Determination of uranium and heavy metals in cigarettes and tobacco plants; health risk assessment

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In this study determination of uranium isotopes and heavy metals was undertaken in some of the most popular brands of cigarettes as well as in tobacco leaves and in soil samples from Turkey. The activity concentrations of U-238 and U-234 were measured by α-spectrometry, and the effective annual dose was estimated. The metals concentrations such as As, Pb, Cu, Cr, Zn, Ni, Cd, were determined by inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy (ICP-MS). Transfer factors and risk assessment were calculated, indicated that the concentration of heavy metals range in normal values but show a significant potential health risk to users. Tobacco plants radionuclides toxic metals risk assessment Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction According to the World Health Organization, tobacco use is estimated to cause over eight million deaths each year by 2030, (including both uses, direct tobacco and second-hand smoking). Cigarette smoking is linked with rise of the risk of respiratory disorders such as emphysema, chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and mainly the risk of lung cancer [ 1 – 2 ]. Tobacco is a commercially cultivated herbaceous plant, which is used in cigarette manufacturing, and it consists of a significant number of chemical compounds (over 7000). Toxic heavy metals present in tobacco smoke, such as As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ni, Zn, etc. as well as radionuclides (U-238, Po-210) [ 3 – 6 ]. Most of these are recognized as carcinogenic or mutagenic and accumulate in tissues and fluids after smoking [ 7 ]. There is a particular concern for cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb), which have long (10–12 year) half-lives in the human body and contribute considerably to cancer risk [ 8 ]. Arsenic and cadmium are classified as human carcinogens (Group 1). Arsenic is associated with lung, bladder, kidney, skin, and liver cancers while cadmium is associated with lung cancer from epidemiologic studies. Exposure to cadmium through tobacco smoking may cause liver, kidney and stomach problems. Lead is also carcinogenic and causes toxic effects particularly on the brain development but also can harm the nervous system and the kidneys in both children and adults. Chromium and especially Cr(VI), is known as hemotoxic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic. Chromium enters damages blood cells through oxidation reactions leading to kidney and liver failure [ 1 , 9 – 11 ]. Moreover tobacco contains radionuclides as Po-210, Pb-210, Ra-226 and U-238 because of the fertilizers that are used in tobacco crops. During the plant growth, the radioactive elements from fertilizer and soil are absorbed by the roots and leaves of the plant and accumulated in a smoker's lungs, and they continue to build up contributing to lung cancer risk. Uranium, as it is known, can cause cellular damage, due to its chemical toxicity rather than its radioactivity and affects mainly kidneys and lungs. Inhalation of uranium increases the risk for lung cancer because of the alpha radiation of its decay products, as well as ingestion can irritate the respiratory system [ 11 – 13 ]. The lung cancer prevalence in Turkey has been identified as the most frequent type of cancer for males (7.70%) and especially in Aegean region is remarkably high (10.94%) than the national average [ 14 ]. The tobacco of the Aegean region of Turkey is called “Oriental Tobacco” and due to its odor, low level of nicotine and flavor is widely used in every blend of tobacco. Aegean region is responsible for 60% of the total tobacco production of Turkey [ 15 – 16 ]. Although there are several articles concerning the determination of heavy metals in cigarettes, a large variation of the reported values is observed [ 2 – 5 , 17 – 19 ]. On the other hand, only a few studies conducted on uranium concentrations using different techniques and the detected values vary considerably. For example, concentration activities of 0.5 Bq kg -1 (0.04 mg kg -1 ) determined by α-spectrometry while quite high values (22.5 up to 153 Bq kg -1 (1,81-12.34 mg kg -1 ) determined by γ-spectrometry appeared in the literature [ 20 – 21 ]. On the other hand, values of 0.203 mg kg -1 measured using a track detector and 1.765 (mg kg -1 ) by ICP-MS spectrometry have been reported [ 17 – 18 , 22 – 23 ]. This study reports data on the activity concentrations of uranium determined by α-spectrometry in the most popular brands of cigarettes, in tobacco leaves and in soil samples from Turkey, as well as the concentrations of harmful metals determined by ICP-MS. The aim was to compare obtained results with literature reported values and to estimate the effective radiation dose and health risks effects associated with toxicity and initiation of lung cancer in smokers. Experimental Sample collection The tobacco plants and soil samples for analysis were collected in Akhisar, Manisa at the Aegean region of Turkey. The typical period for tobacco growth is 3–4 months between transplant and harvest. The tobacco and the soil samples were collected in May, June and July in, Akhisar, Aegean Region of Turkey. The tobacco samples were freshly and carefully cut, transported in plastic bags to the laboratory and dried to a constant weight at 55°C. Then the samples were homogenized, pulverized and stored until the analysis. The soil samples (1 kg) were collected from the depth of 20 cm after removing any extraneous materials such as roots. Then they were dried in an oven to obtain a constant dry weight, and later grounded and sieved using a sieve of 30 mesh. The field was divided into 20 sections, and the plant and soil samples were taken from each section. International cigarette brands such as (Camel, Muratti, Rothman, Kent, Marlboro, etc.) and four of the most frequently smoked cigarette brands in Turkey were also analyzed for heavy metals [ 16 ]. For each sample, three analyses were prepared as a subsample. For statistics analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests was performed using the SPSS 23 Statistics program. Applied techniques For the isotopes U-238 and U-234 alpha spectrometry (Ortec Dual 576A) using PIPS detectors (450 mm 2 ) was applied. The separation protocol was executed as follows: An amount of approximately 2.0g of each sample was weighed in ceramic crucibles and U-232 was added as the tracer of the process. The samples were wet ashed at 300 0 C on hotplate magnetic stirrers after the consecutive addition of conc. HNO 3 , 30% H 2 O 2 , and conc. HCl. The residues were finally dry-ashed at 600 0 C and dissolved in 2.5M HNO 3 . The separation was performed via extraction chromatography, using pre-packed Resin (UTEVA), pre-conditioned with 2.5M HNO 3 . Uranium was finally eluted with 0.01M HCl and electrodeposited onto a steel disc (25 mm diameter-1 mm thickness) in ammonium sulfate/H 2 SO 4 buffer [ 24 – 25 ]. The multi-elementary determination was performed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) (model Thermo Scientific, Fisher Scientific, Ottawa, Canada) with Qtegra™ Intelligent Scientific Data Solution™ Software. The operating parameters were adjusted daily to obtain maximum element intensity (operational modes: standard mode and kinetic energy discrimination, He gas) [ 26 ]. The uncertainty calculated at the 9% of confidence level, including several factors such as laboratory reproducibility, divergence between the measured and the assigned values of the certified materials, as well as uncertainty of the assigned values. Effective Dose, Transfer Factor The average effective dose from smoke inhalation was calculated from Εquation (1) assumes that a typical smoker consumes 20 cigarettes (one package) per day which means 12 g of tobacco (4.4 kg y − 1 ) and that ~ 75% of the radioactivity in tobacco is partially inhaled [ 27 – 29 ] H E = 0.75 * M T * Ai * F , (1) where M T (kg y − 1 ) is the annual amount of tobacco consumed, Ai (Bq kg − 1 ) is the activity concentration of the radionuclides, and F (Sv Bq − 1 ) is the dose conversion factor (2.9 × 10–6 Sv Bq − 1 for U-238, (UNSCEAR 2000) [ 30 ]. TF (Transfer Factor) is defined as the quotient of the fraction of the concentrations of an examined metal in two interconnected samples such as plant-soil, seaweed-seawater, etc., and was calculated by the Εquation (2) [ 26 ]. TF = C metal(plant) /C metal(soil) (2) Hazard Risk Quotients Hazard quotients (HQ, for individual constituents) given by metrics of noncancer effects are calculated using the Εquation (3) and represent the ratio of estimated exposure to the toxicity value [ 26 ]. $$\:\text{H}\text{Q}=\frac{EC\left(or\:CDI\right)}{RfC\left(or\:RfD\right)}$$ 3 HQ – hazard quotient (unitless) EC – exposure concentration (µg m − 3 ) CDI – chronic daily intake (mg kg − 1 day − 1 ) RfC – reference concentration (µg m − 3 ) RfD – reference dose (mg kg − 1 day − 1 ) Cancer assessment as excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) was also provided denoting the probability of an individual developing cancer over a lifetime under the specified exposure conditions. ELCR are calculated using Eq. ( 4 ) (USEPA, 1989; 2009a) for each individual constituent associated with cancer health effects [ 31 – 33 ]. The acceptable values of ELCR typically range between 10 − 6 and 10 − 4 as defined by the USEPA. $$\:ELCR=EC\left(or\:CDI\right)*IUR\left(or\:CSF\right)$$ 4 EC – exposure concentration (µg m − 3 ) CDI – chronic daily intake (mg kg − 1 day − 1 ) IUR – inhalation unit risk factor (per µg m − 3 ) CSF – cancer (oral) slope factor (per mg kg − 1 day − 1 ) Results and discussion Figure 1 a shows the tobacco leaf collected in July whereas the SEM image of the corresponding sample is given in Fig. 2 b. The main constituents of tobacco leaves are carbon (~ 65%) and oxygen (~ 25%) with small concentrations of potassium (~ 2%) and calcium (~ 7%). Table 1 presents the uranium activity concentration (Bq kg -1 ) in soil and tobacco samples (range, mean value and uncertainty) determined by α-spectrometry as well as the concentration (mg kg -1 ) and the effective annual dose (µSv y − 1 ). Data regarding uranium concentrations in tobacco are quite limited in the literature and show large variation. Santos et al. determined uranium concentration activities in the range 0.3–1.3 (av. 0.5) Bq kg -1 (0.04 mg kg -1 ) by α-spectrometry in Brazilian tobacco while high values up to 153 Bq kg -1 (12.34 mg kg -1 ) were measured by γ-spectrometry in tobacco samples grown using different types of fertilizers in India [ 20 – 21 ]. Ağgez measured by γ-spectrometry, activity concentrations of U-238 in tobacco leaves grown in Turkey and found values from 3.6 to 22.5 Bq kg -1 [ 27 ]. The range of uranium found by Rawat et al. in tobacco samples from India using fission track detector was between 0.042 and 0.203 mg kg -1 [ 22 ]. Moreover Al-Kazwini et al. reported concentrations from 0,19 up to 1,765 mg kg -1 in tobacco products from the Jordanian market and Steven Pappas et al. from 0.077 up to 0.173 mg kg -1 in cigar samples in the United States using ICP-MS [ 18 , 23 ]. The annual effective dose values for U-238 were between 56.70 and 154.5 µSv y − 1 for international cigarettes, 67.33 and 93.32 µSv y − 1 for Turkish cigarettes while for tobacco leaves were between 128.8 and 392.2 µSv y − 1 . Consequently, our results agree with data reported in the literature. For example, Ağgez et al. found values for annual effective dose between 34 .6 and 214.0 µSv y − 1 in similar research in Turkey [ 27 ]. The transfer factor values of U-238 from soil to tobacco plants vary between 0,3494 and 1,094 and indicate an enrichment of uranium especially during May. These values are quite higher than the value of 8,3X10 − 3 recommended be IAEA for fresh leafy vegetables but are in agreement with reported data for leafy vegetables in Iraq (0.323–0.416) and S. Arabi (0.23–0.63) [ 34 – 36 ]. Many researchers mention that this variation is attributed to the nature of fertilizers used during the plant growth and the amount added to the soil [ 21 ]. Table 1 Uranium in soil, cigaretes and tobacco samples samples Activity concentration (Bq kg − 1 ) Concentration (mg kg − 1 ) Effective annual dose (µSv y − 1 ) soil 36.9–41.4(38.7 ± 2.98) 2.98–3.34 (3.12 ± 0.24) - International cigaretes 5.95–9.67(8.68 ± 0.69) 0.48–1.31 (0.70 ± 0.06) 82.6 ± 7.76 Turkish cigaretes 7.07–9.80(8.31 ± 0.65) 0.57–0.79 (0.67 ± 0.05) 79.9 ± 7.02 Leaf May 37.3–43.5(41.2 ± 3.37) 3.01–3.51 (3.32 ± 0.26) 392.2 ± 35.1 Leaf June 12.0-14.1(13.5 ± 1.12) 0.97–1.14 (1.09 ± 0.08 ) 128.8 ± 11.1 Leaf July 12.5–20.2(18.8 ± 1.53) 1.01–1.63 (1.52 ± 0.12) 179.6 ± 15.3 The corresponding concentration values for the elements As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn determined by ICP-MS are given in Table 2 . Toxic metals (e.g. lead, chromium, cadmium) in tobacco as well as metalloids as arsenic have not been greatly studied. Their determination is significant for human health because these metals represent cancer risk indices according to WHO and International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and classified in group 1, human carcinogens (As, Cd, Ni), group 2A, probable human carcinogens (such as lead), or group 2B, possible human carcinogens [ 37 ]. Table 2 Elements concentrations in soil, cigaretes and tobacco samples (mg kg -1 ) samples Cr Ni Cu Zn As Cd Pb soil 49.2–53.1 77.1–79.9 30.9–34.1 35.1–38.8 3.2–6.1 0.39–0.42 3.3–54.6 International cigaretes 2.62–5.75 3.89–14.7 11.85–174 28.6–94.2 0.51–3.02 0.62–5.15 1.49–17.3 Turkish cigaretes 2.12–5.55 3.03–6.18 18.5–28.7 42.1–96.5 0.82–2.91 0.51–1.52 2.51–5.12 Leaf May 5.11–5.98 8.96–9.12 33.1–45.5 49.1–53.2 0.41–0.62 1.97–2.28 10.2–15.3 Leaf June 4.18–5.01 10.2–12.7 12.8–14.5 31.2–35.3 2.71–3.04 0.63–0.77 1.15–1.69 Leaf July 5.36–6.12 9.23–10.8 16.1–17.2 34.9–39.8 2.66–3.19 0.49–0.61 1.19–1.63 Table 3 illustrates relevant literature data for toxic metals concentrations in cigaretes and tobacco for comparison. One can observe some differences in metal concentrations of international cigarette brands produced by the same companies, suggesting differences in the origin of tobacco used by different manufactures. Ntarisa A.V. measured concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn in cigarettes in Tanzania and found lower values as well as Hussain et al. for Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in cigarettes in Pakistan and Ashraf for Cd and Pb in international brands in S. Arabia [ 3 , 5 , 34 ]. In USA, Pappas et al. also published lower concentrations for As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb for international brands and the same Caruso et al. for As and Pb [ 17 – 18 ]. Contrary Michel found elevated values for Cu and Pb in Indian tobacco and Ziarati for Cd and Pb in Iranian tobacco [ 4 , 38 ]. Generally, the findings of this work agree with results reported in a review by Felix and Ntarisa regarding metals concentrations in international cigarette brands from different studies [ 2 ]. The WHO Regulation for Tobacco Products based on results of HMs (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb) concentrations in USA-Canada and India-Pakistan recommends values like our results except for the case of As, Cu and Pb where elevated concentrations were detected in this research [ 37 ]. Table 3 Elemental concentrations (mg kg − 1 ) in cigaretes from different studies in literature (with red color indicated values higher than those of this study) samples Cr Ni Cu Zn As Cd Pb Ref. Cigarettes inTanzania 0.69–2.86 0.11–2.69 6.94–16.3 0.6–1.93 0.4–0.66 3 Intern. brands S.Arabia 1.81 2.46 34 Intern. brands Pakistan 10– 14 5–8 17–23 60–70 0.35–0.43 1.8–2.3 5 Iranian tobacco 1.82– 5.40 6– 32 38 Intern. brands Serbia 0.02–2.04 0.02–8.56 6 Intern.brands USA 2.35 0.88– 6.46 2.21 1.50–4.37 0.17 0.12–0.66 0.86 0.75–1.74 0.44 0.46–1.23 17, 18 Indian tobacco 185 – 288 24.1–45.2 - 0.25–1.18 2.5– 25 4 Cigarettes in Bulgaria 1.36 12.06 31.90 0.80 1.60 19 Intern brands India 0.152 0.18 0.03 0.08 0.25 39 Intern brands 4.5 1.36 7.9 2.9 10.5 2 India Pakistan 2.8-5 1.2–10.2 9.01–19.2 - 0.73–0.86 0.28–4.5 0.79–5.79 37 Canada-USA 0.35–3.1 0.25–2.7 3.49–16.2 - 0.1–0.7 0.5–0.93 0.26–0.9 37 Intern. brands 2.62–5.75 3.89– 14.7 11.85–174 28.6–94.2 0.51–3.02 0.62–5.15 1.49–17.3 This study Turkish tobacco 2.12–6.12 3.03– 12.7 12.8–28.7 31.2– 96.5 0.41– 3.19 0.49–2.28 1.15–15.3 This study The Transfer Factors (TFs) of the investigated metals from soil to tobacco leaves were determined for each month and illustrated in Fig. 2 . For the majority of the metals a significant enrichment was observed (as was also mentioned for uranium) especially during May most probably because of the large amounts of phosphate fertilizers used by the farmers during the first stage of cultivation of the tobacco plants [ 21 ]. The TFs following an increasing order Cr < Ni < U < As< Cu < Zn< Pb < Cd with Cd and Pb to exhibit the higher values. From literature data it is derived that the TF values for Cd are generally greater than for other heavy metals ranging from 1.87 to 5.55 in some cases. This is due to high Cd-bioavailability by soil especially in soils with low pH and low organic matter. The transfer factor for Pb in leafy vegetables is typically low (0.01 to 0.39) but in some cases higher values have been reported which are associated with low soil pH, irrigation water and atmospheric deposition while lower values are generally referred in the case of Cu (0.02 to 0.88) [ 39 – 40 ]. Excess lifetime cancer risk ELCR were calculated and the results are illustrated in Fig. 3 . The values in this research are below the range of acceptable risk. The Hazard Quotients (HQ) are presented graphically in Fig. 4 . Turkish tobacco and especially leaf collected in May exhibit higher risk and the HI value, the sum of the HQs, was found greater than 1, (1.1573 for the tobacco leaves, 0.9811 for the Turkish cigarettes and 0,8293 for the international brans) which means that additional analyses are required in these cases regarding the USEPA guidance (USEPA, 1989; 2009a) [ 32 – 33 ]. Conclusions In this study, the activity concentrations of uranium determined in the most popular brands of cigarettes, in tobacco leaves and in soil samples from Turkey as well as the concentrations of harmful metals to estimate the effective radiation dose and health risks effects associated with toxicity and initiation of lung cancer in smokers. The total average annual effective dose of uranium to inhalation in smokers range from 79,9 to 392.2 µSv y − 1 and was comparable to literature values. HMs concentrations found in acceptable range and the same was for the cancer risk assessment for inhalation in all metals. The sum of HQs connected with toxicity effects was higher than the accepted limit recommended by USEPA. The study provides important information about the inherent risks associated with tobacco smoking and could raise awareness among the public and organizations about the health hazards of smoking. Declarations Author Contribution F.N.: Supervision, Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Validation, Writing – original version, review & editingMethodology, S.C.:Investigation, Formal analysis, review & editing,P.T.: Methodology, Formal analysis, prepared figures -editing. Acknowledgements This study was performed in the frame of ERASMUS mobility programme. S. Cankurt would like to thank the radiochemical laboratory-Faculty of General & Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry-AUTh for the hospitality and the help during this research. The groups of SEM-EDS and ICP-MS laboratories (AUTh) are gratefully acknowledged. The work was supported by grants from the Ege University Research Foundation, Izmir, Turkey, Contract No. 17-NBE-001. Conflict of interest No conflicts of interest were disclosed. The authors declare that there is no competing financial interest. References World Health Organization (2017) WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic, 2017: monitoring tobacco use and prevention policies. Country profile: Turkey. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland Felix AT, Ntarisa AV (2024) Review of toxic metals in tobacco cigarette brands and risk assessment. J King Saud Univ - Sci 36:103484 Ntarisa AV (2024) Heavy metals concentration and human health risk assessment in tobacco cigarette products from Tanzania. 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WHO Press, Geneva, Switzerland Ziarati P, Mousavi Z, Pashapour S (2017) Analysis of Heavy Metals in Cigarette Tobacco. Med Discov 2(1):jmd16006 Sandal S, Verghese PS, Taneja A, Massey DD, Habil M (2025) Cigarettes as a source of heavy metal toxicity:evaluating human health risks. Discover Public Health 22:311 Xiao Q, Wang S, Chi Y (2023) Accumulation and chemical forms of cadmium in tissues of different vegetable crops. Agronomy 13:680 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9431103","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":639827356,"identity":"85206846-8a7a-477f-b936-c8ad48d862f3","order_by":0,"name":"Süleyman Cankurt","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Süleyman","middleName":"","lastName":"Cankurt","suffix":""},{"id":639827360,"identity":"63e9e331-f2dd-4d41-a993-13393245bb25","order_by":1,"name":"Panagiotis Tsamos","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Panagiotis","middleName":"","lastName":"Tsamos","suffix":""},{"id":639827363,"identity":"b0823790-e0bf-4bf9-8232-eb823eccdb2c","order_by":2,"name":"Fotini Noli","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAxUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFAC5oYDHxgOQNiMDURpYWw4OAOm5SCxWph5SNJizt7YeNim5o6cbgPzM+mPOxjsthPSZtlzsOFwzrFnxmYH2MwkDp5hSJ5zgIAWgxuJDYdzGw4nbjvAANTSxpAsQchhYC2WDYfrtx1g/0aCFsaGwwlmB3jAttgR1nLmYMPBnmOHDbcd5im2ONsmkUBYy/Hmwx9+1ByWNzvevvFGZZuNPUEtCMAMJiUSG4jXAgX2JOsYBaNgFIyCYQ8AorpJN3SXWd8AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fotini","middleName":"","lastName":"Noli","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-15 21:23:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9431103/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9431103/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":109269084,"identity":"f368e7ec-24c1-4415-8e1c-07f60996c622","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-14 13:25:52","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":543529,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) the tobacco July leaf and b) SEM image of the July tobacco leaf\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9431103/v1/3b058d35d16b9ea81ea0aaa0.jpeg"},{"id":109269096,"identity":"9ae2ba0f-26ba-40d7-9325-75b8aa4576cf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-14 13:25:54","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":9481,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTransfer factor (TF) of metals (soil to tobacco plants).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9431103/v1/34393077a02bf464506b6dd8.png"},{"id":109269097,"identity":"bb7d385b-61ea-46ef-bddc-b37718bac837","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-14 13:25:55","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":9646,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eExcess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) for the studied metals\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9431103/v1/33b887a107bf9fe6d6d024e9.png"},{"id":109269091,"identity":"dd057f38-a11a-4b60-a4d1-aedf26d511e7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-14 13:25:53","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":9131,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHazard Quotient (HQ) for the studied metals\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9431103/v1/6cafb205aeb34b736799cb54.png"},{"id":109296243,"identity":"25110fa3-8bb4-4006-9b5e-d2da76477bd1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-15 08:46:20","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":904049,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9431103/v1/439a18e4-2026-4ccf-b505-116edfceb505.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Determination of uranium and heavy metals in cigarettes and tobacco plants; health risk assessment","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAccording to the World Health Organization, tobacco use is estimated to cause over eight million deaths each year by 2030, (including both uses, direct tobacco and second-hand smoking). Cigarette smoking is linked with rise of the risk of respiratory disorders such as emphysema, chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and mainly the risk of lung cancer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTobacco is a commercially cultivated herbaceous plant, which is used in cigarette manufacturing, and it consists of a significant number of chemical compounds (over 7000). Toxic heavy metals present in tobacco smoke, such as As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ni, Zn, etc. as well as radionuclides (U-238, Po-210) [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR4 CR5\" citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Most of these are recognized as carcinogenic or mutagenic and accumulate in tissues and fluids after smoking [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. There is a particular concern for cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb), which have long (10\u0026ndash;12 year) half-lives in the human body and contribute considerably to cancer risk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eArsenic and cadmium are classified as human carcinogens (Group 1). Arsenic is associated with lung, bladder, kidney, skin, and liver cancers while cadmium is associated with lung cancer from epidemiologic studies. Exposure to cadmium through tobacco smoking may cause liver, kidney and stomach problems. Lead is also carcinogenic and causes toxic effects particularly on the brain development but also can harm the nervous system and the kidneys in both children and adults. Chromium and especially Cr(VI), is known as hemotoxic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic. Chromium enters damages blood cells through oxidation reactions leading to kidney and liver failure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover tobacco contains radionuclides as Po-210, Pb-210, Ra-226 and U-238 because of the fertilizers that are used in tobacco crops. During the plant growth, the radioactive elements from fertilizer and soil are absorbed by the roots and leaves of the plant and accumulated in a smoker's lungs, and they continue to build up contributing to lung cancer risk. Uranium, as it is known, can cause cellular damage, due to its chemical toxicity rather than its radioactivity and affects mainly kidneys and lungs. Inhalation of uranium increases the risk for lung cancer because of the alpha radiation of its decay products, as well as ingestion can irritate the respiratory system [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR12\" citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lung cancer prevalence in Turkey has been identified as the most frequent type of cancer for males (7.70%) and especially in Aegean region is remarkably high (10.94%) than the national average [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. The tobacco of the Aegean region of Turkey is called \u0026ldquo;Oriental Tobacco\u0026rdquo; and due to its odor, low level of nicotine and flavor is widely used in every blend of tobacco. Aegean region is responsible for 60% of the total tobacco production of Turkey [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough there are several articles concerning the determination of heavy metals in cigarettes, a large variation of the reported values is observed [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR3 CR4\" citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR18\" citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, only a few studies conducted on uranium concentrations using different techniques and the detected values vary considerably. For example, concentration activities of 0.5 Bq kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e (0.04 mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) determined by α-spectrometry while quite high values (22.5 up to 153 Bq kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e (1,81-12.34 mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) determined by γ-spectrometry appeared in the literature [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, values of 0.203 mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e measured using a track detector and 1.765 (mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) by ICP-MS spectrometry have been reported [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study reports data on the activity concentrations of uranium determined by α-spectrometry in the most popular brands of cigarettes, in tobacco leaves and in soil samples from Turkey, as well as the concentrations of harmful metals determined by ICP-MS. The aim was to compare obtained results with literature reported values and to estimate the effective radiation dose and health risks effects associated with toxicity and initiation of lung cancer in smokers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Experimental","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSample collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe tobacco plants and soil samples for analysis were collected in Akhisar, Manisa at the Aegean region of Turkey. The typical period for tobacco growth is 3\u0026ndash;4 months between transplant and harvest. The tobacco and the soil samples were collected in May, June and July in, Akhisar, Aegean Region of Turkey. The tobacco samples were freshly and carefully cut, transported in plastic bags to the laboratory and dried to a constant weight at 55\u0026deg;C. Then the samples were homogenized, pulverized and stored until the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe soil samples (1 kg) were collected from the depth of 20 cm after removing any extraneous materials such as roots. Then they were dried in an oven to obtain a constant dry weight, and later grounded and sieved using a sieve of 30 mesh. The field was divided into 20 sections, and the plant and soil samples were taken from each section.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternational cigarette brands such as (Camel, Muratti, Rothman, Kent, Marlboro, etc.) and four of the most frequently smoked cigarette brands in Turkey were also analyzed for heavy metals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. For each sample, three analyses were prepared as a subsample. For statistics analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests was performed using the SPSS 23 Statistics program.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eApplied techniques\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor the isotopes U-238 and U-234 alpha spectrometry (Ortec Dual 576A) using PIPS detectors (450 mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) was applied. The separation protocol was executed as follows: An amount of approximately 2.0g of each sample was weighed in ceramic crucibles and U-232 was added as the tracer of the process. The samples were wet ashed at 300 \u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC on hotplate magnetic stirrers after the consecutive addition of conc. HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, 30% H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, and conc. HCl. The residues were finally dry-ashed at 600 \u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC and dissolved in 2.5M HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. The separation was performed via extraction chromatography, using pre-packed Resin (UTEVA), pre-conditioned with 2.5M HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. Uranium was finally eluted with 0.01M HCl and electrodeposited onto a steel disc (25 mm diameter-1 mm thickness) in ammonium sulfate/H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e buffer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe multi-elementary determination was performed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) (model Thermo Scientific, Fisher Scientific, Ottawa, Canada) with Qtegra\u0026trade; Intelligent Scientific Data Solution\u0026trade; Software. The operating parameters were adjusted daily to obtain maximum element intensity (operational modes: standard mode and kinetic energy discrimination, He gas) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe uncertainty calculated at the 9% of confidence level, including several factors such as laboratory reproducibility, divergence between the measured and the assigned values of the certified materials, as well as uncertainty of the assigned values.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEffective Dose, Transfer Factor\u003c/h3\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe average effective dose from smoke inhalation was calculated\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003efrom Εquation (1) assumes that a typical smoker consumes 20 cigarettes (one package)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eper day which means 12 g of tobacco (4.4 kg y\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) and that ~\u0026thinsp;75% of the radioactivity in tobacco is partially inhaled [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR28\" citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003eE\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e = 0.75 * \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e * \u003cem\u003eAi\u003c/em\u003e * \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e, (1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e (kg y\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) is the annual amount of tobacco consumed, \u003cem\u003eAi\u003c/em\u003e (Bq kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) is the activity concentration of the radionuclides, and \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e (Sv Bq\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) is the dose conversion factor\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2.9 \u0026times; 10\u0026ndash;6 Sv Bq\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for U-238, (UNSCEAR 2000) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTF (Transfer Factor) is defined as the quotient of the fraction of the concentrations of an examined metal in two interconnected samples such as plant-soil, seaweed-seawater, etc., and was calculated by the Εquation (2) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eTF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003emetal(plant)\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e/C\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003emetal(soil)\u003c/em\u003e (2)\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eHazard Risk Quotients\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHazard quotients (HQ, for individual constituents) given by metrics of noncancer effects are calculated using the Εquation (3) and represent the ratio of estimated exposure to the toxicity value [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{H}\\text{Q}=\\frac{EC\\left(or\\:CDI\\right)}{RfC\\left(or\\:RfD\\right)}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHQ \u0026ndash; hazard quotient (unitless)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEC \u0026ndash; exposure concentration (\u0026micro;g m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCDI \u0026ndash; chronic daily intake (mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRfC \u0026ndash; reference concentration (\u0026micro;g m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRfD \u0026ndash; reference dose (mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCancer assessment as excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) was also provided denoting the probability of an individual developing cancer over a lifetime under the specified exposure conditions. ELCR are calculated using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) (USEPA, 1989; 2009a) for each individual constituent associated with cancer health effects [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR32\" citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. The acceptable values of ELCR typically range between 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6\u003c/sup\u003e and 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/sup\u003e as defined by the USEPA.\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:ELCR=EC\\left(or\\:CDI\\right)*IUR\\left(or\\:CSF\\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e4\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEC \u0026ndash; exposure concentration (\u0026micro;g m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCDI \u0026ndash; chronic daily intake (mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIUR \u0026ndash; inhalation unit risk factor (per \u0026micro;g m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCSF \u0026ndash; cancer (oral) slope factor (per mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea shows the tobacco leaf collected in July whereas the SEM image of the corresponding sample is given in Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eb. The main constituents of tobacco leaves are carbon (~\u0026thinsp;65%) and oxygen (~\u0026thinsp;25%) with small concentrations of potassium (~\u0026thinsp;2%) and calcium (~\u0026thinsp;7%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the uranium activity concentration (Bq kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) in soil and tobacco samples (range, mean value and uncertainty) determined by \u0026alpha;-spectrometry as well as the concentration (mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and the effective annual dose (\u0026micro;Sv y\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData regarding uranium concentrations in tobacco are quite limited in the literature and show large variation. Santos et al. determined uranium concentration activities in the range 0.3\u0026ndash;1.3 (av. 0.5) Bq kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e (0.04 mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) by \u0026alpha;-spectrometry in Brazilian tobacco while high values up to 153 Bq kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e (12.34 mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) were measured by \u0026gamma;-spectrometry in tobacco samples grown using different types of fertilizers in India [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Ağgez measured by \u0026gamma;-spectrometry, activity concentrations of U-238 in tobacco leaves grown in Turkey and found values from 3.6 to 22.5 Bq kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. The range of uranium found by Rawat et al. in tobacco samples from India using fission track detector was between 0.042 and 0.203 mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover Al-Kazwini et al. reported concentrations from 0,19 up to 1,765 mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e in tobacco products from the Jordanian market and Steven Pappas et al. from 0.077 up to 0.173 mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e in cigar samples in the United States using ICP-MS [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe annual effective dose values for U-238 were between 56.70 and 154.5 \u0026micro;Sv y\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for international cigarettes, 67.33 and 93.32 \u0026micro;Sv y\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for Turkish cigarettes while for tobacco leaves were between 128.8 and 392.2 \u0026micro;Sv y\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. Consequently, our results agree with data reported in the literature. For example, Ağgez et al. found values for annual effective dose between 34 .6 and 214.0 \u0026micro;Sv y\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e in similar research in Turkey [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe transfer factor values of U-238 from soil to tobacco plants vary between 0,3494 and 1,094 and indicate an enrichment of uranium especially during May. These values are quite higher than the value of 8,3X10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e recommended be IAEA for fresh leafy vegetables but are in agreement with reported data for leafy vegetables in Iraq (0.323\u0026ndash;0.416) and S. Arabi (0.23\u0026ndash;0.63) [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR35\" citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Many researchers mention that this variation is attributed to the nature of fertilizers used during the plant growth and the amount added to the soil [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUranium in soil, cigaretes and tobacco samples\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esamples\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eActivity concentration\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Bq kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConcentration\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffective annual dose (\u0026micro;Sv y\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003esoil\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"±\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.9\u0026ndash;41.4(38.7\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;2.98)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"±\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.98\u0026ndash;3.34 (3.12\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.24)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInternational cigaretes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"±\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.95\u0026ndash;9.67(8.68\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.69)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"±\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u0026ndash;1.31 (0.70\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.06)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.6\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;7.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTurkish cigaretes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"±\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.07\u0026ndash;9.80(8.31\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.65)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"±\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57\u0026ndash;0.79 (0.67\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79.9\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;7.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeaf May\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"±\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.3\u0026ndash;43.5(41.2\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;3.37)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"±\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.01\u0026ndash;3.51 (3.32\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.26)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e392.2\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;35.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeaf June\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"±\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.0-14.1(13.5\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;1.12)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"±\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u0026ndash;1.14 (1.09\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.08 )\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e128.8\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;11.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeaf July\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"±\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.5\u0026ndash;20.2(18.8\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;1.53)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"±\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.01\u0026ndash;1.63 (1.52\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.12)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e179.6\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;15.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe corresponding concentration values for the elements As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn determined by ICP-MS are given in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Toxic metals (e.g. lead, chromium, cadmium) in tobacco as well as metalloids as arsenic have not been greatly studied. Their determination is significant for human health because these metals represent cancer risk indices according to WHO and International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and classified in group 1, human carcinogens (As, Cd, Ni), group 2A, probable human carcinogens (such as lead), or group 2B, possible human carcinogens [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eElements concentrations in soil, cigaretes and tobacco samples (mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esamples\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003esoil\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.2\u0026ndash;53.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77.1\u0026ndash;79.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.9\u0026ndash;34.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.1\u0026ndash;38.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.2\u0026ndash;6.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u0026ndash;0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u0026ndash;54.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInternational cigaretes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.62\u0026ndash;5.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.89\u0026ndash;14.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.85\u0026ndash;174\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.6\u0026ndash;94.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026ndash;3.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62\u0026ndash;5.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.49\u0026ndash;17.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTurkish cigaretes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.12\u0026ndash;5.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.03\u0026ndash;6.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.5\u0026ndash;28.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.1\u0026ndash;96.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.82\u0026ndash;2.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026ndash;1.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.51\u0026ndash;5.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeaf May\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.11\u0026ndash;5.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.96\u0026ndash;9.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.1\u0026ndash;45.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.1\u0026ndash;53.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u0026ndash;0.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.97\u0026ndash;2.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.2\u0026ndash;15.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeaf June\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.18\u0026ndash;5.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.2\u0026ndash;12.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.8\u0026ndash;14.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.2\u0026ndash;35.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.71\u0026ndash;3.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63\u0026ndash;0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.15\u0026ndash;1.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeaf July\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.36\u0026ndash;6.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.23\u0026ndash;10.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.1\u0026ndash;17.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.9\u0026ndash;39.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.66\u0026ndash;3.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u0026ndash;0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.19\u0026ndash;1.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e illustrates relevant literature data for toxic metals concentrations in cigaretes and tobacco for comparison. One can observe some differences in metal concentrations of international cigarette brands produced by the same companies, suggesting differences in the origin of tobacco used by different manufactures. Ntarisa A.V. measured concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn in cigarettes in Tanzania and found lower values as well as Hussain et al. for Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in cigarettes in Pakistan and Ashraf for Cd and Pb in international brands in S. Arabia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. In USA, Pappas et al. also published lower concentrations for As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb for international brands and the same Caruso et al. for As and Pb [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Contrary Michel found elevated values for Cu and Pb in Indian tobacco and Ziarati for Cd and Pb in Iranian tobacco [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGenerally, the findings of this work agree with results reported in a review by Felix and Ntarisa regarding metals concentrations in international cigarette brands from different studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The WHO Regulation for Tobacco Products based on results of HMs (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb) concentrations in USA-Canada and India-Pakistan recommends values like our results except for the case of As, Cu and Pb where elevated concentrations were detected in this research [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eElemental concentrations (mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) in cigaretes from different studies in literature (with red color indicated values higher than those of this study)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esamples\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRef.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCigarettes inTanzania\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.69\u0026ndash;2.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u0026ndash;2.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.94\u0026ndash;16.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6\u0026ndash;1.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u0026ndash;0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntern. brands\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS.Arabia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntern. brands\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePakistan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(184, 49, 47);\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u0026ndash;23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u0026ndash;0.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.8\u0026ndash;2.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIranian tobacco\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.82\u0026ndash;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(209, 72, 65);\"\u003e5.40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(209, 72, 65);\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntern. brands Serbia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026ndash;2.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026ndash;8.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntern.brands\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.88\u0026ndash;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(209, 72, 65);\"\u003e6.46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50\u0026ndash;4.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026ndash;0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.75\u0026ndash;1.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.46\u0026ndash;1.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17, 18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndian tobacco\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e185\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(209, 72, 65);\"\u003e288\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.1\u0026ndash;45.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026ndash;1.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5\u0026ndash;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(209, 72, 65);\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCigarettes in Bulgaria\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntern brands India\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.152\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntern brands\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePakistan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.8-5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2\u0026ndash;10.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.01\u0026ndash;19.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.73\u0026ndash;0.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u0026ndash;4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79\u0026ndash;5.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCanada-USA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u0026ndash;3.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026ndash;2.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.49\u0026ndash;16.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u0026ndash;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5\u0026ndash;0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u0026ndash;0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntern. brands\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.62\u0026ndash;5.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.89\u0026ndash;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(209, 72, 65);\"\u003e14.7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.85\u0026ndash;174\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.6\u0026ndash;94.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026ndash;3.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62\u0026ndash;5.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.49\u0026ndash;17.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTurkish tobacco\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.12\u0026ndash;6.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.03\u0026ndash;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(209, 72, 65);\"\u003e12.7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.8\u0026ndash;28.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.2\u0026ndash;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(209, 72, 65);\"\u003e96.5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u0026ndash;\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(209, 72, 65);\"\u003e3.19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u0026ndash;2.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.15\u0026ndash;15.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Transfer Factors (TFs) of the investigated metals from soil to tobacco leaves were determined for each month and illustrated in Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. For the majority of the metals a significant enrichment was observed (as was also mentioned for uranium) especially during May most probably because of the large amounts of phosphate fertilizers used by the farmers during the first stage of cultivation of the tobacco plants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. The TFs following an increasing order Cr\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;Ni\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;U\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;As\u0026lt; Cu\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;Zn\u0026lt; Pb\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;Cd with Cd and Pb to exhibit the higher values. From literature data it is derived that the TF values for Cd are generally greater than for other heavy metals ranging from 1.87 to 5.55 in some cases. This is due to high Cd-bioavailability by soil especially in soils with low pH and low organic matter. The transfer factor for Pb in leafy vegetables is typically low (0.01 to 0.39) but in some cases higher values have been reported which are associated with low soil pH, irrigation water and atmospheric deposition while lower values are generally referred in the case of Cu (0.02 to 0.88) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExcess lifetime cancer risk ELCR were calculated and the results are illustrated in Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The values in this research are below the range of acceptable risk. The Hazard Quotients (HQ) are presented graphically in Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. Turkish tobacco and especially leaf collected in May exhibit higher risk and the HI value, the sum of the HQs, was found greater than 1, (1.1573 for the tobacco leaves, 0.9811 for the Turkish cigarettes and 0,8293 for the international brans) which means that additional analyses are required in these cases regarding the USEPA guidance (USEPA, 1989; 2009a) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the activity concentrations of uranium determined in the most popular brands of cigarettes, in tobacco leaves and in soil samples from Turkey as well as the concentrations of harmful metals to estimate the effective radiation dose and health risks effects associated with toxicity and initiation of lung cancer in smokers. The total average annual effective dose of uranium to inhalation in smokers range from 79,9 to 392.2 \u0026micro;Sv y\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and was comparable to literature values. HMs concentrations found in acceptable range and the same was for the cancer risk assessment for inhalation in all metals. The sum of HQs connected with toxicity effects was higher than the accepted limit recommended by USEPA. The study provides important information about the inherent risks associated with tobacco smoking and could raise awareness among the public and organizations about the health hazards of smoking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eF.N.: Supervision, Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Validation, Writing \u0026ndash; original version, review \u0026amp; editingMethodology, S.C.:Investigation, Formal analysis, review \u0026amp; editing,P.T.: Methodology, Formal analysis, prepared figures -editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was performed in the frame of ERASMUS mobility programme. S. Cankurt would like to thank the radiochemical laboratory-Faculty of General \u0026amp; Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry-AUTh for the hospitality and the help during this research. The groups of SEM-EDS and ICP-MS laboratories (AUTh) are gratefully acknowledged. The work was supported by grants from the Ege University Research Foundation, Izmir, Turkey, Contract No. 17-NBE-001.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo conflicts of interest were disclosed. The authors declare that there is no competing financial interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWorld Health Organization (2017) WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic, 2017: monitoring tobacco use and prevention policies. Country profile: Turkey. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFelix AT, Ntarisa AV (2024) Review of toxic metals in tobacco cigarette brands and risk assessment. 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Agronomy 13:680\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Tobacco plants, radionuclides, toxic metals, risk assessment","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9431103/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9431103/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eTobacco plants accumulate radionuclides and heavy metals in different parts (leaves, stems, root). In this study determination of uranium isotopes and heavy metals was undertaken in some of the most popular brands of cigarettes as well as in tobacco leaves and in soil samples from Turkey. The activity concentrations of U-238 and U-234 were measured by α-spectrometry, and the effective annual dose was estimated. The metals concentrations such as As, Pb, Cu, Cr, Zn, Ni, Cd, were determined by inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy (ICP-MS). Transfer factors and risk assessment were calculated, indicated that the concentration of heavy metals range in normal values but show a significant potential health risk to users.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Determination of uranium and heavy metals in cigarettes and tobacco plants; health risk assessment","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-14 13:25:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9431103/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f116320d-257d-46a1-8537-646094d16296","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 14th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-15T16:45:16+00:00","index":18,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-13T15:05:35+00:00","index":17,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"320049210387698980368216030602412824251","date":"2026-05-11T06:57:39+00:00","index":15,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"289789069633894585234167864796401842389","date":"2026-05-06T14:17:41+00:00","index":14,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"159797715067336634244234777371307746043","date":"2026-05-06T08:18:33+00:00","index":13,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"5","date":"2026-05-06T06:46:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-14T13:25:37+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-14 13:25:36","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9431103","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9431103","identity":"rs-9431103","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}