may reflect diminished activity in the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system, which is associated with arousal and cognitive effort (Berridge & Waterhouse, 2003; Aston-Jones & Cohen, 2005). By engaging in effortless attention, meditators may modulate the LC-NE system, leading to decreased sympathetic activation and promoting a state of calm alertness. This neurophysiological mechanism aligns with the observed ocular patterns and provides a plausible explanation for the changes in pupil diameter during meditation. Our results are consistent with prior research demonstrating variations in pupil size during meditation (Pomè et al., 2020) and support the idea that meditation induces shifts in autonomic regulation. However, unlike Pomè et al. (2020), who focused on low-frequency pupillary oscillations in experienced meditators, our study extends these findings to novice meditators with just a short training before the study. This suggests that even brief training in FAM can lead to measurable physiological changes, highlighting the accessibility and effectiveness of mindfulness practices for beginners. Moreover, the increased blink duration observed during meditation in our study contrasts with some previous findings where blink rate decreased without changes in duration (Matiz et al., 2019). This discrepancy may be due to differences in meditation techniques (open-eyed vs. closed-eyed) or participant experience levels. Our results suggest that longer blink durations during open-eyed FAM may reflect deeper states of relaxation and attentional stability. The ability to monitor attentional states using non-invasive ocular measures has significant practical applications. Real-time pupillometry and blink analysis could be integrated into biofeedback systems to enhance mindfulness training. While the open-eye technique might be an obstacle to this approach, it is worth noting that non-invasive techniques to measure pupils with eye-closed have been developed (see for example, Farraj et al. 2021; Ben Barak-Dror et al. 2024). Adachi & Takizawa (2025) used the pupillary light reflex to show improved autonomic regulation after 12 weeks of mindfulness practice. These results support our premise that changes in pupil dynamics (even in basic reflexes) accompany meditative training, and that pupil size can index meditative states. In clinical settings, such tools could aid in the delivery of mindfulness-based interventions for stress reduction, anxiety, or attentional disorders. By tailoring interventions based on physiological responses, clinicians can personalize treatment and monitor progress objectively. Additionally, in educational or workplace environments, implementing such technologies could help individuals improve focus and productivity by promoting sustained attentional engagement through mindfulness practices. Despite the promising findings, several limitations warrant consideration. First, our participants were novice meditators with limited training in FAM. While this is a design choice to demonstrate the feasibility of inducing physiological changes with minimal practice, it may limit the generalizability of the findings to experienced practitioners. Future studies should include participants with varying levels of meditation expertise to assess the influence of experience on ocular parameters. Second, we instructed participants to meditate with their eyes open, which, while consistent with certain contemplative traditions (Wallace, 2006), differs from the closed-eyed approach commonly used in research and practice. This methodological choice may affect the comparability of our results with studies using closed-eyed meditation. Future research should directly compare ocular parameters across open-eyed and closed-eyed meditation to determine the impact of visual input on attentional states. Third, although we provided supervised meditation sessions to ensure adherence and consistency, the relatively short training duration (seven days) may not fully capture the depth of practice required for more pronounced physiological changes. Extended training periods and follow-up assessments could offer insights into the longitudinal effects of meditation on ocular parameters. Additionally, participants were excluded post-hoc based on meditation engagement scores. While this criterion was established before data analysis to ensure data quality, it may introduce selection bias. Future studies should aim to maximize participant engagement through enhanced motivation strategies and consider including all participants in intention-to-treat analyses. Finally, blink detection relied on periods when the eye tracker lost signal, which could be influenced by factors other than blinks (e.g., slight head movements). Although we used established algorithms to differentiate blinks from artifacts, more precise measures (e.g., electromyography) could improve blink detection accuracy in future research. Building on our findings, future studies could explore several avenues to deepen the understanding of ocular parameters in meditation practices. One potential direction is to investigate whether experienced meditators exhibit different ocular patterns compared to novices, potentially reflecting deeper or more stable attentional states. By including expert meditators, researchers can assess the influence of meditation expertise on physiological markers and determine whether the ocular changes observed in novices are enhanced or altered with prolonged practice. Another area for exploration is the examination of ocular parameters across different forms of meditation, such as open monitoring or loving-kindness meditation. This would help determine whether the observed effects are specific to focused attention practices or generalizable across various meditation techniques. Comparing different meditation styles could reveal unique physiological signatures associated with each practice, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of how meditation influences attentional processes. Additionally, future research could directly compare the impact of visual input on ocular parameters by contrasting closed-eyed and open-eyed meditation. Understanding how eye state influences attentional processes and physiological responses would clarify the role of visual engagement in meditation and its effect on pupil diameter and blink metrics. Longitudinal studies assessing the effects of prolonged meditation training on ocular parameters would also be valuable. Such research could evaluate the sustainability and progression of physiological changes over time, providing insights into how consistent meditation practice influences attentional regulation and autonomic activity in the long term. In conclusion, by bridging the gap between subjective experiences of meditation and objective physiological indicators, our research offers valuable insights for both scientific exploration and practical application. The potential integration of ocular monitoring into mindfulness interventions holds promise for personalized training, improved attentional regulation, and broader accessibility to the benefits of meditation in diverse settings. Acknowledgments The authors thank Gianmaria Melissano and Arianna Storchi for their valuable support in data collection. Data and Code Availability Statement The datasets and analysis code generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Funding Statement This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Ethics Approval Statement This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the University of Trento (Protocol No. 2019010). All participants provided informed consent prior to participation. CRediT (Contributor Roles Taxonomy) Statement • Irene laudanna: Conceptualization; Investigation; Formal analysis; Software; Data curation; Writing – methods and results; Visualization. • Massimo Zancanaro: Conceptualization; Supervision; Methodology; Writing – review & editing; Project administration. • Nicola De Pisapia: Conceptualization; Methodology; Formal analysis; Writing – original draft; Supervision; Permission to Reproduce Material from Other Sources No material from other sources requiring permission has been reproduced in this manuscript. Clinical Trial Registration Not applicable – this study did not involve a clinical trial.

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Information & Authors Information Version history Copyright This work is licensed under a Non Exclusive No Reuse License. Authors Metrics & Citations Metrics Article Usage 943views 287downloads Citations Download citation Irene Laudanna, Massimo Zancanaro, N. De Pisapia. BREATHING MEDITATION CONSTRICTS THE PUPIL, REDUCES EYE BLINKS AND INCREASES BLINKING DURATION. Authorea. 25 August 2025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22541/au.175613069.95403735/v1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22541/au.175613069.95403735/v1 If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download. For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu.