Unveiling the Potential of Cashew Apple as a Fat Replacer in Low-Fat Muffins: Multivariate Study of Nutritional, Technological, Oxidation and Organoleptic Properties

Unveiling the Potential of Cashew Apple as a Fat Replacer in Low-Fat Muffins: Multivariate Study of Nutritional, Technological, Oxidation and Organoleptic Properties | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Unveiling the Potential of Cashew Apple as a Fat Replacer in Low-Fat Muffins: Multivariate Study of Nutritional, Technological, Oxidation and Organoleptic Properties Jyoti Nishad, Nishmitha B., Aashitha Kallagadde, Eldho Varghese, and 7 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9533118/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Growing consumer demand for healthier, low-fat baked products with desirable taste and texture has driven increased research into fat alternatives. This study investigated the potential of cashew apple pulp (CAP) and cashew apple juice (CAJ) as natural fat replacers in muffins. Formulations with 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% fat replacement were assessed for their physicochemical, biochemical, oxidative, physical, and sensory properties. Incorporation of CAP and CAJ significantly 9p < 0.05) reduced fat content by 12- 84.55%, while improving the nutritional quality. Muffins prepared with CAP exhibited higher levels of carbohydrates, vitamin C, minerals, and crude fiber, while CAJ-based muffins demonstrated greater bioactive potential, with total polyphenol content of 164.81-226.03 mg GAE/100g and antioxidant activity of 1.81–5.40 µmol TE/g. Oxidative stability analysis revealed higher free fatty acid levels in muffins enriched with CAP and CAJ, however, the control exhibited the highest peroxide values. With increasing levels of fat replacement, muffin volume and weight decreased; however, optimal height and moisture retention were achieved at the 50% substitution level. Based on the sensory evaluation of the samples, the control muffin was ranked first followed by muffins with 50% CAJ substitution (TJ3-50). Therefore, TJ3-50 was finalized as the optimized formulation, achieving a 25% less fat, 3-fold higher polyphenol content, 1.7-fold greater antioxidant activity, and a 41.75% reduction in peroxide value compared to the control. Principal Component Analysis further elucidated the impact of fat replacement with CAJ and CAP on different quality attributes of the muffins, effectively grouping the formulations based on their characteristics. These findings establish CAJ as an effective and sustainable natural fat replacer for developing nutritionally enriched, reduced-fat muffins with desirable quality attributes. Cashew apple fiber Fat replacer Functional bakery products Principal component analysis Pseudofruit Pulp Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Highlights • Cashew apple pulp (CAP) and juice (CAJ) used as fat replacers in muffins • Up to 84.55% fat reduction was achieved • Bioactivity was increased in CAJ & CAP substituted muffins • 50% CAJ (TJ3-50) substitution showed good sensory acceptability • Optimized muffin (TJ3-50) had 25% less fat, improved stability & nutrition 1. Introduction Recent research has focused on novel strategies to satisfy the increasing demand for healthier and more nutritious foods, particularly in response to rising global health concerns such as obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes associated with modern lifestyles [ 1 ]. One of the key dietary factors influencing these conditions is the excessive intake of fat, specially saturated and trans fats, as high-fat foods contribute significantly to increased energy consumption and the risk of obesity [ 2 – 5 ]. Widely consumed bakery products including cakes, cookies, muffins, and biscuits. are added with huge quantity of fat to achieve desirable quality attributes. Fat facilitates incorporation and stabilization of air bubbles in batter, which significantly influencing product volume, crumb structure, flavour, mouthfeel, and overall palatability, which are essential for consumer acceptance [ 5 ]. Frequent consumption of such products can lead to excessive fat intake, driving research and industrial efforts toward the development of fat replacers that can simulate the functional characteristics of fat without adversely affecting product quality and sensory properties [ 1 , 6 , 7 ]. Carbohydrate-derived fat replacers, such as starches, fibers, and hydrocolloids, have received significant attention for its capacity to bind water, create gel-like structures, and enhance texture while reducing energy density. These substitutes play a structural role of fat by improving the viscosity and moisture retention capacity of batter [ 2 , 8 ]. Fruit-based ingredients are very popular because they not only replace fat but also add vitamins, dietary fiber, and bioactive compounds to foods. A variety of fruits and their byproducts such as avocado, apricot, apples, dates, pawpaw, persimmon, pumpkin, and sour cherry have been successfully explored as fat replacers in baked goods, ascribing to their fiber and pectin content, which impart desirable structure and texture to the developed products [ 3 , 6 , 9 – 12 ]. The cashew apple, which is a pseudo-fruit of the cashew tree, is an underutilized by-product despite being produced in large quantities in cashew-growing regions. It is rich in vitamin C, natural sugars, phenolic compounds, and dietary fibre, exhibiting strong antioxidant properties [ 13 ]. However, its high perishability and astringency due to tannins limit its direct consumption. Value addition of cashew apple into juice and pulp can enhance its utilization and economic value. Both cashew apple juice (CAJ) and pulp (CAP) contain soluble and insoluble fibres and could be utilized as fat replacers in the foods. Fibre has a high water-binding capacity, which increases batter viscosity and helps in moisture retention during baking. This contributes to improved softness and reduces baking loss. Additionally, fibre can form a network that mimics the bulking and structural properties of fat, thereby partially compensating for the reduction in fat content [ 14 – 16 ]. Cashew apple and its byproducts have been successfully utilized as a fat alternative in food matrices such as chicken patties, hamburgers, vegan meat substitute, sponge cake, bread, biscuits, and studied for effect on quality of the products [ 16 – 20 ]. Nascimento et al. [ 18 ] demonstrated the synergistic effect of cashew gum and cashew apple in replacing fat in egg-based sponge cakes. However, no comparative study has been reported on the effectiveness of CAJ and CAP as natural fat replacers in eggless muffins with acceptable organoleptic properties. This underscores an important research gap amid the rising demand for vegan, low-fat, and functional food products. Accordingly, this study aimed to investigate the potential of CAJ and CAP as fat replacers in muffins and their influence on physicochemical, oxidative, biochemical, and sensory attributes. The objective was to identify an optimal formulation for developing reduced-fat, nutritionally enriched bakery products while promoting the sustainable utilization of cashew apples. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials Fully ripened and firm yellow coloured cashew apples of the VTH-174 variety of 819 phenological stage were harvested from the cashew field of ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur (12°44'24.0"N 75°13'50.0"E). The fruits were washed in potable water, made into fine pulp using a kitchen blender at 10,000 rpm, and then pressed using hydraulic press for extraction of cashew apple juice. The juice and pulp were analysed for physicochemical and biochemical properties (Table 1 ) as per the method described in subsequent sections 2.3 and 2.4 , and were kept at -18°C for further analysis. The remaining ingredients required for muffin formation (Table 2 ) were sourced from the nearby the local market in Puttur, Karnataka. Table 1 Physicochemical and biochemical properties of cashew apple juice and pulp Parameters Juice Pulp pH 4.75±0.12 a 4.85±0.08 a Acidity (%) 0.11±0.02 a 0.15±0.03 a TSS 9.0±0.32 a 9.5±0.27 a Carbohydrate (%) 16.17±0.67 b 18.07±0.98 a Protein (%) 0.82±0.001 b 1.20±0.001 a Fat (%) 1.35±0.004 b 2.82±0.003 a Moisture (%) 89.22±1.43 a 85.34±2.01 b Crude fiber (%) 0.15±0.003 b 0.46±0.002 a Ash (%) 2.50±0.05 b 3.46±0.003 a Total phenolic content (mgGAE/100g) 116.24±1.78 b 191.77±2.16 a Antioxidant activity (µmol trolox/g) 6.78±0.59 b 20.85±0.71 a Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) 156.13±2.08 b 181.71±3.15 a Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation of triplicate samples. Different superscripts in the same row represent significant differences between samples (p ≤ 0.05). TSS-total soluble solids; GAE-Gallic acid equivalent Table 2 Formulation of muffins with different levels of cashew apple juice (CAJ) or pulp (CAP) (CAJ or CAP incorporated on 100g butter basis) as a fat replacer Ingredients Muffin Formulations Control T1-100 T2-25 T3-50 T4-75 Semolina (g) 95 95 95 95 95 Jaggery (g) 56 56 56 56 56 Wheat flour (g) 8 8 8 8 8 Corn flour (g) 8 8 8 8 8 Pulp/ juice (g) 0 (0%) 35 (100%) 8.75 (25%) 17.5 (50%) 26.25 (75%) Butter (g) 35 (100%) 0 (0%) 26.25 (75%) 17.5 (50%) 8.75 (25%) Baking powder (g) 1 1 1 1 1 2.2. Preparation of cashew apple muffin The process of muffin preparation is represented in Fig. 1. All the dry ingredients were sifted through the sieve (ASTM no. 35) to ensure the fineness of the particles. Firstly, the measured quantities of semolina, powdered jaggery and water were mixed and ground into a fine paste using electric blender and kept for 30 min of resting. Then, the melted butter, remaining dry ingredients including corn and wheat flour, baking powder and baking soda, and cashew apple juice/pulp (CAJ/CAP) were added to the above mixture and blended to a homogeneous paste. Additional water was added in case of pulp to ensure the ribbon-like consistency of the mixture. The butter was replaced with the cashew apple juice/pulp in concentrations given in Table 2 . The mixture was poured into a greased baking tray and baked for 35 min at 180°C. A control sample without cashew apple juice and pulp was also prepared for comparison. Different muffin formulations were then evaluated for physicochemical properties, biochemical properties, oxidative stability, physical properties, and consumer acceptability. 2.3. Physicochemical analysis The muffins were evaluated for moisture content (AOAC 925.10), ash (AOAC 923.03), carbohydrate, energy/calorie, protein by Kjeldahl method (DX VATS, Pelican, Kelplusclassic, 2015) (AOAC 976.06), crude fat by Soxhlet apparatus (KSEA-1B, KEMI) (AOAC 920.39), and crude fibre (AOAC 978.10). The amount of carbohydrate was calculated as % carbohydrates = 100 – (% moisture + % protein + % fat + % ash) [ 21 ]. The calorific value was determined by indirect calorimetry using Atwater general factor system as calorific value (kcal/100 g) = (% fat × 9) + (% CHO × 4) + (% protein × 4). Acidity was estimated as per AOAC 942.15 and expressed in terms of citric acid equivalent. Mineral elements in the muffin samples were analysed by ICP–AES [ 22 ]. 2.4. Biochemical properties and oxidative stability The vitamin C of the muffins was measured by employing the 2,6-dichloroindophenol (DCPIP) titrimetric method (AOAC 967.21). Total polyphenolic content was estimated by the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (FCR) method and expressed in terms of mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g [ 23 ]. DPPH (2,2-Diphhenyl-1-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging assay was used to analyse the antioxidant activity and was depicted as µmol Trolox equivalents (TE)/100g [ 24 ]. Oxidative stability of the muffins was assessed using peroxide value (AOAC 965.33) and free fatty acid by the titrimetric method (AOAC 940.28). 2.5. Physical properties of muffins Control and cashew apple based muffins were evaluated for physical properties such as height (cm), weight (g), volume (cm 3 ) and diameter (mm) as per the method described by Bilgen et al. [ 25 ]. 2.6. Organoleptic Evaluation The sensory properties of the muffins with varying concentration of CAJ and CAP were evaluated through quantitative descriptive analysis in accordance with ISO 6658. 15 panellists were identified from the research fellows, scientists, and technical staff at ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, Karnataka. The panellists evaluated the samples using the lexicons- colour, cell size and uniformity, odour, sweetness, crumb tenderness, shape, and overall acceptability using a 9-point hedonic scale, with scores ranging from 1 “dislike extremely” to 9 “like extremely”, a score of 5 “neither like nor dislike” was set as the threshold for acceptability. Samples were presented on white plates and labelled with random three-digit codes. After equilibration at room temperature (25 ± 2°C), samples were served to the panellists, who were instructed to cleanse their palates with water between each evaluation. 2.7. Statistical analysis Analyses were conducted in triplicate to ensure consistency. Statistical evaluation was performed using SAS 9.4, and nutritional data of cashew apple juice and pulp were analysed using one-way ANOVA. The data of different parameters depicting effects of type of fat replacer and concentration were analysed using 2-way ANOVA. Differences between means were assessed using Tukey’s HSD test at a significance level of p ≤ 0.05. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was employed using R (version 4.3.2) to identify key sources of variation and to discriminate among treatments based on multiple quality parameters. 3. Result and Discussion The results for physicochemical and biochemical properties of cashew apple juice and pulp aligned with the findings of Cruz Reina et al. and Gupta et al. [ 26 , 27 ] (Table 1 ). Parameters such as pH, acidity, and total soluble solids exhibited no significant difference between pulp and juice. On the contrary, carbohydrate, protein, crude fiber, ash, total phenolic content, antioxidant activity and ascorbic acid showed significantly higher values for pulp, whereas a lower value was observed for moisture content. Standardization for low calories muffins with cashew apple as fat replacers significantly affected the physicochemical properties, biochemical properties, oxidative stability, physical properties, and consumer acceptability of the muffins as discussed below. 3.1. Effect of cashew apple based fat replacers on physicochemical properties of muffins Figure 2 illustrates the muffins with different levels of fat replacement. These formulations were compared for calorie content, carbohydrate, protein, fat, moisture, ash, and fibre (Table 3 ). Table 3 Effect of type of fat replacer and concentration on the physicochemical properties of cashew apple-based muffins Fat Replacer Treatments Calorie (kcal/100 g) Carbohydrate (%) Protein (%) Fat (%) Moisture (%) Ash (%) Crude fiber (%) - Control 395.82 a 55.18 e 3.86 a 17.74 a 22.84 b 0.38 c 0.17 e CA juice TJ1-100 317.58 f 70.07 b 3.16 a 2.74 f 22.61 b 0.68 bc 1.80 b CA juice TJ2-25 378.30 b 58.76 d 3.01 b 14.58 b 23.16 b 0.49 bc 0.35 cd CA juice TJ3-50 379.33 b 62.15 c 2.69 c 13.33 c 21.25 c 0.58 bc 0.26 d CA juice TJ4-75 352.74 d 68.28 b 3.12 a 7.46 e 20.22 d 0.78 bc 0.49 c CA pulp TP1-100 365.76 c 81.82 a 3.41 a 2.76 f 11.33 e 1.42 a 2.86 a CA pulp TP2-25 394.61 a 60.80 cd 2.73 c 15.61 b 20.33 d 0.53 bc 0.67 c CA pulp TP3-50 334.37 e 56.91 e 2.99 b 10.53 d 28.92 a 0.65 bc 1.58 b CA pulp TP4-75 353.40 d 69.09 b 3.24 a 7.12 e 19.77 d 0.92 b 2.20 a SEM 0.275 0.118 0.038 0.049 0.139 0.096 0.025 Data are expressed as means ± standard error of triplicate samples. Means with the same superscripts between fat replacers and their concentrations are not significantly different (p ≤ 0.05) SEM - standard error mean (fat replacer× concentration). The muffin with cashew apple juice (CAJ) as the 100% fat replacer (TJ1-100) had the lowest calorie density (19.77%) compared with the other treatments and 19.77% less than the control sample, attributable to the use of zero fat in this formulation. The sequence of the samples in decreasing order of calorie content was control>TP2-25 > TJ3-50 > TJ2-25 > TP1-100 > TP4-75 > TJ4-75 > TP3-50 > TJ1-100. The samples did not exhibit a consistent trend in calorific value across different fat replacer treatments, as the energy content is influenced by variations in carbohydrate, protein, and fat composition. The carbohydrate content of the muffins substituted with cashew apple pulp (CAP) was higher than that of the muffins with CAJ and control sample. The highest value was observed for T1P -100 (81.82%) and the lowest for the control sample (53.18%). This may be explained by the higher concentration of carbohydrate in the CAP, which contributes to its fat-replacing properties. A similar increase in carbohydrate content was reported in avocado substituted cakes [ 28 ]. Protein content showed a slight decrease after substitution of fat with CAP and CAJ, suggesting there might be minimal variation in protein contribution after fat replacement. Insignificant change in protein content was also reported for avocado puree and persimmon sauce as fat replacers in muffins and cakes, respectively [ 3 , 12 ]. The fat content varied among treatments, with the control exhibiting the highest value (17.76%) and lowest observed in the TJ1-100 and TP1-100, suggesting 84.55% decrease in fat content with 100% fat substitution in the muffins. A gradual decrease in the fat content was observed with increasing level of CAP and CAJ incorporation. Nevertheless, muffins formulated with CAP and CAJ at same fat replacement levels exhibited no significant differences in fat content. This finding aligns with earlier reported by Dipti et al. [ 12 ], where replacement of fat with persimmon sauce, apple, banana, and cantaloupe puree in different ratios resulted in reduced fat content in cakes and biscuits. The difference in the moisture level of the control and CAJ-based muffins was also not significant, which may be attributed to the high moisture (89.22%) and lower solid content (9.0 °Brix) of CAJ, which evaporates during baking (Tables 1 & 3 ). However, CAP muffins showed significant variation among treatments, with the lowest value of 11.33% for TP1-100 and the highest for TP3-50 (28.92%). This can be supported by the findings of Singha et al. [ 29 ] on aloe vera leaf gel powder fortified cake and Akubor et al. [ 9 ] on pawpaw puree in cakes. The high dietary fibre content of CAP imparts a strong water-holding capacity, thereby the batter exhibits improved water absorption capacity, leading to reduced baking loss. The fibre matrix facilitates effective water retention in muffins during and after baking. This effect is synergistically influenced by both the fibre content and the inherent moisture present in the pulp which is illustrated in Fig. 3. Consequently, a 50 % subsitution level was found to be optimal for achieving maximum moisture retention in the muffins. Ash content, representing total mineral content, was significantly higher in CAP- and CAJ-based muffins as compared to control (p ≤ 0.05). TP1-100 showed the maximum value of 1.42%, whereas the control sample exhibited lowest ash content of 0.38%. This is further supported by the mineral analysis of different muffin samples (Fig. 4). The results are in concordance with the Dipti et al. [ 12 ] and suggest that the incorporation of cashew apple pulp significantly contributes to the mineral content of the muffins. With the incorporation of CAP and CAJ, the crude fiber revealed a significant increase from the control (0.17%). The increase in fiber content was proportional to the pulp and juice concentration used in the preparation. Muffins prepared with CAP exhibited higher fibre content than those with CAJ, this may be due to the relatively more fibre content of pulp (Table 1 ) [ 11 ]. 3.2. Effect of cashew apple substitution on biochemical properties and oxidative stability of muffins The vitamin C content of muffins incorporated with CAP was higher than that of the control and CAJ-based muffins, with values increasing proportionally with higher levels of pulp incorporation (Table 4 ). The results are aligned with the reports of Dipti et al. [ 12 ]. The vitamin C content of CAJ-based muffins was statistically comparable to that of the control (p > 0.05). This suggests that presence of pulp fiber, acts as a protective agent that inhibits the degradation of vitamin C during baking. Although vitamin C is highly heat-labile, the incorporation of fibre-rich fruit pulp can enhance its retention by limiting thermal and oxidative losses [ 30 ]. The acidity of the muffins which were substituted with CAP and CAJ was higher (0.189 % − 0.2 %) thanthe control treatment (0.128 %), whih can be attributed to the inherent organic acids (citric, tartaric, and ascorbic acids) present in cashew apple. Further, muffins with high concentration of CAP and CAJ revealed higher values for acidity. The inclusion of CAP and CAJ enhanced the antioxidant potential of the muffins, as indicated by higher phenolic content and antioxidant activity. Muffins prepared with CAJ exhibited higher polyphenol content (164.81-226.03 mg GAE/100 g) and antioxidant activity (1.81–5.40 Trolox equivalent/g) than CAP (87.02–168.50 mg GAE/100g; 0.54–1.62 Trolox equivalent/g), which may be attributed to the greater extractability and availability of phenolic compounds in the juice matrix. In contrast, a significant portion of phenolics in pulp remains bound to dietary fibre components such as pectin and cellulose, reducing their measurable content [ 31 ]. The higher antioxidant potential observed in TJ1-100 compared to TJ2-25 is consistent with the trends observed in other parameters, wherein higher juice concentration resulted in increased values. Table 4 Effect of type of fat replacer and concentration on the biochemical properties and oxidative stability of cashew apple-based muffins Fat Replacer Treatments Acidity (%) TPC (mg GAE/ 100 g) Antioxidant activity (µmol TE/g) Vitamin C (%) FFA (%) Peroxide value (mEq O2/ kg sample) - Control 0.128 b 64.83 e 1.36 c 6.36 d 0.28 d 1.82 a CA juice TJ1-100 0.200 a 226.03 a 5.40 a 6.32 d 0.82 c 0.72 c CA juice TJ2-25 0.126 b 164.81 c 1.81 bc 6.42 d 1.77 a 1.06 b CA juice TJ3-50 0.148 b 197.14 b 2.34 b 6.38 d 1.17 b 1.06 b CA juice TJ4-75 0.189 a 199.16 ab 4.87 a 6.54 d 0.79 c 0.71 c CA pulp TP1-100 0.200 a 168.50 c 1.62 bc 9.60 a 0.77 c 0.36 d CA pulp TP2-25 0.126 b 87.02 de 0.54 d 7.83 c 1.24 b 0.75 c CA pulp TP3-50 0.148 b 111.97 d 1.16 cd 8.18 bc 1.15 b 0.73 c CA pulp TP4-75 0.189 a 110.15 d 1.39 c 8.41 b 0.76 c 0.37 d SEM 0.006 5.71 0.158 0.109 0.031 0.022 GAE- gallic acid equivalent; TE- Trolox equivalent; FFA- free fatty acid Data are expressed as means ± standard error of triplicate samples. Means with the same superscripts between fat replacers and their concentrations are not significantly different (p ≤ 0.05). SEM - standard error mean (fat replacer× concentration). The free fatty acid (FFA) content of the muffins exhibited an interesting trend, wherein higher values were observed in TJ2-25 and TP2-25 compared to TJ1-100, TP1-100, and control samples. This suggests the combined effect of fat and moisture present in TJ2-25 and TP2-25, which can promote lipid hydrolysis, leading to increased FFA formation. FFA values were statistically similar between muffins with 100% and 75% fat replacement, as well as between those with 25% and 50% substitution. Furthermore, muffins formulated with juice exhibited higher FFA content compared to pulp-substituted muffins, possibly due to greater moisture availability and enhanced lipid hydrolysis in juice-based systems. Peroxide value (PV), an indicator of primary lipid oxidation, was found to be highest in the control samples followed by CAJ and CAP based muffins (control > CAJ muffins > CAP muffins). Muffins with 25% and 50% fat replacement exhibited higher peroxide values compared to those with 75% and 100% substitution (PV-25% and PV-50% > PV 75% and PV-100%). This may be ascribed to the presence of more fat in the formulations with lower levels of fat replacement, which provides more substrate for oxidative reactions, leading to increased peroxide formation [ 32 ]. 3.3. Effect of cashew apple based fat replacers on physical properties Table 5 presents the physical properties of muffins formulated with different levels of fat replacement. Volume plays a crucial role in determining consumer acceptance and maintaining it remains a major hurdle in developing reduced-fat baked products. In the present work, the volume of muffins substituted with CAJ and CAP decreased progressively with increasing levels of fat substitution. The control sample exhibited the highest volume (8.03 cm³) and TJ2-25 showed the lowest (1.41 cm³). The reduction in volume may be attributed to interactions between sugars and dietary fibers from the juice and pulp and the starch of the flour, which compete for available water and modify starch gelatinization. These interactions cause trapped air bubbles and gasses to prematurely collapse during baking, delaying starch gelatinization and impeding timely structure formation, which eventually results in decreased volume and porosity [ 6 ]. Moreover, dietary fibre can hinder the formation of the protein network within the batter, thereby weakening the overall structure and leading to reduced product characteristics [ 33 ]. The control sample exhibited a higher volume, primarily due to its greater fat content. Fat helps incorporate and stabilize air within the batter, contributing to a lighter and more aerated structure. Consequently, reducing the fat content limits air entrapment, resulting in a denser cake with lower volume [ 9 ]. Table 5 Effect of type of fat replacer and concentration on the physical properties of cashew apple-based muffins Fat Replacer Treatments Weight (g) Height (cm) Volume (cm 3 ) Diameter (mm) - Control 31.00 a 2.68 bc 8.03 a 47.40 d CA juice TJ1-100 21.00 b 2.20 cd 5.81 bc 49.77 bc CA juice TJ2-25 24.83 ab 2.83 ab 1.41 d 47.23 d CA juice TJ3-50 25.33 ab 3.33 a 2.93 cd 50.09 ab CA juice TJ4-75 20.50 b 2.70 bc 2.36 cd 50.32 a CA pulp TP1-100 30.50 a 1.93 d 4.81 bcd 49.29 c CA pulp TP2-25 27.83 ab 2.30 bcd 4.11 cd 45.36 e CA pulp TP3-50 26.17 ab 2.67 bc 6.58 b 44.54 f CA pulp TP4-75 27.83 ab 2.20 cd 3.06 cd 49.89 ab SEM 1.53 0.12 0.69 0.109 Data are expressed as means ± standard error of triplicate samples. Means with the same superscripts between fat replacers and their concentrations are not significantly different (p ≤ 0.05). SEM - standard error mean (fat replacer× concentration). The height of the muffins reflects how well they rise during baking and is commonly associated with a lighter, softer, and more porous texture. In both CAJ and CAP formulations, muffins with 50% fat substitution achieved the greatest height, followed by those with 25%, 75%, and 100% substitution. For the same level of fat replacement, CAJ-based muffins exhibited higher values (2.20–3.33 cm) than CAP-based muffins (1.93–2.67 cm). Compared to the control sample (2.68 cm), only TJ2-25 and TJ3-50 surpassed it in height, indicating better rise and structural development at moderate substitution levels. This observation aligns with previous findings regarding muffins made with pumpkin puree as a fat substitute, where moderate substitution levels resulted in increased volume and height due to improved moisture retention and batter aeration. The starch and soluble fiber in the CAJ help the batter absorb more water and cause the starch to gelatinize, which makes the batter expand and increase the volume. Moreover, the application of carbohydrate-based fat substitutes has been documented to enhance cake height by improving moisture retention and aeration [ 5 , 10 ]. Nonetheless, the impact on height was nonlinear; at elevated concentrations of CAJ and CAP (> 50%), a decrease in height was noted. This may be due to the increased batter density and reduced fat content, which can weaken the structural integrity and limit air incorporation and expansion during baking [ 34 ]. An inverse relationship was observed between muffin weight and the concentration of juice (20.50–25.33 g) and pulp (26.17–30.50 g), with the control sample exhibiting the maximum weight (31.00 g). The decrease in weight at higher levels of CAJ and CAP substitution is likely due to reduced fat content, modifications in batter aeration, and increased water content of the juice and pulp, which can lead to increased weight loss during baking [ 35 ]. The diameter of the muffins increased from 47.40 mm in the control sample to 50.32 mm in muffins with 75% fat substitution using CAJ. This increase may be due to the higher sugar content resulting from the incorporation of CAJ and CAP. Elevated sugar levels in the batter enhance sugar dissolution during baking, increasing the liquid phase, which promotes batter spread and consequently increases muffin diameter. These results are consistent with reports on cakes prepared using pawpaw puree [ 9 ]. 3.4. Effect of cashew apple based fat replacers on organoleptic properties of muffins Sensory evaluation becomes imperative to ensure the quality and acceptability of the muffins with reduced-calorie. All the muffin formulations were evaluated for different sensory attributes: shape, colour, cell size and uniformity, odour, sweetness, crumb tenderness and overall acceptability (Fig. 5). Low scores were given by the panellists for the muffins substituted with CAJ and CAP than the control sample. Based on overall liking, the muffins were ranked in the following order: control, followed by TJ3-50, TP3-50, TJ2-25, TP2-25, TJ4-75, and TP4, suggesting higher overall acceptability for control, followed by 50% fat substituted muffins. For the same level of substitution CAJ based muffins received higher scores than CAP based muffins. More sweetness was perceived in the cashew apple-based muffins compared to the control. Moreover, TJ3-50 scored high for odour, sweetness and crumb tenderness, which may be attributed to the sugars present in the juice, which facilitate moistening of the muffins and impart sweetness and fruity aroma. A similar effect on sensory quality is reported for pawpaw puree-based cakes [ 9 ]. No significant differences were observed in the scores for color, shape, and cell size and uniformity between the control and muffins containing 50% fat substitution with CAJ. 3.5. Principal component analysis (PCA) for different quality attributes of muffins with cashew apple pulp/juice as fat replacer To understand the relationships among different muffin formulations and their associated quality attributes, principal component analysis (PCA) was performed. The scree plot (Fig. 6a) indicated that PC1 and PC2 explained 57.2% of the total variance, with PC1 and PC2 contributing 33% and 24.2%, respectively, suggesting that the majority of variability in the dataset can be effectively represented in a two-dimensional space. The relative impact of various variables on each major component was shown in the trait contribution plot (Fig. 6b). While antioxidant activity, total phenolic content (TPC), vitamin C, protein, and ash showed negative loadings, suggesting their inverse association with structural features, PC1 was mainly influenced by weight, volume, and fat content, exhibiting substantial positive loadings. This implies that PC1 successfully distinguishes samples according to structural characteristics as opposed to nutritional and bioactive makeup. Crude fiber and ash had positive loadings in PC2, whereas height, moisture content, peroxide value, and free fatty acids had negative loadings. Thus, this component reflects heterogeneity in the physicochemical and oxidative stability characteristics of the muffins. The distribution and clustering of muffin samples were further demonstrated by the PCA biplot (Fig. 6c), where variables oriented in the same direction (small angle between vectors) are positively correlated (e.g., TPC and antioxidant activity) and those oriented in opposite directions (e.g., fat vs. fiber) are negatively correlated. The length of the vector is proportional to its contribution and impact on the variability. Higher antioxidant activity, TPC, vitamin C, and protein content were all strongly correlated with samples on the negative side of PC1, suggesting improved nutritional quality. Higher fat content, weight, and volume, on the other hand, were indicative of better structural and physical characteristics in samples on the positive side of PC1. Furthermore, a strong positive association was found between factors like TPC and antioxidant activity, but an inverse relationship between fat and fiber highlighted the impact of fat substitution on nutritional composition. Treatments showed different patterns of clustering. Samples like TJ2-25 and TJ3-50 were categorized and associated to height, moisture, and oxidation parameters. Another cluster was established by TP2-25 and TP3-50, which had a substantial correlation with physical characteristics including weight and volume. Treatments like TP1-100, TP4-75, and TJ1-100 were found to be more comparable in composition to ash and crude fiber. Higher fat, volume, and peroxide values were linked to control samples, suggesting their reliance on lipid content. In general, PCA successfully distinguished across muffin samples according to oxidative stability, physicochemical, and biochemical criteria. The analysis demonstrated that although TJ4-75 was rich in phenolics, protein, vitamin C, and antioxidant activity, TJ3-50 was the most acceptable formulation based on sensory evaluation, highlighting a balance between consumer acceptability and nutritional quality. 4. Conclusion The study revealed that cashew apple juice (CAJ) and cashew apple pulp (CAP) can be successfully used as fat replacers in muffins and could simultaneously enhance the nutritional value. Replacement of fat with CAJ and CAP had modified the biochemical, physical, and organoleptic properties of the muffins. Notably, moderate levels of substitution (up to 50%) resulted in muffins with overall quality and consumer acceptability similar to those of control. However, substitution higher than > 50% undesirably impacted structural attributes such as volume, height, and texture. These effects were mainly due to higher batter density, along with lower fat content, and disruptions in starch gelatinization and protein network formation. Moreover, the increased oxidative susceptibility arising from the incorporation of perishable commodities necessitates targeted interventions. Approaches such as encapsulation, incorporation of natural antioxidants, and structural modification of fibre and starch in the juice and pulp may enhance product stability. Future studies should optimize processing techniques to improve stability, sensory quality, and scalability, facilitating wider applications in functional foods. Declarations Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Consent to participate Verbal informed consent was obtained prior to the interview. Ethical statement for sensory studies The appropriate protocols to safeguard the rights and privacy of all participants were followed during the conduct of the research. No vulnerable populations were used in the research. Funding This work was funded through institute project (Project ID. No: IXX20122) at ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, Karnataka. Author Contribution Jyoti Nishad: Conceptualization, Validation, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing -original draft. Nishmitha B.: Investigation, Data curation. Aashitha K.: Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis. Eldho Varghese: Software, Resources. Jamboor Dinakara Adiga: Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Veena Gonibeedu Lakshmana: Resources, Formal analysis, Investigation. Rajashekara H: Resources, Formal analysis. Bhagya HP: Formal analysis, Data curation. Aswathy Chandrakumar: Writing-review & editing, Resources. Babli Mog: Supervision, Resources, Data curation. Rekha Kumari Meena: Software, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing -review & editing. Acknowledgement The authors sincerely acknowledge the financial assistance and institutional facilities provided by ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, Karnataka, and Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR), New Delhi, for carrying out this research. Data Availability All data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper References Moin A, Ali TM, Hasnain A (2024) Enhancing functional properties of rice starches through hydroxypropylation for development of reduced-fat white sauces. Food Chem [Internet] Elsevier 446:138860 [cited 2026 Apr 6];. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2024.138860 Ahsan M, Moin A, Ashraf H, Khan A, Giuffrè AM (2025) Formulation and characterization of reduced fat muffins using a plant based fat replacer. 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J (Basel) MDPI AG 4:430–443. https://doi.org/10.3390/j4030033 Boas MPPV, Almeida LC, do Lago RC, Zitha EZM, Carvalho EEN, Pereira J et al (2024) Impact of acerola pulp on physical and chemical properties of lactose-free sweet bread during storage, vol 4. Elsevier, p 100605. [cited 2026 Mar 26]; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.focha.2024.100605 . Food Chemistry Advances [Internet] de Wolf RXM, Hider RN, Breitmeyer J, Serventi L (2025) Effect of lactic fermentation and matrix on phenolic content, bioaccessibility, and scavenging activity of beetroot beverages. Eur Food Res Technol 251:483–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-024-04643-4 Difonzo G, Pasqualone A, Silletti R, Cosmai L, Summo C, Paradiso VM et al (2018) Use of olive leaf extract to reduce lipid oxidation of baked snacks. Food Res Int [Internet] Elsevier 108:48–56 [cited 2026 Mar 31];. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.03.034 Aydogdu A, Sumnu G, Sahin S (2018) Effects of addition of different fibers on rheological characteristics of cake batter and quality of cakes. J Food Sci Technol 55:667–677. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-017-2976-y Nieto-Mazzocco E, Saldaña-Robles A, Franco-Robles E, Mireles-Arriaga AI, Mares-Mares E, Ozuna C (2022) Optimization of gluten-free muffin formulation with agavin-type fructans as fat and sucrose replacer using response surface methodology. Future Foods [Internet] Elsevier 5:100112 [cited 2026 Apr 3];. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FUFO.2021.100112 Dana H, Sonia A (2024) Effect of Apple Puree as a Substitute for Fat and Sugar on the Texture and Physical Properties of Muffins. Applied Sciences (Switzerland). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI), p 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14199009 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":700203,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLegend not included with this version\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.6PrincipalcomponentanalysisPCAofdifferentqualityparametersofmuffinswithcashewapplepulpjuiceasfatreplacer.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9533118/v1/ad3a78a374bfb85e0a11daa8.png"},{"id":109406221,"identity":"776a5396-c9d3-4b0f-a6a4-962718e719b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-17 13:27:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3812572,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9533118/v1/cd421013-ee1a-41f0-9d22-1b8d35105d45.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Unveiling the Potential of Cashew Apple as a Fat Replacer in Low-Fat Muffins: Multivariate Study of Nutritional, Technological, Oxidation and Organoleptic Properties","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Cashew apple pulp (CAP) and juice (CAJ) used as fat replacers in muffins\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Up to 84.55% fat reduction was achieved\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Bioactivity was increased in CAJ \u0026amp; CAP substituted muffins\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; 50% CAJ (TJ3-50) substitution showed good sensory acceptability\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Optimized muffin (TJ3-50) had 25% less fat, improved stability \u0026amp; nutrition\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eRecent research has focused on novel strategies to satisfy the increasing demand for healthier and more nutritious foods, particularly in response to rising global health concerns such as obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes associated with modern lifestyles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. One of the key dietary factors influencing these conditions is the excessive intake of fat, specially saturated and trans fats, as high-fat foods contribute significantly to increased energy consumption and the risk of obesity [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR3 CR4\" citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWidely consumed bakery products including cakes, cookies, muffins, and biscuits. are added with huge quantity of fat to achieve desirable quality attributes. Fat facilitates incorporation and stabilization of air bubbles in batter, which significantly influencing product volume, crumb structure, flavour, mouthfeel, and overall palatability, which are essential for consumer acceptance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Frequent consumption of such products can lead to excessive fat intake, driving research and industrial efforts toward the development of fat replacers that can simulate the functional characteristics of fat without adversely affecting product quality and sensory properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Carbohydrate-derived fat replacers, such as starches, fibers, and hydrocolloids, have received significant attention for its capacity to bind water, create gel-like structures, and enhance texture while reducing energy density. These substitutes play a structural role of fat by improving the viscosity and moisture retention capacity of batter [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Fruit-based ingredients are very popular because they not only replace fat but also add vitamins, dietary fiber, and bioactive compounds to foods. A variety of fruits and their byproducts such as avocado, apricot, apples, dates, pawpaw, persimmon, pumpkin, and sour cherry have been successfully explored as fat replacers in baked goods, ascribing to their fiber and pectin content, which impart desirable structure and texture to the developed products [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10 CR11\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe cashew apple, which is a pseudo-fruit of the cashew tree, is an underutilized by-product despite being produced in large quantities in cashew-growing regions. It is rich in vitamin C, natural sugars, phenolic compounds, and dietary fibre, exhibiting strong antioxidant properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. However, its high perishability and astringency due to tannins limit its direct consumption. Value addition of cashew apple into juice and pulp can enhance its utilization and economic value. Both cashew apple juice (CAJ) and pulp (CAP) contain soluble and insoluble fibres and could be utilized as fat replacers in the foods. Fibre has a high water-binding capacity, which increases batter viscosity and helps in moisture retention during baking. This contributes to improved softness and reduces baking loss. Additionally, fibre can form a network that mimics the bulking and structural properties of fat, thereby partially compensating for the reduction in fat content [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR15\" citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Cashew apple and its byproducts have been successfully utilized as a fat alternative in food matrices such as chicken patties, hamburgers, vegan meat substitute, sponge cake, bread, biscuits, and studied for effect on quality of the products [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17 CR18 CR19\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Nascimento et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] demonstrated the synergistic effect of cashew gum and cashew apple in replacing fat in egg-based sponge cakes. However, no comparative study has been reported on the effectiveness of CAJ and CAP as natural fat replacers in eggless muffins with acceptable organoleptic properties. This underscores an important research gap amid the rising demand for vegan, low-fat, and functional food products. Accordingly, this study aimed to investigate the potential of CAJ and CAP as fat replacers in muffins and their influence on physicochemical, oxidative, biochemical, and sensory attributes. The objective was to identify an optimal formulation for developing reduced-fat, nutritionally enriched bakery products while promoting the sustainable utilization of cashew apples.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFully ripened and firm yellow coloured cashew apples of the VTH-174 variety of 819 phenological stage were harvested from the cashew field of ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur (12\u0026deg;44'24.0\"N 75\u0026deg;13'50.0\"E). The fruits were washed in potable water, made into fine pulp using a kitchen blender at 10,000 rpm, and then pressed using hydraulic press for extraction of cashew apple juice. The juice and pulp were analysed for physicochemical and biochemical properties (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) as per the method described in subsequent sections \u003cspan refid=\"Sec5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2.3\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Sec6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2.4\u003c/span\u003e, and were kept at -18\u0026deg;C for further analysis. The remaining ingredients required for muffin formation (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) were sourced from the nearby the local market in Puttur, Karnataka.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysicochemical and biochemical properties of cashew apple juice and pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.75\u0026plusmn;0.12\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.85\u0026plusmn;0.08 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcidity (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u0026plusmn;0.02 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026plusmn;0.03 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.0\u0026plusmn;0.32 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5\u0026plusmn;0.27 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbohydrate (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.17\u0026plusmn;0.67 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.07\u0026plusmn;0.98 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82\u0026plusmn;0.001 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.20\u0026plusmn;0.001 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.35\u0026plusmn;0.004 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.82\u0026plusmn;0.003 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.22\u0026plusmn;1.43 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.34\u0026plusmn;2.01 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrude fiber (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026plusmn;0.003 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u0026plusmn;0.002 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsh (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.50\u0026plusmn;0.05 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.46\u0026plusmn;0.003 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal phenolic content (mgGAE/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116.24\u0026plusmn;1.78 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e191.77\u0026plusmn;2.16 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAntioxidant activity (\u0026micro;mol trolox/g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.78\u0026plusmn;0.59 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.85\u0026plusmn;0.71 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAscorbic acid (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e156.13\u0026plusmn;2.08 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e181.71\u0026plusmn;3.15 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eData are expressed as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation of triplicate samples.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eDifferent superscripts in the same row represent significant differences between samples (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eTSS-total soluble solids; GAE-Gallic acid equivalent\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormulation of muffins with different levels of cashew apple juice (CAJ) or pulp (CAP) (CAJ or CAP incorporated on 100g butter basis) as a fat replacer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIngredients\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuffin Formulations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT1-100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT2-25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT3-50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT4-75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSemolina (g)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eJaggery (g)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWheat flour (g)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCorn flour (g)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePulp/ juice (g)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 (100%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.75 (25%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5 (50%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.25 (75%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eButter (g)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 (100%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.25 (75%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5 (50%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.75 (25%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBaking powder (g)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Preparation of cashew apple muffin\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe process of muffin preparation is represented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;1. All the dry ingredients were sifted through the sieve (ASTM no. 35) to ensure the fineness of the particles. Firstly, the measured quantities of semolina, powdered jaggery and water were mixed and ground into a fine paste using electric blender and kept for 30 min of resting. Then, the melted butter, remaining dry ingredients including corn and wheat flour, baking powder and baking soda, and cashew apple juice/pulp (CAJ/CAP) were added to the above mixture and blended to a homogeneous paste. Additional water was added in case of pulp to ensure the ribbon-like consistency of the mixture. The butter was replaced with the cashew apple juice/pulp in concentrations given in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The mixture was poured into a greased baking tray and baked for 35 min at 180\u0026deg;C. A control sample without cashew apple juice and pulp was also prepared for comparison. Different muffin formulations were then evaluated for physicochemical properties, biochemical properties, oxidative stability, physical properties, and consumer acceptability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Physicochemical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe muffins were evaluated for moisture content (AOAC 925.10), ash (AOAC 923.03), carbohydrate, energy/calorie, protein by Kjeldahl method (DX VATS, Pelican, Kelplusclassic, 2015) (AOAC 976.06), crude fat by Soxhlet apparatus (KSEA-1B, KEMI) (AOAC 920.39), and crude fibre (AOAC 978.10). The amount of carbohydrate was calculated as % carbohydrates\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100 \u0026ndash; (% moisture + % protein + % fat + % ash) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. The calorific value was determined by indirect calorimetry using Atwater general factor system as calorific value (kcal/100 g) = (% fat \u0026times; 9) + (% CHO \u0026times; 4) + (% protein \u0026times; 4). Acidity was estimated as per AOAC 942.15 and expressed in terms of citric acid equivalent. Mineral elements in the muffin samples were analysed by ICP\u0026ndash;AES [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Biochemical properties and oxidative stability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe vitamin C of the muffins was measured by employing the 2,6-dichloroindophenol (DCPIP) titrimetric method (AOAC 967.21). Total polyphenolic content was estimated by the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (FCR) method and expressed in terms of mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. DPPH (2,2-Diphhenyl-1-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging assay was used to analyse the antioxidant activity and was depicted as \u0026micro;mol Trolox equivalents (TE)/100g [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Oxidative stability of the muffins was assessed using peroxide value (AOAC 965.33) and free fatty acid by the titrimetric method (AOAC 940.28).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Physical properties of muffins\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl and cashew apple based muffins were evaluated for physical properties such as height (cm), weight (g), volume (cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) and diameter (mm) as per the method described by Bilgen et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6. Organoleptic Evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sensory properties of the muffins with varying concentration of CAJ and CAP were evaluated through quantitative descriptive analysis in accordance with ISO 6658. 15 panellists were identified from the research fellows, scientists, and technical staff at ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, Karnataka. The panellists evaluated the samples using the lexicons- colour, cell size and uniformity, odour, sweetness, crumb tenderness, shape, and overall acceptability using a 9-point hedonic scale, with scores ranging from 1 \u0026ldquo;dislike extremely\u0026rdquo; to 9 \u0026ldquo;like extremely\u0026rdquo;, a score of 5 \u0026ldquo;neither like nor dislike\u0026rdquo; was set as the threshold for acceptability. Samples were presented on white plates and labelled with random three-digit codes. After equilibration at room temperature (25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2\u0026deg;C), samples were served to the panellists, who were instructed to cleanse their palates with water between each evaluation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7. Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalyses were conducted in triplicate to ensure consistency. Statistical evaluation was performed using SAS 9.4, and nutritional data of cashew apple juice and pulp were analysed using one-way ANOVA. The data of different parameters depicting effects of type of fat replacer and concentration were analysed using 2-way ANOVA. Differences between means were assessed using Tukey\u0026rsquo;s HSD test at a significance level of p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was employed using R (version 4.3.2) to identify key sources of variation and to discriminate among treatments based on multiple quality parameters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Result and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results for physicochemical and biochemical properties of cashew apple juice and pulp aligned with the findings of Cruz Reina et al. and Gupta et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Parameters such as pH, acidity, and total soluble solids exhibited no significant difference between pulp and juice. On the contrary, carbohydrate, protein, crude fiber, ash, total phenolic content, antioxidant activity and ascorbic acid showed significantly higher values for pulp, whereas a lower value was observed for moisture content. Standardization for low calories muffins with cashew apple as fat replacers significantly affected the physicochemical properties, biochemical properties, oxidative stability, physical properties, and consumer acceptability of the muffins as discussed below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Effect of cashew apple based fat replacers on physicochemical properties of muffins\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure 2 illustrates the muffins with different levels of fat replacement. These formulations were compared for calorie content, carbohydrate, protein, fat, moisture, ash, and fibre (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect of type of fat replacer and concentration on the physicochemical properties of cashew apple-based muffins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat Replacer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalorie (kcal/100 g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbohydrate (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsh (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrude fiber (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e395.82\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.18\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.86\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.74\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.84\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTJ1-100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e317.58\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.07\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.16\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.74\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.61\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.80\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTJ2-25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e378.30\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.76\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.01\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.16\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTJ3-50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e379.33\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.15\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.69\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.33\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.25\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTJ4-75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e352.74\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.28\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.12\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.46\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.22\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP1-100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e365.76\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.82\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.41\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.76\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.33\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.42\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.86\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP2-25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e394.61\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.80\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.73\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.61\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.33\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP3-50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e334.37\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.91\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.99\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.53\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.92\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP4-75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e353.40\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.09\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.24\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.12\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.77\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.20\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.275\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.139\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.096\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eData are expressed as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard error of triplicate samples.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeans with the same superscripts between fat replacers and their concentrations are not significantly different (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eSEM - standard error mean (fat replacer\u0026times; concentration).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe muffin with cashew apple juice (CAJ) as the 100% fat replacer (TJ1-100) had the lowest calorie density (19.77%) compared with the other treatments and 19.77% less than the control sample, attributable to the use of zero fat in this formulation. The sequence of the samples in decreasing order of calorie content was control\u0026gt;TP2-25\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;TJ3-50\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;TJ2-25\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;TP1-100\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;TP4-75\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;TJ4-75\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;TP3-50\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;TJ1-100. The samples did not exhibit a consistent trend in calorific value across different fat replacer treatments, as the energy content is influenced by variations in carbohydrate, protein, and fat composition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe carbohydrate content of the muffins substituted with cashew apple pulp (CAP) was higher than that of the muffins with CAJ and control sample. The highest value was observed for T1P -100 (81.82%) and the lowest for the control sample (53.18%). This may be explained by the higher concentration of carbohydrate in the CAP, which contributes to its fat-replacing properties. A similar increase in carbohydrate content was reported in avocado substituted cakes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein content showed a slight decrease after substitution of fat with CAP and CAJ, suggesting there might be minimal variation in protein contribution after fat replacement. Insignificant change in protein content was also reported for avocado puree and persimmon sauce as fat replacers in muffins and cakes, respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fat content varied among treatments, with the control exhibiting the highest value (17.76%) and lowest observed in the TJ1-100 and TP1-100, suggesting 84.55% decrease in fat content with 100% fat substitution in the muffins. A gradual decrease in the fat content was observed with increasing level of CAP and CAJ incorporation. Nevertheless, muffins formulated with CAP and CAJ at same fat replacement levels exhibited no significant differences in fat content. This finding aligns with earlier reported by Dipti et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], where replacement of fat with persimmon sauce, apple, banana, and cantaloupe puree in different ratios resulted in reduced fat content in cakes and biscuits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe difference in the moisture level of the control and CAJ-based muffins was also not significant, which may be attributed to the high moisture (89.22%) and lower solid content (9.0 \u0026deg;Brix) of CAJ, which evaporates during baking (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). However, CAP muffins showed significant variation among treatments, with the lowest value of 11.33% for TP1-100 and the highest for TP3-50 (28.92%). This can be supported by the findings of Singha et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] on aloe vera leaf gel powder fortified cake and Akubor et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e] on pawpaw puree in cakes. The high dietary fibre content of CAP imparts a strong water-holding capacity, thereby the batter exhibits improved water absorption capacity, leading to reduced baking loss. The fibre matrix facilitates effective water retention in muffins during and after baking. This effect is synergistically influenced by both the fibre content and the inherent moisture present in the pulp which is illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;3. Consequently, a 50 % subsitution level was found to be optimal for achieving maximum moisture retention in the muffins.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsh content, representing total mineral content, was significantly higher in CAP- and CAJ-based muffins as compared to control (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05). TP1-100 showed the maximum value of 1.42%, whereas the control sample exhibited lowest ash content of 0.38%. This is further supported by the mineral analysis of different muffin samples (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4). The results are in concordance with the Dipti et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] and suggest that the incorporation of cashew apple pulp significantly contributes to the mineral content of the muffins.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith the incorporation of CAP and CAJ, the crude fiber revealed a significant increase from the control (0.17%). The increase in fiber content was proportional to the pulp and juice concentration used in the preparation. Muffins prepared with CAP exhibited higher fibre content than those with CAJ, this may be due to the relatively more fibre content of pulp (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Effect of cashew apple substitution on biochemical properties and oxidative stability of muffins\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe vitamin C content of muffins incorporated with CAP was higher than that of the control and CAJ-based muffins, with values increasing proportionally with higher levels of pulp incorporation (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). The results are aligned with the reports of Dipti et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. The vitamin C content of CAJ-based muffins was statistically comparable to that of the control (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). This suggests that presence of pulp fiber, acts as a protective agent that inhibits the degradation of vitamin C during baking. Although vitamin C is highly heat-labile, the incorporation of fibre-rich fruit pulp can enhance its retention by limiting thermal and oxidative losses [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. The acidity of the muffins which were substituted with CAP and CAJ was higher (0.189 % \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.2 %) thanthe control treatment (0.128 %), whih can be attributed to the inherent organic acids (citric, tartaric, and ascorbic acids) present in cashew apple. Further, muffins with high concentration of CAP and CAJ revealed higher values for acidity. The inclusion of CAP and CAJ enhanced the antioxidant potential of the muffins, as indicated by higher phenolic content and antioxidant activity. Muffins prepared with CAJ exhibited higher polyphenol content (164.81-226.03 mg GAE/100 g) and antioxidant activity (1.81\u0026ndash;5.40 Trolox equivalent/g) than CAP (87.02\u0026ndash;168.50 mg GAE/100g; 0.54\u0026ndash;1.62 Trolox equivalent/g), which may be attributed to the greater extractability and availability of phenolic compounds in the juice matrix. In contrast, a significant portion of phenolics in pulp remains bound to dietary fibre components such as pectin and cellulose, reducing their measurable content [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. The higher antioxidant potential observed in TJ1-100 compared to TJ2-25 is consistent with the trends observed in other parameters, wherein higher juice concentration resulted in increased values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect of type of fat replacer and concentration on the biochemical properties and oxidative stability of cashew apple-based muffins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"14\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat Replacer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcidity (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mg GAE/\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAntioxidant activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u0026micro;mol TE/g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin C (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFFA (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeroxide value\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mEq O2/ kg sample)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.128\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.83\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.36\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.36\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.82\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTJ1-100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.200\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e226.03\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.40\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.32\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTJ2-25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.126\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e164.81\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.81\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.42\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.77\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTJ3-50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.148\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e197.14\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.34\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.38\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.17\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTJ4-75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.189\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e199.16\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.87\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.54\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP1-100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.200\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e168.50\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.62\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.60\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP2-25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.126\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.02\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.83\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP3-50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.148\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111.97\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.16\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.18\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP4-75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.189\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110.15\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.39\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.41\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"14\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eGAE- gallic acid equivalent; TE- Trolox equivalent; FFA- free fatty acid\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"14\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eData are expressed as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard error of triplicate samples.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"14\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeans with the same superscripts between fat replacers and their concentrations are not significantly different (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"14\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eSEM - standard error mean (fat replacer\u0026times; concentration).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe free fatty acid (FFA) content of the muffins exhibited an interesting trend, wherein higher values were observed in TJ2-25 and TP2-25 compared to TJ1-100, TP1-100, and control samples. This suggests the combined effect of fat and moisture present in TJ2-25 and TP2-25, which can promote lipid hydrolysis, leading to increased FFA formation. FFA values were statistically similar between muffins with 100% and 75% fat replacement, as well as between those with 25% and 50% substitution. Furthermore, muffins formulated with juice exhibited higher FFA content compared to pulp-substituted muffins, possibly due to greater moisture availability and enhanced lipid hydrolysis in juice-based systems. Peroxide value (PV), an indicator of primary lipid oxidation, was found to be highest in the control samples followed by CAJ and CAP based muffins (control\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;CAJ muffins\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;CAP muffins). Muffins with 25% and 50% fat replacement exhibited higher peroxide values compared to those with 75% and 100% substitution (PV-25% and PV-50% \u0026gt; PV 75% and PV-100%). This may be ascribed to the presence of more fat in the formulations with lower levels of fat replacement, which provides more substrate for oxidative reactions, leading to increased peroxide formation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Effect of cashew apple based fat replacers on physical properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e presents the physical properties of muffins formulated with different levels of fat replacement. Volume plays a crucial role in determining consumer acceptance and maintaining it remains a major hurdle in developing reduced-fat baked products. In the present work, the volume of muffins substituted with CAJ and CAP decreased progressively with increasing levels of fat substitution. The control sample exhibited the highest volume (8.03 cm\u0026sup3;) and TJ2-25 showed the lowest (1.41 cm\u0026sup3;). The reduction in volume may be attributed to interactions between sugars and dietary fibers from the juice and pulp and the starch of the flour, which compete for available water and modify starch gelatinization. These interactions cause trapped air bubbles and gasses to prematurely collapse during baking, delaying starch gelatinization and impeding timely structure formation, which eventually results in decreased volume and porosity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, dietary fibre can hinder the formation of the protein network within the batter, thereby weakening the overall structure and leading to reduced product characteristics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. The control sample exhibited a higher volume, primarily due to its greater fat content. Fat helps incorporate and stabilize air within the batter, contributing to a lighter and more aerated structure. Consequently, reducing the fat content limits air entrapment, resulting in a denser cake with lower volume [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect of type of fat replacer and concentration on the physical properties of cashew apple-based muffins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat Replacer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolume (cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiameter (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.68\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.03\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.40\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTJ1-100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.20\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.81\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.77\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTJ2-25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.83\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.83\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.41\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.23\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTJ3-50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.33\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.33\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.93\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.09\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTJ4-75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.50\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.70\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.36\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.32\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP1-100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.50\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.93\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.81\u003csup\u003ebcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.29\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP2-25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.83\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.30\u003csup\u003ebcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.11\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.36\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP3-50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.17\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.67\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.54\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA pulp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP4-75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.83\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.20\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.06\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.89\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eData are expressed as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard error of triplicate samples.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeans with the same superscripts between fat replacers and their concentrations are not significantly different (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eSEM - standard error mean (fat replacer\u0026times; concentration).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe height of the muffins reflects how well they rise during baking and is commonly associated with a lighter, softer, and more porous texture. In both CAJ and CAP formulations, muffins with 50% fat substitution achieved the greatest height, followed by those with 25%, 75%, and 100% substitution. For the same level of fat replacement, CAJ-based muffins exhibited higher values (2.20\u0026ndash;3.33 cm) than CAP-based muffins (1.93\u0026ndash;2.67 cm). Compared to the control sample (2.68 cm), only TJ2-25 and TJ3-50 surpassed it in height, indicating better rise and structural development at moderate substitution levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis observation aligns with previous findings regarding muffins made with pumpkin puree as a fat substitute, where moderate substitution levels resulted in increased volume and height due to improved moisture retention and batter aeration. The starch and soluble fiber in the CAJ help the batter absorb more water and cause the starch to gelatinize, which makes the batter expand and increase the volume. Moreover, the application of carbohydrate-based fat substitutes has been documented to enhance cake height by improving moisture retention and aeration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Nonetheless, the impact on height was nonlinear; at elevated concentrations of CAJ and CAP (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;50%), a decrease in height was noted. This may be due to the increased batter density and reduced fat content, which can weaken the structural integrity and limit air incorporation and expansion during baking [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn inverse relationship was observed between muffin weight and the concentration of juice (20.50\u0026ndash;25.33 g) and pulp (26.17\u0026ndash;30.50 g), with the control sample exhibiting the maximum weight (31.00 g). The decrease in weight at higher levels of CAJ and CAP substitution is likely due to reduced fat content, modifications in batter aeration, and increased water content of the juice and pulp, which can lead to increased weight loss during baking [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe diameter of the muffins increased from 47.40 mm in the control sample to 50.32 mm in muffins with 75% fat substitution using CAJ. This increase may be due to the higher sugar content resulting from the incorporation of CAJ and CAP. Elevated sugar levels in the batter enhance sugar dissolution during baking, increasing the liquid phase, which promotes batter spread and consequently increases muffin diameter. These results are consistent with reports on cakes prepared using pawpaw puree [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Effect of cashew apple based fat replacers on organoleptic properties of muffins\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSensory evaluation becomes imperative to ensure the quality and acceptability of the muffins with reduced-calorie. All the muffin formulations were evaluated for different sensory attributes: shape, colour, cell size and uniformity, odour, sweetness, crumb tenderness and overall acceptability (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5). Low scores were given by the panellists for the muffins substituted with CAJ and CAP than the control sample. Based on overall liking, the muffins were ranked in the following order: control, followed by TJ3-50, TP3-50, TJ2-25, TP2-25, TJ4-75, and TP4, suggesting higher overall acceptability for control, followed by 50% fat substituted muffins. For the same level of substitution CAJ based muffins received higher scores than CAP based muffins. More sweetness was perceived in the cashew apple-based muffins compared to the control. Moreover, TJ3-50 scored high for odour, sweetness and crumb tenderness, which may be attributed to the sugars present in the juice, which facilitate moistening of the muffins and impart sweetness and fruity aroma. A similar effect on sensory quality is reported for pawpaw puree-based cakes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. No significant differences were observed in the scores for color, shape, and cell size and uniformity between the control and muffins containing 50% fat substitution with CAJ.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e3.5. Principal component analysis (PCA) for different quality attributes of muffins with cashew apple pulp/juice as fat replacer\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo understand the relationships among different muffin formulations and their associated quality attributes, principal component analysis (PCA) was performed. The scree plot (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6a) indicated that PC1 and PC2 explained 57.2% of the total variance, with PC1 and PC2 contributing 33% and 24.2%, respectively, suggesting that the majority of variability in the dataset can be effectively represented in a two-dimensional space.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe relative impact of various variables on each major component was shown in the trait contribution plot (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6b). While antioxidant activity, total phenolic content (TPC), vitamin C, protein, and ash showed negative loadings, suggesting their inverse association with structural features, PC1 was mainly influenced by weight, volume, and fat content, exhibiting substantial positive loadings. This implies that PC1 successfully distinguishes samples according to structural characteristics as opposed to nutritional and bioactive makeup. Crude fiber and ash had positive loadings in PC2, whereas height, moisture content, peroxide value, and free fatty acids had negative loadings. Thus, this component reflects heterogeneity in the physicochemical and oxidative stability characteristics of the muffins. The distribution and clustering of muffin samples were further demonstrated by the PCA biplot (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6c), where variables oriented in the same direction (small angle between vectors) are positively correlated (e.g., TPC and antioxidant activity) and those oriented in opposite directions (e.g., fat vs. fiber) are negatively correlated. The length of the vector is proportional to its contribution and impact on the variability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher antioxidant activity, TPC, vitamin C, and protein content were all strongly correlated with samples on the negative side of PC1, suggesting improved nutritional quality. Higher fat content, weight, and volume, on the other hand, were indicative of better structural and physical characteristics in samples on the positive side of PC1. Furthermore, a strong positive association was found between factors like TPC and antioxidant activity, but an inverse relationship between fat and fiber highlighted the impact of fat substitution on nutritional composition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatments showed different patterns of clustering. Samples like TJ2-25 and TJ3-50 were categorized and associated to height, moisture, and oxidation parameters. Another cluster was established by TP2-25 and TP3-50, which had a substantial correlation with physical characteristics including weight and volume. Treatments like TP1-100, TP4-75, and TJ1-100 were found to be more comparable in composition to ash and crude fiber. Higher fat, volume, and peroxide values were linked to control samples, suggesting their reliance on lipid content.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn general, PCA successfully distinguished across muffin samples according to oxidative stability, physicochemical, and biochemical criteria. The analysis demonstrated that although TJ4-75 was rich in phenolics, protein, vitamin C, and antioxidant activity, TJ3-50 was the most acceptable formulation based on sensory evaluation, highlighting a balance between consumer acceptability and nutritional quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study revealed that cashew apple juice (CAJ) and cashew apple pulp (CAP) can be successfully used as fat replacers in muffins and could simultaneously enhance the nutritional value. Replacement of fat with CAJ and CAP had modified the biochemical, physical, and organoleptic properties of the muffins. Notably, moderate levels of substitution (up to 50%) resulted in muffins with overall quality and consumer acceptability similar to those of control. However, substitution higher than \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;50% undesirably impacted structural attributes such as volume, height, and texture. These effects were mainly due to higher batter density, along with lower fat content, and disruptions in starch gelatinization and protein network formation. Moreover, the increased oxidative susceptibility arising from the incorporation of perishable commodities necessitates targeted interventions. Approaches such as encapsulation, incorporation of natural antioxidants, and structural modification of fibre and starch in the juice and pulp may enhance product stability. Future studies should optimize processing techniques to improve stability, sensory quality, and scalability, facilitating wider applications in functional foods.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConflicts of Interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e Verbal informed consent was obtained prior to the interview.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEthical statement for sensory studies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe appropriate protocols to safeguard the rights and privacy of all participants were followed during the conduct of the research. No vulnerable populations were used in the research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis work was funded through institute project (Project ID. No: IXX20122) at ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, Karnataka.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eJyoti Nishad: Conceptualization, Validation, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing -original draft. Nishmitha B.: Investigation, Data curation. Aashitha K.: Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis. Eldho Varghese: Software, Resources. Jamboor Dinakara Adiga: Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Veena Gonibeedu Lakshmana: Resources, Formal analysis, Investigation. Rajashekara H: Resources, Formal analysis. Bhagya HP: Formal analysis, Data curation. Aswathy Chandrakumar: Writing-review \u0026amp; editing, Resources. Babli Mog: Supervision, Resources, Data curation. Rekha Kumari Meena: Software, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing -review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors sincerely acknowledge the financial assistance and institutional facilities provided by ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, Karnataka, and Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR), New Delhi, for carrying out this research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMoin A, Ali TM, Hasnain A (2024) Enhancing functional properties of rice starches through hydroxypropylation for development of reduced-fat white sauces. 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J Food Sci Technol 55:667\u0026ndash;677. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-017-2976-y\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s13197-017-2976-y\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNieto-Mazzocco E, Salda\u0026ntilde;a-Robles A, Franco-Robles E, Mireles-Arriaga AI, Mares-Mares E, Ozuna C (2022) Optimization of gluten-free muffin formulation with agavin-type fructans as fat and sucrose replacer using response surface methodology. 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Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI), p 14. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/app14199009\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/app14199009\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Cashew apple fiber, Fat replacer, Functional bakery products, Principal component analysis, Pseudofruit, Pulp","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9533118/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9533118/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eGrowing consumer demand for healthier, low-fat baked products with desirable taste and texture has driven increased research into fat alternatives. This study investigated the potential of cashew apple pulp (CAP) and cashew apple juice (CAJ) as natural fat replacers in muffins. Formulations with 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% fat replacement were assessed for their physicochemical, biochemical, oxidative, physical, and sensory properties. Incorporation of CAP and CAJ significantly 9p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) reduced fat content by 12- 84.55%, while improving the nutritional quality. Muffins prepared with CAP exhibited higher levels of carbohydrates, vitamin C, minerals, and crude fiber, while CAJ-based muffins demonstrated greater bioactive potential, with total polyphenol content of 164.81-226.03 mg GAE/100g and antioxidant activity of 1.81\u0026ndash;5.40 \u0026micro;mol TE/g. Oxidative stability analysis revealed higher free fatty acid levels in muffins enriched with CAP and CAJ, however, the control exhibited the highest peroxide values. With increasing levels of fat replacement, muffin volume and weight decreased; however, optimal height and moisture retention were achieved at the 50% substitution level. Based on the sensory evaluation of the samples, the control muffin was ranked first followed by muffins with 50% CAJ substitution (TJ3-50). Therefore, TJ3-50 was finalized as the optimized formulation, achieving a 25% less fat, 3-fold higher polyphenol content, 1.7-fold greater antioxidant activity, and a 41.75% reduction in peroxide value compared to the control. Principal Component Analysis further elucidated the impact of fat replacement with CAJ and CAP on different quality attributes of the muffins, effectively grouping the formulations based on their characteristics. These findings establish CAJ as an effective and sustainable natural fat replacer for developing nutritionally enriched, reduced-fat muffins with desirable quality attributes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Unveiling the Potential of Cashew Apple as a Fat Replacer in Low-Fat Muffins: Multivariate Study of Nutritional, Technological, Oxidation and Organoleptic Properties","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-07 08:58:27","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9533118/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6ee68c5c-e457-49ef-bef8-7dc3aaba814c","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 7th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Rejected","date":"2026-05-15T18:08:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-14T10:40:36+00:00","index":42,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-11T04:16:00+00:00","index":41,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"210627152984953494175362658262878204153","date":"2026-05-06T08:34:27+00:00","index":40,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"32310117754831279849252683556315329016","date":"2026-05-03T11:06:09+00:00","index":39,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"319749682909314097581399704712646352193","date":"2026-05-01T12:31:17+00:00","index":38,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"163370707755390270504631614441528514800","date":"2026-05-01T00:52:33+00:00","index":37,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"126088224792159831732775130012065713936","date":"2026-04-30T19:30:26+00:00","index":36,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"118646996725242825636841030132089905071","date":"2026-04-29T06:21:31+00:00","index":33,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-15T18:24:01+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-07 08:58:27","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9533118","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9533118","identity":"rs-9533118","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}