Exploring Barriers to Adult Participation in Functional Literacy Programmes: A case study of Mageme Community Learning Centre, Limpopo

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Employing an interpretivist paradigm and qualitative case study methodology, this research examined the lived experiences of six adult learners and six facilitators regarding barriers to participation in functional literacy programmes at Mageme Community Learning Centre, in Limpopo Province. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and analysed using thematic analysis. The findings reveal that barriers operate across four interconnected dimensions: situational factors (financial constraints, domestic responsibilities, distance and transport challenges); institutional factors (inadequate infrastructure, limited learning materials, inflexible scheduling); dispositional factors (social stigma, low self-confidence, gendered cultural norms); and informational factors (limited awareness, poor marketing of programmes). Additionally, the study identifies the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) as compounding these barriers through digital exclusion and infrastructure deficits. The study contributes context-specific evidence to the discourse on adult education barriers in rural South Africa and recommends targeted structural interventions, including transport subsidies, childcare provision, flexible scheduling, community mobilisation, and digital inclusion strategies to enhance participation and programme effectiveness." } { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement": [ { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "1", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/", "name": "Home" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "2", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/browse/articles", "name": "Browse" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "3", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/15-628", "name": "Exploring Barriers to Adult Participation in Functional Literacy Programmes:..." } } ] } Home Browse Exploring Barriers to Adult Participation in Functional Literacy Programmes:... ALL Metrics - Views Downloads Get PDF Get XML Cite How to cite this article Ogundiran AO, Mluleki Kenneth Cele S and Johnson LR. Exploring Barriers to Adult Participation in Functional Literacy Programmes: A case study of Mageme Community Learning Centre, Limpopo [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :628 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.179842.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Research Article Exploring Barriers to Adult Participation in Functional Literacy Programmes: A case study of Mageme Community Learning Centre, Limpopo [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review] Ayodele Olatunji Ogundiran https://orcid.org/0009-0008-9145-7490 1 , Siyanda Mluleki Kenneth Cele https://orcid.org/0009-0008-9020-0095 2 , Lineo Rose Johnson 2 Ayodele Olatunji Ogundiran https://orcid.org/0009-0008-9145-7490 1 , Siyanda Mluleki Kenneth Cele https://orcid.org/0009-0008-9020-0095 2 , Lineo Rose Johnson 2 PUBLISHED 28 Apr 2026 Author details Author details 1 Adult Community and Continuing Education, University of South Africa College of Education, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa 2 Department of Adult Community and Continuing Education, University of South Africa College of Education, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa Ayodele Olatunji Ogundiran Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Siyanda Mluleki Kenneth Cele Roles: Writing – Review & Editing Lineo Rose Johnson Roles: Writing – Review & Editing OPEN PEER REVIEW REVIEWER STATUS AWAITING PEER REVIEW Abstract Despite national policy commitments to adult education and lifelong learning, participation rates in Community Education and Training (CET) colleges and Community Learning Centers (CLCs) remain suboptimal, particularly in rural contexts. Employing an interpretivist paradigm and qualitative case study methodology, this research examined the lived experiences of six adult learners and six facilitators regarding barriers to participation in functional literacy programmes at Mageme Community Learning Centre, in Limpopo Province. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and analysed using thematic analysis. The findings reveal that barriers operate across four interconnected dimensions: situational factors (financial constraints, domestic responsibilities, distance and transport challenges); institutional factors (inadequate infrastructure, limited learning materials, inflexible scheduling); dispositional factors (social stigma, low self-confidence, gendered cultural norms); and informational factors (limited awareness, poor marketing of programmes). Additionally, the study identifies the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) as compounding these barriers through digital exclusion and infrastructure deficits. The study contributes context-specific evidence to the discourse on adult education barriers in rural South Africa and recommends targeted structural interventions, including transport subsidies, childcare provision, flexible scheduling, community mobilisation, and digital inclusion strategies to enhance participation and programme effectiveness. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Adult education, functional literacy, participation barriers, Community Learning Centres, Fourth Industrial Revolution, Rural education Corresponding Author(s) Siyanda Mluleki Kenneth Cele ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Siyanda Mluleki Kenneth Cele Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Copyright: © 2026 Ogundiran AO et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Ogundiran AO, Mluleki Kenneth Cele S and Johnson LR. Exploring Barriers to Adult Participation in Functional Literacy Programmes: A case study of Mageme Community Learning Centre, Limpopo [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :628 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.179842.1 ) First published: 28 Apr 2026, 15 :628 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.179842.1 ) Latest published: 28 Apr 2026, 15 :628 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.179842.1 ) Introduction Adult literacy remains a critical challenge in South Africa, with significant implications for socio-economic development, democratic participation, and individual empowerment. Despite substantial policy investments in adult education since 1994, approximately 12% of adults aged 20 years and above have no formal education, while an additional 18% have not completed primary schooling, significantly restricting their capacity to benefit from economic opportunities and digital transformation ( Statistics South Africa, 2023 ). The Community Education and Training (CET) college system, including Community Learning Centres (CLCs), was established to address these educational deficits and provide accessible, relevant learning opportunities for adult learners ( Department of Higher Education and Training, 2023 ). However, enrolment data reveal a concerning decline in student numbers, with recent estimates indicating only 124,638 learners registered in CET colleges in 2023/2024, down from 143,031 in 2021 ( Helen Suzman Foundation, 2024 ; Kagiso Trust, 2025 ). The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) presents both opportunities and challenges for adult education in South Africa. While digital technologies offer potential for expanding access and enhancing learning experiences, they also risk exacerbating existing inequalities, particularly in rural areas characterised by infrastructure deficits, limited connectivity, and low digital literacy ( Vurayai, 2025 ). The digital divide in Africa remains substantial, with only 17% of the adult population possessing the necessary digital literacy and devices to participate in remote learning ( Afrobarometer, 2020 ). This context creates a paradox where adult literacy programmes must simultaneously address foundational literacy needs while preparing learners for an increasingly digital economy. Mogalakwena Municipality in Limpopo Province represents a particularly challenging context for adult education. As a predominantly rural area with high poverty rates, limited infrastructure, and historical educational disadvantage, the municipality exemplifies the structural barriers facing adult learners in South Africa’s periphery. While previous research has examined adult education barriers in Limpopo ( Rakoma & Schulze, 2015 ), limited empirical focus exists on how these barriers operate within CLCs under 4IR conditions. This study addresses this gap by investigating the barriers to participation in functional literacy programmes at Mageme CLC. The study is guided by the following two research questions: 1. What are the situational, institutional, dispositional, and informational barriers that influence adult participation, engagement, and persistence in functional literacy programmes at Mageme Community Learning Centre? 2. How do Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR)-related factors compound existing barriers to adult participation in functional literacy programmes within the rural context of Mogalakwena Municipality? Literature review Barriers to adult participation in functional literacy programmes in the context of the fourth industrial revolution A substantial body of scholarship has examined the multifaceted barriers that constrain adult participation in functional literacy programmes, with the literature consistently emphasising that such barriers are complex, interrelated, and deeply embedded within specific socio-economic contexts ( Yousif, 2017 ). Previous research converges on the understanding that barriers may be conceptualised as situational, institutional, dispositional, and informational, each operating at different yet overlapping levels of influence ( Amaro et al., 2021 ). It becomes evident that these barriers do not function in isolation but rather interact in ways that reinforce exclusion, particularly in rural and historically marginalised contexts such as those found in South Africa as noted by Mkhize (2023) . More recently, the literature has extended this discussion to include the implications of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), highlighting new forms of exclusion linked to digital inequalities ( Vurayai, 2025 ). Within the current state of knowledge, situational barriers are consistently identified as among the most immediate and pervasive constraints on adult participation. A range of studies conducted across sub-Saharan Africa point to poverty and financial insecurity as primary impediments to engagement in adult education ( Oxenham et al., 2002 ; Amaro et al., 2021 ). These authors collectively argue that adults living in conditions of economic precarity are often compelled to prioritise immediate survival needs over long-term educational investment. In a related vein, Yousif (2017) demonstrates how such competing demands frequently lead to irregular attendance patterns and, ultimately, programme dropout. In the South African rural context, these economic constraints are further compounded by structural challenges related to access and mobility. Rakoma and Schulze (2015) , in their investigation, highlight that many learners are required to travel long distances often on foot to reach Community Learning Centres, with transport costs posing a significant burden for unemployed or low-income adults. More recent empirical evidence presented by Messerer, Becker and Baumert (2023) confirms that transport-related challenges remain a persistent barrier, with both the financial cost and time required for travel undermining consistent participation. The literature further demonstrates that situational barriers are not limited to economic constraints but are also shaped by social and cultural dynamics, particularly in relation to domestic responsibilities. A number of scholars have drawn attention to the gendered nature of these constraints, noting that women in rural South African communities often bear primary responsibility for childcare and household management ( Nkosi, 2014 ; Mkhize, 2023 ). In their study, Rakoma and Schulze (2015) argue that the absence of childcare facilities at learning centres exacerbates this challenge, effectively forcing women to choose between educational participation and familial obligations. Extending this analysis, Teslim (2024) introduces the temporal dimension of situational barriers, demonstrating how seasonal agricultural cycles disrupt participation, particularly during planting and harvesting periods when labour demands are at their peak. Taken together, these studies illustrate how situational barriers are deeply rooted in the everyday lived realities of adult learners and are shaped by broader socio-economic and cultural structures. Beyond these contextual constraints, the literature also foregrounds the role of institutional barriers in shaping participation outcomes. Institutional barriers are understood to arise from the organisation, structure, and delivery of adult education programmes themselves. A growing body of research on South Africa’s Community Education and Training (CET) sector identifies significant infrastructural deficits, particularly in rural Community Learning Centres (CLCs), where inadequate facilities, a lack of learning materials, and poor maintenance conditions undermine effective programme delivery ( Modise, 2023 ; Kagiso Trust, 2025 ). These findings reflect broader systemic inequalities within the education system and point to the persistent marginalisation of adult education in resource allocation. Closely linked to infrastructural concerns is the issue of curriculum relevance, which remains a persistent theme within the literature. Scholars generally contend that adult education programmes are more effective when they are aligned with learners’ immediate needs and lived experiences. However, existing research suggests that many programmes fail to achieve such alignment, resulting in diminished engagement and retention ( Kagiso Trust, 2025 ). In the context of the 4IR, this concern takes on added significance. Samuels and Singh (2025) argue that there is increasing pressure to integrate digital and vocational skills into literacy programmes; however, they note that many CLCs lack both the technological infrastructure and facilitator capacity required to deliver such programmes effectively. This gap between policy expectations and on-the-ground realities highlights the complexity of implementing 4IR-oriented reforms within resource-constrained environments. The literature further reveals that pedagogical practices within adult education may inadvertently perpetuate exclusion. In their investigation of ABET programmes in Limpopo, Rakoma and Schulze (2015) found that teaching approaches often remain teacher-centred and behaviourist, echoing the legacy of apartheid-era Bantu Education rather than reflecting the learner-centred and participatory methodologies advocated in contemporary policy. From an adult learning perspective, such approaches fail to recognise learners’ prior knowledge and experiences, thereby undermining their sense of agency and self-worth. The authors argue that these practices can be experienced as humiliating by adult learners, ultimately contributing to disengagement and dropout. In addition, Teslim (2024) highlights scheduling inflexibility as a further institutional constraint, noting that programmes that operate during standard working hours or fail to accommodate seasonal labour patterns effectively exclude many potential participants. The absence of flexible delivery modes, including evening or weekend classes, further restricts access for adults with complex work and family commitments. In addition to structural and institutional factors, the literature also foregrounds dispositional barriers, which are located within the internal psychological and social dimensions of learners. A number of studies indicate that adult learners often internalise negative perceptions of their own abilities, shaped by prior experiences of failure within formal schooling systems ( Van der Kamp, 1995 ; Rakoma & Schulze, 2015 ). These internalised beliefs, including low self-confidence, fear of failure, and perceptions of being too old to learn, serve as powerful deterrents to participation. The literature thus suggests that historical educational inequalities continue to exert a lasting influence on present engagement with learning opportunities. Closely related to these internal barriers is the issue of social stigma, which emerges as a significant constraint within many South African communities. Rakoma and Schulze (2015) observe that adult learners are frequently subjected to ridicule and social judgement, with participation in adult education sometimes perceived as inappropriate or indicative of personal failure. This stigma is further intensified when learning environments resemble those designed for children, such as the use of small furniture or child-oriented materials. Such practices not only undermine the dignity of adult learners but also reinforce negative societal perceptions of adult education. Moreover, the literature highlights the role of gender norms and cultural practices in shaping dispositional barriers. Mkhize and Vilakazi (2021) , together with UNICEF (2021) , point to practices such as early and forced marriage, including ukuthwala, as significant disruptions to girls’ educational trajectories, with long-term implications for women’s participation in adult education. At the same time, Rakoma and Schulze (2015) note that men may also experience gender-related constraints, particularly where cultural constructions of masculinity discourage participation in classes led by female educators or attended alongside women. In addition to these factors, the literature identifies informational barriers as a critical, yet often underexplored, dimension of exclusion. These barriers arise from limited awareness of available educational opportunities, inadequate guidance, and ineffective programme marketing strategies. Research conducted in rural South Africa indicates that many adults who could benefit from literacy programmes are either unaware of their existence or lack a clear understanding of their purpose and potential benefits ( Rakoma & Schulze, 2015 ). The authors further note that recruitment efforts are often informal and fragmented, relying heavily on word-of-mouth rather than systematic community mobilisation. As a result, large segments of the target population remain unreached. In the contemporary era, informational barriers are increasingly shaped by the dynamics of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, which introduces new forms of digital exclusion. While policy discourse emphasises the importance of digital skills and 4IR readiness, the literature suggests that the realities in rural South Africa are characterised by significant infrastructural and technological deficits. ICT Works (2024) , in its analysis, identifies six primary barriers to 4IR participation in Africa, namely infrastructure deficits, digital skills gaps, regulatory barriers, economic constraints, political challenges, and market fragmentation. These systemic challenges have direct implications for adult literacy programmes. Olifant, Cekiso and Boakye (2023) demonstrate that facilitators often lack the necessary training, devices, and connectivity to deliver digital components of the curriculum, while learners themselves have limited access to devices and data to support learning beyond the classroom. In this regard, Vurayai (2025) cautions that the integration of 4IR-oriented curricula, in the absence of adequate support structures, may inadvertently exacerbate existing inequalities by excluding those who are already marginalised. Furthermore, the digital divide continues to reinforce informational barriers, as access to programme information increasingly shifts to online platforms. According to the World Bank (2022) , only 25% of South Africa’s rural population has reliable internet access, thereby limiting their ability to access information about educational opportunities. This creates a paradoxical situation in which those most in need of adult education are also those least likely to access information about such opportunities. In synthesising these findings, it becomes evident that digital exclusion is not merely a technological issue but is deeply intertwined with broader socio-economic inequalities. The literature reviewed in this section demonstrates that barriers to adult participation in functional literacy programmes are multidimensional, intersecting, and mutually reinforcing. While individual studies tend to foreground specific categories of barriers, the broader body of scholarship suggests that meaningful participation is shaped by the dynamic interplay between situational realities, institutional practices, dispositional factors, and access to information, all of which are increasingly influenced by the demands and contradictions of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. This synthesis underscores the need for a holistic and contextually responsive approach to adult education, one that not only addresses traditional barriers but also engages critically with emerging forms of digital exclusion. Theoretical framework Knowles’s theory of andragogy, as advanced by Malcolm Knowles (1976) , provides a foundational lens for understanding the distinctive nature of adult learning in the present study. The theory is premised on several interrelated assumptions, namely that adult learners possess a developed self-concept and thus prefer to be self-directed; that they bring accumulated life experiences which should be recognised as valuable learning resources; that their readiness to learn is closely linked to their social roles and immediate life circumstances; and that they adopt a problem-centred orientation to learning, prioritising knowledge that is relevant to their everyday realities ( Mkhize, 2023 ). Furthermore, andragogy underscores the importance of intrinsic motivation and advocates for learning environments that are participatory, respectful, and responsive to adult learners’ needs. Within the broader field of adult education, this theoretical perspective has been widely used to critique traditional pedagogical approaches that are overly rigid, teacher-centred, and disconnected from learners’ lived experiences. As such, it offers a useful conceptual framework for examining how the design and delivery of functional literacy programmes may either enable or constrain adult participation. Knowles’s andragogical principles provide a critical framework for interpreting how various barriers to participation are produced and sustained. The existing body of research demonstrates that many institutional practices within adult education fail to align with the core assumptions of andragogy. For example, the persistence of teacher-centred and behaviourist teaching methods in Adult Basic Education and Training programmes, as identified by Rakoma and Schulze (2015) , reflects a neglect of adult learners’ self-concept and prior experiences, thereby undermining their agency and confidence. Similarly, the literature highlights that curriculum content often lacks relevance to learners’ immediate socio-economic realities ( Kagiso Trust, 2025 ), which contradicts the problem-centred orientation to learning emphasised in andragogical theory. In addition, inflexible scheduling and programme structures, which do not accommodate adults’ work commitments, domestic responsibilities, and seasonal labour patterns ( Teslim, 2024 ; Mkhize, 2023 ), illustrate a failure to recognise learners’ readiness to learn as shaped by their life circumstances. Beyond institutional barriers, situational constraints such as poverty, transport challenges, and gendered household responsibilities ( Oxenham et al., 2002 ; Rakoma & Schulze, 2015 ) further limit the extent to which learners can engage in self-directed learning, while dispositional barriers, including low self-confidence and fear of failure ( Van der Kamp, 1995 ), reflect the long-term impact of educational practices that have historically disregarded adult learners’ identities and experiences. Moreover, in the context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the literature reveals that limited digital infrastructure, inadequate facilitator training, and restricted access to devices and connectivity ( Olifant, Cekiso & Boakye, 2023 ; ICT Works, 2024 ) hinder the meaningful integration of digital learning, thereby failing to respond to learners’ evolving needs and motivations. Informational barriers, including limited awareness of programmes and the digital divide ( World Bank, 2022 ), further exacerbate exclusion by restricting access to learning opportunities. Taken together, these findings suggest that when adult education programmes do not embody andragogical principles, they inadvertently reproduce and reinforce barriers to participation. Therefore, this theoretical framework is particularly relevant to the present study, as it enables a critical interrogation of how misalignments between programme design and adult learning principles contribute to the persistence of situational, institutional, dispositional, and informational barriers. Methodology This study is underpinned by an interpretivist paradigm, which is concerned with understanding how individuals construct meaning from their lived experiences within specific social contexts. In line with this perspective, reality is viewed as socially constructed rather than objectively determined, thereby necessitating an exploration of participants’ subjective interpretations of the barriers to participation in functional literacy programmes ( Pervin & Mokhtar, 2022 ; Cao & Hu, 2014 ). This paradigm is particularly appropriate for adult education research, where learners’ experiences are shaped by a complex interplay of personal, cultural, social, and economic factors, and where prior knowledge and life experiences significantly influence learning processes ( Knowles, 1976 ; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016 ). Guided by this epistemological stance, the study adopts a qualitative approach, which, as widely acknowledged in the literature, prioritises depth of understanding, contextual sensitivity, and rich, descriptive accounts over quantification ( Khan, 2014 ; Creswell & Poth, 2016 ). More specifically, a case study design was employed to facilitate an in-depth and contextually grounded examination of barriers to participation at Mageme Community Learning Centre. Case study research, as argued by Simons (2014) , Bhattacherjee (2012) , and May and Perry (2022) , enables the researcher to investigate contemporary phenomena within their real-life settings, thereby providing nuanced insights into the experiences of both learners and facilitators. In this regard, the study focused on a purposively selected sample comprising six adult learners and six facilitators who were actively engaged in literacy programmes. Purposive sampling, as discussed by Etikan, Musa and Alkassim (2016) and Palinkas et al. (2015) , is particularly suited to qualitative inquiry as it allows for the selection of information-rich participants capable of providing detailed and diverse perspectives. To ensure variation and depth, participants were selected across dimensions such as age, gender, programme type, and duration of involvement in the programmes. Data generation was undertaken through the use of semi-structured interviews and qualitative questionnaires, which are widely recognised as effective tools for eliciting in-depth and contextually grounded data ( Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2018 ; Riley, 2010; Bryman, 2016 ; Gillham, 2007 ). Semi-structured interviews, in particular, allowed for a flexible yet focused exploration of participants’ experiences, enabling the researcher to probe emergent issues while maintaining consistency across interviews. The interview guides were informed by Cross’s (1981) framework of barriers to participation, encompassing situational, institutional, dispositional, and informational dimensions, with additional consideration given to challenges associated with the Fourth Industrial Revolution. The use of questionnaires complemented the interview data by capturing detailed written responses related to participants’ experiences and coping strategies, thereby enhancing the richness and breadth of the dataset. The data were subsequently analysed using thematic analysis, following the systematic and iterative six-phase process outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006) , which includes familiarisation with the data, generation of initial codes, identification and review of themes, and the refinement and naming of themes. This analytical approach facilitated the identification of patterns and meanings across the dataset, ensuring that the findings remained closely aligned with the research objectives while authentically representing participants’ voices ( Turner, Patel & Dlamini, 2021 ; Sevilla-Liu, 2022). In ensuring the rigour of the study, trustworthiness was established through the application of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability as proposed by Lincoln and Guba (1985) . Credibility was enhanced through prolonged engagement, triangulation of data collection methods, and member checking of emerging interpretations ( Shenton, 2004 ; Birt et al., 2016 ), while transferability was supported through the provision of thick descriptions of the research context and participants. Dependability was ensured through the maintenance of a comprehensive audit trail documenting the research process, and confirmability was achieved through reflexive journaling and the inclusion of verbatim participant accounts. Ethical considerations were rigorously adhered to, with ethical clearance obtained from the UNISA Research Ethics Committee (Protocol: [Ref#: 7188] ) and permission granted by the Limpopo Department of Higher Education and Training (Permit Dated: [2025/08/27] ). Participation was voluntary, informed consent was secured from all participants and each participant signed a consent form agreeing to participate in the study, and confidentiality was maintained through the use of pseudonyms such as “Learner 1″ and “Facilitator A”. Furthermore, interviews were conducted in private settings, and participants were assured of their right to withdraw from the study at any stage without any negative consequences. Findings and discussion The findings are presented according to Cross’s (1981) barrier categories, with additional attention to 4IR-related barriers. Participant demographics are summarised in Tables 1 and 2 . Table 1. Demographic profile of learners. Participant Gender Age range Marital status Employment status Dependents Prior education Programme AL 1 Female 35–44 Married Unemployed 3 Primary (Incomplete) Basic literacy AL 2 Male 45–54 Married Informal 4 No formal schooling Numeracy AL 3 Female 25–34 Single Self-employed 1 Primary (Complete) Sewing AL 4 Female 35–44 Widowed Unemployed 2 Grade 7 Basic literacy AL 5 Male 55+ Married Retired 5 Primary (Incomplete) Computer basics AL 6 Female 25–34 Married Informal 2 Grade 9 Business skills Table 2. Demographic profile of facilitators. Participant Gender Age range Marital status Employment status Tenure (years) Qualification Programme area FAL 1 Male 35–44 Married Full-time 5 Dip. Ed. Literacy FAL 2 Female 25–34 Single Full-time 3 B.Ed. Ad. Numeracy FAL 3 Female 45–54 Married Full-time 8 Grade 12 + Cert. Vocational FAL 4 Male 35–44 Married Full-time 4 Dip. Ad. Ed. Life Skills FAL 5 Female 25–34 Single Part-time 2 Grade 12 Sewing FAL 6 Male 55+ Married Retired 7 BA Ed. Computer Situational barriers: poverty, responsibilities, and distance Financial constraints and opportunity costs All participants identified financial constraints as the primary barrier to participation. Learners reported that the opportunity costs of attending classes lost income from informal work, transport costs, and the inability to engage in income-generating activities created insurmountable barriers for many potential participants. AL 1 explained: “Sometimes I miss classes because I must sell vegetables in the market. If I don’t sell, we don’t eat.” This finding aligns with Cross’s (1981) conceptualisation of situational barriers and confirms recent research identifying financial constraints as primary determinants of non-participation in sub-Saharan Africa ( Oxenham et al., 2002 ; Amaro, Abreu & Abreu, 2021 ). The intersection of poverty and educational participation creates a vicious cycle where those most in need of literacy skills are least able to afford the costs of acquisition. This finding supports Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy, where physiological needs must be satisfied before higher-order needs such as education can be prioritised. For adult learners in Mogalakwena, the immediate demands of survival consistently override longer-term educational investments. Transport costs emerged as a specific financial barrier. Learners travelling from outlying villages reported spending R20–R40 daily on transport, representing a significant proportion of their meagre incomes. AL 4 noted: “The taxi money is too much. Sometimes I walk, but it is far and dangerous in the dark.” This finding confirms Rakoma and Schulze’s (2015) identification of transport as a critical barrier in rural Limpopo and highlights the spatial inequalities that characterise South Africa’s geography of educational opportunity. Domestic responsibilities and gendered barriers Childcare and household responsibilities constituted significant situational barriers, particularly for women learners. AL 3 shared: “I want to learn, but my baby cries and there is no one to look after him.” The absence of childcare facilities at the CLC meant that women with young children faced impossible choices between their educational aspirations and caregiving responsibilities. This gendered barrier reflects broader patterns of women’s unpaid care work in South Africa and aligns with feminist critiques of adult education that fail to accommodate reproductive labour ( Mkhize, 2023 ). Male learners also reported domestic barriers, though of a different nature. AL 2 explained: “My wife is sick, so I must cook and clean when I come home. By the time I finish, I am too tired for homework.” This finding suggests that while women face barriers related to primary caregiving responsibilities, men may encounter barriers when they deviate from traditional gender roles by assuming domestic duties. Distance and infrastructure deficits Geographical distance combined with poor infrastructure created significant access barriers. Learners from remote villages reported walking up to 10 kilometres to reach the CLC, often in difficult weather conditions. The lack of reliable public transport in rural Mogalakwena exacerbated these challenges. FAL 3 observed: “Some learners come from very far. When it rains, they cannot cross the rivers, so they miss class.” Seasonal factors further complicated access. During the rainy season, dirt roads became impassable, effectively excluding learners from outlying areas for weeks at a time. This finding highlights the intersection of environmental and infrastructural factors in creating barriers to participation. Institutional barriers: programme design and delivery Inadequate infrastructure and resources Facilitators and learners consistently identified inadequate infrastructure as a significant barrier. The CLC operated from a repurposed primary school building with limited space, poor lighting, and inadequate sanitation. FAL 2 noted: “We share one classroom for three different groups. The noise makes it difficult to concentrate.” This finding confirms recent research documenting infrastructure deficits in rural CET colleges and CLCs ( Kagiso Trust, 2025 ; Modise, 2023 ). The shortage of learning materials emerged as a related institutional barrier. Learners reported sharing textbooks among three or four students, limiting their ability to review content outside class hours. FAL 1 explained: “We don’t have enough books. Sometimes learners must copy from the board, which takes time and makes them feel like children.” This resource constraint not only limits learning but also reinforces the humiliation that can accompany adult literacy education. Curriculum relevance and pedagogical approaches While the study focused on barriers rather than programme effectiveness, participants identified curriculum relevance as influencing their motivation and persistence. Learners valued practical skills that could be immediately applied to generate income or improve household management. AL 6 explained: “I like the business skills because I can use them now. But some things seem not useful for us here in the village.” Facilitators reported pressure to cover standardised curricula that did not always align with learners’ immediate needs or the local economic context. FAL 4 observed: “The curriculum says we must teach certain things, but the learners want to know how to make money now, not later.” This tension between standardised provision and contextual relevance represents a persistent institutional barrier in South African adult education ( Kagiso Trust, 2025 ). Scheduling inflexibility The CLC operated on a fixed schedule that did not accommodate learners’ diverse work patterns and responsibilities. Classes ran during standard daytime hours, excluding those engaged in informal work or seasonal agricultural labour. AL 4 noted: “If I do not sit at my stall, someone else takes my spot. I can’t lose customers for a class.” This finding confirms the need for flexible scheduling identified in previous research ( Teslim, 2024 ) and highlights how institutional structures designed for conventional educational contexts exclude working adults. Dispositional barriers: stigma, confidence, and identity Social stigma and shame Social stigma surrounding adult literacy emerged as a powerful dispositional barrier. Learners reported feeling ashamed of their illiteracy and fearful of community judgment. AL 2 explained: “I did not tell my neighbours I am coming here. They will laugh and say I am too old for school.” This finding confirms Rakoma and Schulze’s (2015) identification of stigma as a significant barrier in Limpopo and illustrates how internalised shame can inhibit participation. The stigma was compounded by the physical environment of the CLC. Operating from a primary school and using similar materials created what learners experienced as a humiliating resemblance to childhood schooling. AL 1 noted: “The chairs are small like for children. I feel shame when I must sit there.” This finding highlights how institutional practices can reinforce dispositional barriers by triggering feelings of inadequacy and shame. Low self-confidence and fear of failure Many learners reported low self-confidence stemming from prior educational failure. AL 5 shared: “I tried school before and failed. I am afraid I will fail again.” This fear of failure represents a significant psychological barrier that can prevent initial enrolment or lead to early dropout. Facilitators recognised this barrier and employed encouragement and incremental success strategies to build learner confidence. FAL 2 described her approach: “I start with very easy things so they can succeed. When they see they can do it, they want to learn more.” This finding aligns with Freire’s (1968) emphasis on dialogue and the affirmation of learners’ capabilities as essential for overcoming internalised oppression and building the confidence necessary for educational engagement. Gendered cultural norms Cultural norms regarding gender roles created specific dispositional barriers. Female learners reported resistance from male partners who viewed their educational participation as threatening to household hierarchies. FAL 5 noted: “Some husbands don’t want their wives to come here. They say it makes the women too independent.” This finding confirms the persistence of patriarchal barriers to women’s education in rural South Africa ( Mkhize, 2023 ; Nkosi, 2014 ). Conversely, some male learners expressed discomfort with the female-dominated environment of the CLC. AL 2 observed: “Most learners are women. Sometimes I feel strange being the only man.” This gender dynamic reflects broader patterns of male disengagement from adult education and highlights how programme demographics can create dispositional barriers for underrepresented groups. Informational barriers: awareness and access Limited programme awareness Participants reported that many eligible adults in their communities were unaware of the CLC or misunderstood its purpose. AL 3 explained: “My neighbour did not know this place exists. She thought it was only for children.” This informational barrier limits recruitment and perpetuates low participation rates. Facilitators acknowledged that marketing efforts were limited by resource constraints and lack of systematic outreach strategies. FAL 4 noted: “We put up posters, but many people here cannot read. We need to go house to house, but we don’t have time or transport for that.” This finding illustrates the intersection of informational barriers with literacy levels those most in need of services are least able to access information about them through conventional channels. Digital information gap The migration of programme information to digital platforms created additional informational barriers. The CLC relied increasingly on social media and online registration, excluding adults without digital access or literacy. FAL 6 observed: “We put information on WhatsApp, but many learners don’t have smartphones or data.” This finding highlights how digitalisation, rather than expanding access, can create new forms of exclusion for marginalised populations ( Afrobarometer, 2020 ; Sun et al., 2024 ). Fourth industrial revolution barriers: digital exclusion Infrastructure and connectivity deficits The 4IR presented unique barriers for learners and facilitators at Mageme CLC. Limited electricity supply meant that computer-based learning was unreliable and intermittent. FAL 6 explained: “When the power goes off, we cannot use the computers. Sometimes we wait for hours in the dark.” This infrastructure deficit represents a fundamental barrier to 4IR readiness in rural areas ( ICT works, 2024 ; Vurayai, 2025 ). Internet connectivity was similarly problematic. The CLC had limited bandwidth that could not support multiple users simultaneously, making digital literacy instruction difficult. FAL 3 noted: “The internet is too slow. When I try to show them something online, we wait and wait. The learners get bored.” Device and data poverty Learners lacked access to devices for practising digital skills outside class. Only two of the six learner participants owned smartphones, and none had computers at home. AL 5 explained: “I want to practise what I learn, but I have no computer. The phone is too small for typing.” This device poverty represents a significant barrier to digital skill acquisition and reinforces inequalities in 4IR readiness ( Sun et al., 2024 ). The cost of data presented an additional barrier. Even learners with smartphones could not afford the data required for online learning or research. FAL 2 noted: “We suggest they use their phones to practise, but they say data is too expensive. One gigabyte costs more than their transport to class.” Facilitator digital competency Facilitators themselves reported limited training in digital pedagogy, creating a barrier to effective 4IR-oriented instruction. FAL 1 admitted: “I am not comfortable with the computer myself. How can I teach others?” This finding confirms recent research indicating that facilitator readiness for 4IR teaching is uneven and that professional development in digital pedagogy is urgently needed ( Samuels & Singh, 2025 ; Teane, 2024 ). Discussion This study’s findings confirm and extend previous research on barriers to adult education participation in South Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. The identification of situational, institutional, dispositional, and informational barriers aligns with Cross’s (1981) foundational framework and Rakoma and Schulze’s (2015) application of this framework in Limpopo. However, the study extends this analysis by examining how these barriers operate in the specific context of a CLC under 4IR conditions, revealing new dimensions of exclusion and inequality. The prominence of financial and opportunity cost barriers confirms the continued relevance of economic explanations for non-participation. In contexts of extreme poverty, adult education represents a luxury that many cannot afford, regardless of their motivation or awareness of benefits. This finding supports critiques of human capital approaches that assume rational calculation of long-term returns without accounting for immediate survival imperatives ( Oxenham et al., 2002 ). The study suggests that without structural interventions to address poverty such as stipends, transport subsidies, or income support adult education programmes will continue to exclude those most in need. The gendered nature of barriers identified in this study confirms feminist analyses of adult education that highlight how programmes often fail to accommodate women’s domestic responsibilities and reproductive labour ( Mkhize, 2023 ). The absence of childcare facilities, inflexible scheduling, and patriarchal resistance to women’s education create a hostile environment for female learners despite their higher participation rates. This finding suggests that gender-transformative approaches are needed that address not only practical barriers but also the underlying power relations that constrain women’s educational participation. The persistence of stigma and shame as dispositional barriers highlights the psychological dimensions of educational exclusion. Adult learners’ internalisation of negative stereotypes about illiteracy creates powerful psychological barriers that can prevent initial enrolment or lead to early dropout. This finding supports Freire’s (1968) emphasis on conscientisation and the need for educational processes that affirm learners’ dignity and capabilities rather than reinforcing deficit perspectives. The intersection of institutional and dispositional barriers is particularly significant. When programmes resemble childhood schooling through physical environment, materials, or pedagogy; they trigger feelings of shame and inadequacy that compound dispositional barriers. This finding suggests that institutional redesign is necessary not only for practical effectiveness but also for psychological accessibility. The 4IR-related barriers identified in this study represent a new and concerning dimension of educational inequality. While policy discourse emphasises digital inclusion and 4IR readiness, the reality in rural CLCs is one of digital exclusion compounded by infrastructure deficits, device poverty, and limited facilitator capacity. This creates a risk that 4IR-oriented curricula may actually widen rather than narrow educational inequalities, as those without digital access are further marginalised ( Vurayai, 2025 ). The study’s findings have implications for theory as well as practice. They suggest that barrier frameworks must be updated to account for digital exclusion and the specific challenges of 4IR contexts. They also highlight the need for intersectional approaches that recognise how barriers compound and interact how poverty, gender, location, and digital exclusion create overlapping disadvantages that cannot be addressed through single interventions. Limitations of the study Despite the above insights, the study has some limitations. First, the sample was limited to learners and facilitators at a single community learning centre, which may limit the generalisability of the findings to other contexts or regions. While Mogalakwena Municipality shares characteristics with other rural South African areas, specific local conditions such as distance from urban centres, availability of alternative livelihood opportunities, and community attitudes toward adult education may produce unique barrier configurations not replicated elsewhere. Second, the qualitative design relied heavily on self-reported experiences, which may be influenced by social desirability bias or selective recall. Participants may have underreported stigma-related barriers or overemphasised their motivation to learn, potentially skewing the understanding of actual participation obstacles. Additionally, the cross-sectional nature of data collection captured barriers at a single point in time, missing seasonal variations in barrier intensity such as agricultural cycles or school fee payment periods that significantly affect participation. Third, the study focused primarily on learners’ and facilitators’ perspectives, with limited input from local authorities, community stakeholders, or family members of participants. These additional perspectives could have provided more comprehensive understanding of how community-level factors and household dynamics create or sustain participation barriers. The absence of direct input from policymakers also limits understanding of how resource allocation decisions at provincial and national levels constrain local programme implementation. Based on these limitations, suggestions for further research include expanding studies to multiple community learning centres across different regions to compare barrier configurations and identify context-specific mitigation strategies. Future research could also adopt a mixed-methods approach, incorporating quantitative measures of barrier frequency, economic impact assessment, and participation pattern analysis alongside qualitative narratives. Additionally, exploring the perspectives of community leaders, family members, and policymakers would provide a more holistic understanding of the multi-level factors affecting functional literacy participation. Investigating the effectiveness of specific barrier-reduction interventions such as transport subsidies, childcare provision, or flexible scheduling would further illuminate practical strategies for enhancing adult education access in resource-constrained settings. Conclusion This study investigated the barriers to adult participation in functional literacy programmes at Mageme Community Learning Centre in Mogalakwena Municipality, Limpopo, and explored how these barriers intersect with socio-economic conditions, gendered responsibilities, institutional constraints, and social stigma to constrain engagement. The findings reveal that participation barriers are not isolated obstacles but interconnected elements of structural disadvantage that require coordinated, multi-level intervention. The study demonstrates that functional literacy programmes at Mageme CLC while theoretically available to all adults are in practice inaccessible to many due to poverty-induced opportunity costs, gendered care responsibilities, inadequate infrastructure, and social stigma associated with adult illiteracy. These barriers operate simultaneously and interactively: economic insecurity exacerbates transport difficulties, care responsibilities limit scheduling flexibility, and stigma reduces initial enrolment. The persistence of these barriers despite learners’ evident motivation and facilitators’ dedication underscores that individual aspiration alone cannot overcome systemic obstacles without targeted structural support. The findings reveal that adult learners possess significant intrinsic motivation and resilience, walking long distances, sacrificing income, and persisting despite community scepticism. However, this motivation is progressively eroded by unaddressed structural barriers, leading to intermittent attendance, programme dropout, and unrealised potential for socio-economic transformation. Participants reported that when they could overcome barriers and attend consistently, literacy and numeracy skills improved financial management, vocational training offered pathways for entrepreneurship, and social recognition enhanced family and community standing. These outcomes demonstrate that functional literacy programmes extend beyond basic education, serving as catalysts for individual empowerment and community development but only when participation barriers are systematically addressed. The article also highlights the critical role of facilitators in mediating barrier effects. Through patient, learner-centred pedagogical approaches that accommodate irregular attendance and provide encouragement, facilitators partially compensate for structural deficiencies. However, facilitator efforts are constrained by their own working conditions multi-centre assignments, limited resources, and inadequate infrastructure that undermine programme consistency and credibility. The relational quality of adult education, emphasising respect, individualised attention, and practical relevance, emerges as essential for sustaining motivation in the face of persistent barriers. Implications of the study are manifold. For policymakers and programme designers, the findings suggest that functional literacy programmes should integrate structural supports—transport subsidies, flexible scheduling, childcare provision, and adequate learning materials—to reduce barriers to participation. The evidence underscores that barrier mitigation requires multi-sectoral collaboration, engaging transport, social development, and gender equality sectors alongside education authorities. For CLC management, the findings support investment in infrastructure, facilitator stability, and community engagement to enhance programme accessibility and credibility. The link between barrier reduction and sustainable development suggests that adult education policy should prioritise the most marginalised communities, ensuring that 4IR skill development does not exclude those with foundational literacy needs. In conclusion, this study affirms that addressing barriers to adult participation in functional literacy programmes is essential for realising the transformative potential of adult education in rural South Africa. Without systematic attention to the economic, institutional, and social obstacles that constrain engagement, literacy programmes risk perpetuating rather than alleviating educational inequality. For Mageme CLC and similar rural centres, the path forward requires sustained policy commitment, adequate resourcing, and community partnership to ensure that motivated adult learners can overcome barriers and access the education that enables their empowerment, dignity, and full participation in society. Declaration on the use of artificial intelligence tools We hereby declare that no Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools were used in the preparation of this manuscript. We further affirm that we are fully responsible for the accuracy, originality, and overall integrity of this work. All ideas, analyses, and interpretations presented are our own, and all sources have been appropriately acknowledged in accordance with accepted academic standards. Data availability We would like to provide clarification regarding the availability of the data used in this study. The data for this research is currently securely stored under the supervision of the study supervisor, as it was originally collected for the completion of a Master’s degree. In accordance with the University’s data management policy, such data is subject to restricted access and may only be made available after a period of five years from the date of collection. As a result, the dataset cannot be accessed at this time. This restriction is in place to ensure compliance with institutional ethical guidelines and to protect the integrity and confidentiality of the research participants. For further clarity about the issue of data, you can contact Dr SMK Cele at: [email protected] , as the supervisor of the study. 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Publisher Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 28 Apr 2026 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Adult Community and Continuing Education, University of South Africa College of Education, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa 2 Department of Adult Community and Continuing Education, University of South Africa College of Education, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa Ayodele Olatunji Ogundiran Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Siyanda Mluleki Kenneth Cele Roles: Writing – Review & Editing Lineo Rose Johnson Roles: Writing – Review & Editing Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Article Versions (1) version 1 Published: 28 Apr 2026, 15:628 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.179842.1 Copyright © 2026 Ogundiran AO et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Ogundiran AO, Mluleki Kenneth Cele S and Johnson LR. Exploring Barriers to Adult Participation in Functional Literacy Programmes: A case study of Mageme Community Learning Centre, Limpopo [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :628 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.179842.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. 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