Ethnomycology of the Guajajara indigenous peoples of Maranhão, Northeast Brazil

Ethnomycology of the Guajajara indigenous peoples of Maranhão, Northeast Brazil | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Ethnomycology of the Guajajara indigenous peoples of Maranhão, Northeast Brazil Janete Barros da Silva, Ronildo Fernandes Guajajara, Larissa Trierveiler-Pereira, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8526491/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The Cerrado biome is home to diverse traditional communities, including indigenous peoples. The Guajajara are present in this biome, occupying areas from the state of Maranhão to the northeast of Pará. Considering the importance of research into ethnomycological knowledge in indigenous communities for the preservation of culture and the environment, especially in relation to macrofungi, the aim of this study was to document and compile the uses of macrofungi by the original Guajajara peoples to evaluate and revitalize traditional knowledge among indigenous generations. The study was carried out in the Cana Brava reserve, located in Barra do Corda, in the state of Maranhão (northeast Brazil). The methodological approach used rapport techniques, semistructured interviews, guided tours, checklist interviews with photo albums and fresh or dried fungal samples, field notebooks and quantitative analysis via Use Value. Ninety-six indigenous people from the Pé de Galinha (28.2%) and Três Irmãos (71.8%) villages were interviewed, 54.1% female and 45.9% male. Discourse analysis revealed that Guajajara once used at least six of the 42 species documented. Although they no longer use them in their diet, they agree that Auricularia tremellosa (Fr.) Pat. was used in the diet of their ancestors. For recreational purposes, they use Calvatia rugosa (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) D.A. Reid, Geastrum hariotii Lloyd. and G. javanicum Lev. and occasionally for medicinal purposes: Pycnoporus sanguineus (L.) Murrill and Lentinus crinitus (L.) Fr. We can be sure that these villages do not have a total aversion to macrofungi and can be considered partially mycophilic. Vertical transmission is responsible for the dynamics of macrofungal knowledge. This study can contribute both to the appreciation and conservation of traditions and to Brazilian fungal biodiversity. Mycology Biodiversity Ethnomycological knowledge Uses Perception Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction Ethnomycology, which includes cultural, recreational, medicinal and edible uses, is an area of research focused on the interaction of fungi with local communities ( 48 , 78 , 79 ). Owing to their ecological, medicinal, nutritional and health-promoting properties, macrofungi are gaining paramount importance among scientific and research communities around the world ( 1 ). They have macroscopic reproductive structures, called ascomata and basidiomata, and are important representatives of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota ( 33 ). Various estimates have been proposed to elucidate the number of fungal species worldwide ( 29 , 40 , 10 ). The most widely accepted estimates between 2.5 and 3 million species were proposed by ( 30 ) and revised by ( 43 ). Few ethnomycological studies have been carried out in Brazil, mostly focusing on indigenous populations in the Amazon ( 22 , 60 ). In addition, ethnomycological studies on indigenous ethnic groups in Brazil are relevant because of the research of the British botanist Ghillean Prance in 1967 with indigenous Yanomamis from the Amazon. In the 1970s, Prance discovered the use of mushrooms as part of the Yanomami diet ( 52 , 53 ). In addition, the publication by ( 21 ) on the ethnomycology of Caiabi, Txicão and Txucurramãe brought valuable contributions between the original peoples and the consumption of macrofungi. Indigenous communities have been using their ethnomycological knowledge on the collection of wild macrofungi for different daily uses since ancient times, such as medicinal, recreational or edible, and they have been considered secondary food resources ( 9 , 49 ). According to ( 26 ), ethnomycological research in Brazil has gone through two periods: utilitarian and cognitivist ( 72 ). The utilitarian ones, carried out by naturalists and anthropologists, took place before the 1960s and described the use of fungi by different Brazilian indigenous groups in a generic way. On the other hand, research with a cognitive bias was marked by the work of ( 18 ). Ethnomycological research in Brazil is experiencing a third period ( 71 ), called the period of diversity, in which the focus of research is no longer purely related to the ethnomycological knowledge of Amazonian indigenous people but also of other communities, both traditional (such as quilombolas) and local and/or rural communities ( 17 , 32 , 51 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 68 ). According to ( 63 ), ethnomycological investigations, in addition to having a cognitivist and diversity bias, have revealed new focuses for the knowledge and investigation of fungi through perception studies on the teaching of mycology (45, 54,) carried out in rural and indigenous schools in Brazil. Given that studies are still insufficient in traditional communities and people, there is a need for research aimed at the original Guajajara peoples of the state of Maranhão to rescue ethnomycological knowledge in communities and its transmission to generations. To carry out this research, the following problem was posed: "How are macrofungi perceived in the environment, and how is ethnomycological knowledge passed through the generations? Are macrofungal species used by the Guajajara ethnic group in Barra do Corda, Maranhão? The aim of this study was to document and compile the uses of macrofungi by the indigenous Guajajara people who live in the Cana Brava reserve, Barra do Corda-Maranhão, to evaluate and recover ethnomycological knowledge between indigenous generations. Materials and methods Study area The villages of Pé de Galinha (5 0 29' 30" S; 45 0 14'23" W) and Três Irmãos (5 (0 ) 40'00" S; 45 0 29'43.0" W) are located in the Cana Brava Indigenous Reserve in the city of Barra do Corda in Maranhão (Northeast Region of Brazil) and are 45 km from the city's urban center (Fig. 1 ). The municipality is located in the Alto Mearim and Grajaú microregion, 450 km from the capital of Maranhão, São Luís, and 350 km from the capital of Piauí, Teresina. Barra do Corda has a population of 84,532 inhabitants and a GDP per capita of 10,004.24 ( 31 ). It has a land area of 5,187.673 km² and a population density of 16.29 inhabitants per km² in the Cerrado region. In Maranhão, the climatic seasons are well defined, with a rainy season from January to May, a dry season from June to December and a semihumid climate ( 16 ). With very diverse vegetation, the state has the formations of the Amazon Rainforest in the west, the Cocais Forest in the east, mangroves in the coastal region and the Cerrado. The main indigenous lands include Alto Turiaçú, Araribóia, Carú, Awá, Krikati, Cana Brava, Kanela, Bacurizinho, and Porquinhos, lands that are home to the Guajajara and Canela do Maranhão ethnic groups ( 6 ). According to ( 14 ), the villages of Guajajara extend from the municipality of Barra do Corda/MA to the northeastern state of Pará. Those located in Pará are called Tembé but share the same language and cultural traditions ( 77 ). Guajajara also uses Portuguese to communicate. Ethical aspects of the research The ethnomycological study, which was both qualitative and quantitative, was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee (CEP) of the Federal University of Piauí (UFPI), with opinion number 6.737.491, and was also approved by the National Research Ethics Commission (CONEP), with number 6.971.260. The National Foundation for Indigenous Peoples (FUNAI), under number 000173.0012899/2023, is in the National System for the Management of Genetic Heritage and Associated Traditional Knowledge (SISGEN), under number A360372, and in SISBIO, under number 84798. Before each interview, the informant signed the informed consent form, in compliance with Resolutions 304/2000 and 510/2016 of the National Health Council (CNS), to clarify possible doubts about the work, risks and/or benefits, and possible damage that may arise in the research, in addition to the Consent for Use of Image. Up to three people from the same household, a couple, a daughter or son of legal age (> 18 years), were interviewed individually to verify the transmission of knowledge. Study sample Pé de Galinha village comprises 12 families (58 indigenous people), whereas Três Irmãos village comprises 52 families (approximately 230 indigenous people), ranging from infants to elderly individuals. A total of 96 participants, including Guajajara indigenous men and women, were interviewed: 27 indigenous people in Pé de Galinha Village (28.2%) and 69 in Três Irmãos Village (71.8%). The interviewees were classified according to the age group established by the ( 31 ) as young people (18 to 24), adults (25 to 59) and elderly individuals (aged 60 and over). Among those interviewed, 20 were young people, 52 were adults, and 24 were elderly. The sample universe was established via the Comentto calculator ( https://comentto.com/calculadora-amostral/ ), with a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error. Techniques and field research To build rapprochement and trust, the rapport technique was used, which, according to ( 8 ), is necessary to strengthen contact with indigenous people and to ensure that the researcher is allowed to stay in the field. A pilot excursion was carried out in September 2021 to make the first contact with indigenous people, which was mediated with the support of a religious leader (Matusalém Braga), to obtain the chiefs' consent to carry out the study. A total of 15 excursions were conducted, each lasting three to five days for data collection. These excursions took place during the months of January to May, the rainy season, and were best suited for collecting macrofungi. Followed by August to November, when semi-structured interviews were conducted. The semi-structured interviews ( 5 ) were carried out via forms with open and closed questions about socioeconomic data (gender, age, schooling, profession, length of time living in the community, monthly income, and type of housing) and information about fungal knowledge and its uses, food, medicine, and recreation, as proposed by ( 44 ). At the same time, the Checklist interview technique (Bernard, 1988) was used, which uses a photographic catalog as a visual stimulus, a reinforcing resource at the time of the interviews, to recover ethnomycological information about the species occurring in the study area (Fig. 2 ), according to ( 38 ). Thus, before this technique was first applied, photographs were taken of the macrofungi occurring around the village and nearby forests, in addition to collecting the samples. These photographs were printed on an Epson (375) multifunction printer, A4 sheet size (297x210 millimeters), with color images to be used during the interviews. In addition to the images, macrofungal samples (fresh or dried) were used. Collecting ethnomycological data Mycological material with vernacular names was collected via guided tours according to ( 2 , 8 ). Collections were carried out on different substrates (trunks, thin branches, soil and litter or leaf litter) with the aid of materials such as stylus or penknife, ruler, pencil and pen, field notebooks for taking notes, paper bags and plastic boxes with dividers ( 74 ). At the time of collection, the macrofungi were sized and photographed (RedMi 9pro camera/cell phone and iPhone 15), and their morphological characteristics (size, color, substrate) were analyzed ( 75 ). The samples were packed in transparent collection boxes, separated so as not to damage the structures and then transported in fresh cardboard boxes to observe their structures for macro- and microscopic identification. To help with identification, the study relied on the partnership of LEMic-UFSCar (Laboratory of Mycological Studies at the Federal University of São Carlos). The samples were then herborized and deposited in the collection of the Graziela Barroso Herbarium (TEPB) at the Federal University of Piauí (UFPI). To investigate the interviewees' perceptions of ethnotaxonomy, the following questions were asked: How do you know this organism in nature? Which ones do you use (for food, medicine or recreation)? The aim was to obtain data on macrofungi, such as popular names, uses, notions of ethnotaxonomy, ecology and the transmission of knowledge through local narratives. Identified three fundamental types of ways in which knowledge can be transmitted socially: 1) vertical transmission (intrafamily): transmission from parents to their offspring, which is a transmission within the same genealogy; 2) horizontal transmission (extrafamily): transmission between any individuals of the same generation, with a kinship relationship of limited importance; and 3) oblique transmission (transfamily): transmission of knowledge from members of a given generation arising from digital technologies, the internet, books, TV, and radio ( 69 ). Data analysis The Mycobank database ( www.mycobank.org/name ) was used to look up the spelling of species and family names, as well as the abbreviations of authors' names ( 41 ). We used the value of use (VU) index proposed by ( 50 ), adapted by ( 55 ) and adapted by ( 35 ), where the sum of the number of uses given by the informant (U) is divided by the total number of informants (n) who cited it, thus obtaining the following formula: VU=(ΣU)/n. In the analysis, a distinction was made between citations of current use value (current VU) and potential use value (potential VU). This index therefore assumes the relative importance of the macrofungus by the number of uses it has. Current VU considers the uses still routinely performed by the informants, and potential VU considers the uses present in the memory but that are no longer used by them ( 35 , 36 ). Results and discussion Profile of the interviewees Considering the objectives of knowing and documenting the diversity and uses of macrofungi in the two indigenous villages of Barra do Corda, Maranhão, and on the basis of information and knowledge about macrofungi, 96 informants took part in the study: 52 women (54.1%) and 44 men (45.9%). Women's participation is focused on domestic care, agricultural activities and handicrafts. Men's activities include fishing, hunting and farming. According to the respondents' schooling, 27% were illiterate, 42% had incomplete primary education, 29% had incomplete secondary education, and 2% had higher education. The interviewees had lived in the villages for more than 14 years. Agriculture (planting manioc, cassava, corn and rice, and sweet potatoes), fishing and hunting (paca, agouti, armadillo, deer, and wild rabbit) and livestoc farming (raising cattle, bush pigs-caititu and chickens) are the sources of income and food for Guajajara indigenous families, in addition to utilitarian handicrafts, such as making hammocks, necklaces, bracelets, headdresses used in festivities such as head adornment (Guajajara means owners of the headdress), maracas, wooden toys and aid from the Bolsa Família Indígena (the Brazilian government's social program). Recognition of macrofungi and vernacular names The macrofungi were organized into 16 families, distributed in the phyla Basidiomycota (15 families) and Ascomycota (only one: Rutstroemiaceae). The Polyporaceae family had the greatest number of species ( 11 ), followed by the Ganodermataceae and Marasmiaceae families, both with five species (Fig. 3 ). In this study, the diversity of the Basidiomycota phylum was greater than that of the Ascomycota phylum, which was expected since most macroscopic fungi are basidiomycetes. The Basidiomycota include several well-known representatives, including edible mushrooms. This phylum is characterized by the formation of the basidium, a microstructure that produces sexual spores ( 54 ). Within the Basidiomycota phylum, the Polyporaceae family stands out for its greater diversity of species, with a total of 42 species documented (Table 1 ). Gibertoni and Drechsler-Santos corroborated this finding, considering the Polyporaceae family to be among the most diverse fungi in Brazil ( 25 ). In any case, it is necessary to consider that the representatives of this family are recognized for having stipitate basidiomes and a dimitic hyphal system, with skeleton-conective hyphae or of the "bovist" type, i.e., with a central axis, presenting different types of branching, generally arboriform with dichotomous branches and branched segments ending in slender tips; it contains generative hyphae with rings and cylindrical to subcylindrical basidiospores ( 60 ). The vernacular name most often cited by the Guajaraja was urupé , a term they used to refer to species known to be found in or around the village. A term is then added to the lexeme, resulting in the following combination: orange mushroom (Pycnoporus sanguineus) , brown mushroom (Auricularia tremellosa) , ball mushroom (Calvatia rugosa) , hair mushroom (Lentinus crinitus) and earth flower (Geastrum hariotti). With respect to nomenclature, in the classic work of Rodrigues the term used by the indigenous people in the Tupi-Guarani language is "urupê", ( 57 ) with a closed sound, which differs from our findings for the denomination of mushroom among the original Guajajara peoples, where the pronunciation is with an open sound and the word is written in the "Tenentehara" language with the acute accent "urupé". In the villages studied, few names are related to and attributed to macrofungi (Table 1 ), and they mostly refer to the location of the "forest", the environment where they are found, as well as resembling "plants". The same name urupé can be attributed to more than one species. The results corroborate those presented by Reis et al. regarding Karajás' indigenous peoples. According to previous studies, these people sometimes recognize and call fungal plants ( 55 ). Table 1 Occurrence and diversity of macrofungal species documented in the Pé de Galinha and Três Irmãos villages, Cana Brava Indigenous Reserve, Barra do Corda - MA, Brazil Family/Species SUB NoV NoV Guajajara USES NCI VUA VUP 1. Agaricaceae Singer. Calvatia rugosa (Berk.) Curtis SOL Mushroom Ball Urupé -zeapo'a LUD 7 0,20 0,08 Leucocoprinus birnbaumii (Corda.) Singer TEC Mushroom Urupé NC 0 - - Leucocoprinus cretaceus (Bull.) Locq. TEC Mushroom Urupé NC 0 - - 2. Auriculariaceae Fr. Auricularia cornea Ehrenb. Auricularia tremellosa (Fr.) Pat. TEC TEC Brown mushroom Urupé -ipyn-pitág COM 0 2 - 0 0 0,08 3.Clavulinaceae Donk. Clavulina cristata (Holmsk.) J. Schröt. SOL Mushroom Urupé NC 0 - - 4.Dacrymycetaceae Martin. Dacryopinax spathularia (Schwein.) G.W. Martin TEC Mushroom Urupé NC 0 - - 5. Ganodermataceae Donk. Amauroderma exile (Berk.) Torrend Amauroderma rude (Berk.) Torrend Amauroderma sp. Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.) P. Karst. complex Ganorderma sp. TVI TVI TVITVI TEC Mushroom Urupé NC NC NC 0 - - 0 - - Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Urupé Urupé Urupé Urupé 0 - - 0 0 - - - - NC NC 0 0 - - - - 6. Meruliaceae Flavodon flavus (Klotzsch) Ryvarden TEC Mushroom Urupé NC 0 - - 7. Geastraceae Corda. Geastrum hariotii Lloyd. Geastrum javanicum Lév. SOL SOL Mushroom Mushroom Iputyr - ywy Iputyr - ywy LUD LUD 4 5 0,12 0,12 0,08 0,04 8.Hygrophoraceae Lotsy. Hygrocybe coccinea (Schaef.) P. Kumm. SOL Mushroom Urupé NC 0 - - 9.Hymenogastraceae Vittad. Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm. Phellinus gilvus (Schwein.) Pat. Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer Marasmiellus ramealis (Bull.) Singer Marasmiellus sp. Marasmius sullivantii Mont. Marasmius sp.1 Marasmius sp.2 Trogia cantharelloides (Mont.) Pat. TEC TEC EST TEC TEC FOM FOM SUN Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Urupé Urupé Urupé Urupé Urupé Urupé Urupé Urupé NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.Mycenaceae Overeem. Mycena chlorophos (Berk) Sacc. Mycena vulgaris (Pers.) P. Kumm FOM FOM Mushroom Mushroom Urupé Urupé NC NC 0 0 - - - - 11.Omphalotaceae Bresinsky. Gymnopus sp.1 Gymnopus sp.2 SOL SOL Mushroom Mushroom Urupé Urupé NC NC 0 - - 0 0 - - - - 12.Polyporaceae Gäumann. Hexagonia hydnoides (Sw.) M. Fidalgo Lentinus brumalis (Pers.) Zmitr. Lentinus crinitus (L.) Fr. Fomes fomentarius (L.) Fr. Pycnoporus sanguineus (L.) Murril Trametes betulina (L.) Pilat Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd Trametes sp. Polyporus sp. TVI SOL SOL SOL TVI TEC TEC TEC TEC Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom Urupé Urupé- i'aw Urupé Urupé Urupé Urupé-náraz Urupé Urupé Urupé Urupé NC MED NC NC MED NC NC NC NC NC 0 - - 0 - - 0 - - 0 - - 0 - - 0 - - 0 - - 0 0 0 - - - - - - 13. Phallaceae rope Phallus indusiatus Vent. SOL Mushroom Urupé NC 0 - - 14. Rutstroemiaceae Jen Koe; Sch. Rutstroemia echinophila (Bull.) Höhn. TEC Mushroom Urupé NC 0 - - 15. Schizophyllaceae Quel. Schizophyllum commune Fr. TVI Mushroom Urupé NC 0 - - 16. Stereaceae Pilát. Stereum ostrea (Blume & Ness.) Fr. TEC Mushroom Urupé NC 0 - - Substrate (SUB); Soil (SOL); Decomposing Trunk (TEC); Living Trunk (TVI); Membranaceous Leaf (FOM); Dung (EST); Vernacular Name (Nov); Guajajara Vernacular Name (NoV); Not Cited (NC); No Use Value (-); Citation Number (NCI); Current Use Value (VUA); Potential Use Value (VUP) In contrast, the Caiabi of the northern Brazilian Amazon use the term uepó , mainly for fungi growing on trees (with one exception), and add adjectives to distinguish the different types ( 22 ). The Sanomas group of Yanomami uses the prefix parólito or uonchêlá , with different combinations of specific adjectives, to distinguish between inedible fungi belonging to the Auriculariaceae, Clavariaceae, Polyporaceae, Strophariaceae and Xylariaceae families ( 20 ). Brazil's indigenous populations have two distinct patterns of fungal classification. Some ethnic groups have a fairly simple vocabulary and name fungi only according to a property or similarity that could characterize them, whereas others exhibit a broader awareness of different fungi, as demonstrated by their complex vocabulary, in which classifying lexemes is used to refer to different fungal taxa ( 22 ). Transmission of ethnomycological knowledge among Guajajara Vertical or intrafamily transmission (62%) was the main process responsible for the spatial dynamics of local knowledge about macrofungi in the villages investigated. Gender is one of the main variables influencing the distribution of local knowledge ( 46 ). According to the interviewees, men (71%) transmit ethnomycological knowledge more than women do (29%). Hunting, fishing and farming practices somehow contribute to ethnomycological knowledge among men, perhaps because of the deeper contact they have with the "forest", which can be passed down through generations. In Switzerland (Geneva), the majority of mushroom collection is performed by men, who also have greater mycological knowledge and pass it on with greater prevalence between generations unlike in Mexico, where women are involved in the entire process of collecting, selling, managing, learning about ecology, taxonomy and teaching about macrofungi ( 24 ). In Brazil, in rural communities in Northeast China, women are also protagonists in collecting and disseminating information about fungi ( 68 ). The characterization of the oral transmission of vertical knowledge is similar to that reported in studies with medicinal plants in the Northeast Region of Brazil, where the socialization of knowledge occurs mostly among family members ( 11 , 56 , 67 ). The mode of horizontal transmission (17%) was the least mentioned by the interviewees. However, for the oblique mode of transmission, 21% of the interviewees obtained their knowledge through exogenous influence within the family, such as the school, which contributed positively to the acquisition of knowledge. A small proportion of young people (8%) make playful use of species in games ( 13 , 70 ). One interviewee (H-74 years old) said that in the past, urupés were used more by older people to cure various illnesses. He also referred to a "healer" who treated indigenous people's illnesses using macrofungi in the form of tea (decoction) and P. sanguineus , for example, to treat diseases of the female genital tract and kidneys. In one of the speeches, the interviewee says, " I was about to die with severe pain in my stomach, I went to the healer, he gave me the tea to drink and soon I was cured ". " My son's wife shed a lot of blood when she was having a baby, becoming very weak (...), we went to the healer, and he gave her urupê-laranja to drink as a tea, and soon the blood stopped ," he concludes. The use of teas was also mentioned by ( 51 ). The participants in the present study mentioned that their grandparents made medicinal use of wood ear tea (Basidiomycota) to cure ailments; however, they were unable to recognize which species of wood ear it was or for which ailment the tea was made. A recent study assessed how ethnomycological knowledge is transmitted among indigenous communities in Mexico. The oldest people in these communities have the most knowledge about the traditional use of wild mushrooms and are responsible for passing on this knowledge to younger people. Men collect and know the mushrooms that grow in forest areas far from villages, whereas women and children collect them on neighboring lands ( 34 ). From the point of view of cultural evolution, knowledge transmitted vertically is highly conservative, as this form hinders the diffusion of innovations, and cultural evolution is therefore slow ( 2 ). In the case of horizontal knowledge transmission, the exchange of information between individuals (not family members) and the group accelerates cultural evolution. Thus, traditional knowledge about the use of macrofungi is transmitted orally from generation to generation ( 3 , 24 , 39 , 51 ). The knowledge that is supported over generations in communities is necessary for the formation of its members. According to ( 69 ), this knowledge can be expressed at three levels: intrafamily, extrafamily and transfamily. Macrofungal species with potential for use Of the species documented, six were cited for the following uses: medicinal ( P. sanguineus and L. crinitus ), recreational ( C. rugosa, G. harriotii and G. javanicum ) and edible ( A. tremellosa ) (Fig. 4 ). The medicinal use of P. sanguineus has been recorded in the Caiabi ethnic group (Northern Brazil), which is used against very bad dreams ( 21 ). In rural communities in northeastern Brazil, it is cited as a regulator of the menstrual cycle ( 62 ) and has anti-hemorrhagic and anti-inflammatory effects ( 69 ). In various regions of Mexico, the species is used for different medicinal purposes by indigenous groups, including inflammation of the feet and as a cosmetic to make cheeks rosy ( 28 ). Biochemicals have indicated that P. sanguineus has anti-inflammatory activity and great potential for therapeutic and pharmacological use, as well as for biological control against phytopathogens ( Botrytis cinerea Pers. and Fusarium oxysporum Schltdl), as cited by ( 47 ). Another medicinal species mentioned was L. crinitus , known as urupé-de-cabelo by Guajajara. The species is used for treating diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. One interviewee (H 69 years old), during the interview, said, "Strong in curing stomach pains, diarrhea (dysentery), in the absence of medicine from the city, we use urupé as a tea and it gets well, being found in the forest where we live". Auricularia tremellosa was mentioned in the edible category. Two interviewees (H-49; H-61 years old) mentioned that their parents used to eat the macrofungus in the forest in natura : "our parents used to go hunting in the forest, in the cold weather, and they would find the urupé 'marron-soft flower' on the trunks and eat it to last the hunt and then go back to the village". The species is edible in various regions of the world, as in the study by ( 80 ) on the global diversity of the genus Auricularia , which carried out morphological examinations and multigenetic phylogenetic analyses of 277 samples from 35 countries in Asia, Europe, North and South America, Africa and Oceania. They reported that its distribution is very important because of its edibility and medicinal properties. Prado-Elias described this species as being edible by ancient people, being cooked together with beans and used in meals ( 51 ). The consumption of mushrooms was also reported by ( 73 ). The authors noted that the Uitoto, Muinane and Andoke indigenous people of the Colombian Amazon use macrofungi as food. The review by ( 77 ) reported the consumption of mushrooms by the Hotï indigenous people of the Venezuelan Amazon and by Bardales ( 7 ) by the rural and riverside peoples of the Peruvian Amazon. In Chinese medicine, this fungus is widely used as an anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antitumor agent. In the reports by ( 20 ) on the consumption of mushrooms by the Yanomami Indians (Sanuma), they noted that they boil the fungi in water before eating them and that a few species are eaten roasted on banana leaves. The authors report having tried three of these species: Favolus brasiliensis (Fr.) Fr. and Lentinus sp., boiled in water for 30 minutes, and Polyporus aquosus Henn. According to these authors, the fungi did not offer a specific flavor. Investigated the ethnomycological relationships of the Karajá indigenous people who live on Bananal Island, located in Tocantins, in the Cerrado region. The authors reported that the Karajá indigenous people are not so averse to fungi, using them for recreational purposes, as ornaments and decorations during their festivities and occasionally for medicinal purposes ( 54 ). While recognizing macrofungi, some interviewees mentioned three species that were used by children and young people in (playful) games in the village: C. rugosa, G. javanicum and G. harriotii. The attributed use is observed by other authors in rural communities, where playful use is mainly with fungi known as earthballs (powdery fungi or puffballs ), which easily release a large cloud of spores when pressed, drawing the attention of children in particular ( 51 ). Other authors have reported the use of macrofungi, which are species of the genera Agaricus and Coprinus , as playful objects in rural communities in the state of Piauí, Northeast Brazil ( 65 ). In Latin American communities, ( 59 ) reported the use of Cookeina sulcipes (Berk.) Kuntze and C. tricholoma as play objects in Mexico ( 23 ). Use value of macrofungi The value of use was calculated for the six species that had a total of 24 mentions of use by the indigenous people interviewed (Table 1 ). Among the families recorded, Polyporaceae was best represented in the citations, followed by the Marasmiaceae family. In the recreational category, C. rugosa received the most mentions (seven), especially by the youngest interviewees. The use of P. sanguineus to treat ailments linked to the female genital tract, kidneys and back pain in the form of tea (decoction) was mentioned five times. The instructions are to cook the urupé for half an hour in a liter of water, wait for it to cool and then take it once a day on an empty stomach until it is cured. For the P. sanguineus species, the citation for the treatment of diseases of the female genital tract is reported by the same family; at the time of delivery, after the child was born, the indigenous woman suffered severe bleeding. They experienced the situation and recounted that they went in search of the orange urupé ( P. sanguineus ), "made the tea for the indigenous woman to drink, and as soon as the heavy bleeding stopped". The value of a macrofungus is computed to quantify the importance of a specific macrofungus on the basis of the frequency with which it is mentioned by a group of people. In some communities, the use value can be considered high or low. A low use value of the species was observed, considering the Guajajara native peoples, who are partially mycophilic. These findings contrast with the data presented in a study carried out in three communities in the Philippines, which revealed the high use value of macrofungal species, such as Volvariella volvacea (Bull.) Singer, with a use value of 0.86, were therefore classified as mycophilic communities (they have an affinity for and use macrofungi). It is therefore the most popular edible macrofungus in the Philippines ( 71 ). In the past, macrofungi were used more frequently by Guajajara, which is linked to the medicinal category. The use of pharmaceutical medicines and ease of acquisition may have replaced the practice of the use of macrofungi by natives. The medicinal uses were grouped into four body systems, according to the World Health Organization (Who 2000). Pycnoporus sanguineus has the highest use value, with indications for the female reproductive system, kidneys and skeletal system (back pain). For the species L. crinitus , the indication for use was attributed to the gastrointestinal system. The use value index described does not indicate that the species is actually used; it only shows that it has or had a type of use in the villages studied. In this sense, there was more mention of use with species from the Geastrales family, followed by Polyporales, where the informants' indications covered more than one body system, such as the female genital tract and gastrointestinal tract. In the past, Brazil's indigenous peoples were classified as nonmycophilic in the first scientific studies on ethnomycology ( 18 , 19 ). However, subsequent research confirmed the common use of mushrooms as food by at least some tribes, especially among Yanomami, citing species with greater use value ( 20 , 21 , 53 , 74 ). In contrast, the Andean peoples of South America are extremely mycophilic ( 26 , 37 ). Mushroom consumption has been reported in the Colombian Amazon ( 73 ), Peru ( 7 ), Venezuela ( 77 ), Mexico ( 23 , 58 , 59 ) and Ecuador, for example ( 42 ). Pointed to the mushroom F. brasiliensis as one of the species most collected and consumed by the Yanomami tribe of the Amazon ( 76 ). The authors characterized this species to better understand its nutritional and food potential ( 63 ). The current use value of the edible species A. tremellosa is zero, given that the species has been consumed in the past but currently has no real use by the Guajajara. The ethnic groups that consume mushrooms generally do not cultivate them but collect them only during their forays into the forest or from fallen logs in their plantations. The edible mushrooms found in the Awaris region are mainly collected in areas open to planting. The mushrooms are eaten fresh or cooked/roasted ( 74 , 61 ). Return to the community : Research does not end in the forest As the study developed, it was possible to see, through reports and experiences, that the native Guajajara people make little use of macrofungi or are unaware of their potential. In view of this, the need was identified to share the importance of mycology and the various uses of macrofungi with these people, especially in the school environment, where knowledge can be materialized and disseminated effectively. To this end, a workshop was held at the community school, with the participation of children, young people and adults (Fig. 5 ). On this occasion, various visual resources, such as books, printed photos of the macrofungi found in the village, fresh and dried samples arranged in dividing boxes, and audio and video media, were used to obtain data. The lecture was given in simple, accessible language, making it easy for everyone present to understand. At the end of the activity, the participants received souvenirs in the form of mushroom boxes as a symbolic memory of a unique moment: the return of the research to the community. The return of the research to the indigenous community represents a gesture of respect, ethics and appreciation of traditional knowledge and the fundamental role that these communities play in preserving biodiversity. Conclusions The analyses carried out in this study revealed that the Guajajara native peoples have little recognition of the macrofungi in the environment in which they live, showing a weak perception of the use of the various "urupés" found in the villages studied. Although macrofungi are no longer used as a component of their diet today, Guajajara recognized that some species may have food potential, such as the reports on the species A. tremellosa mentioned in the diet by their ancestors. The Guajajara indigenous peoples also playfully use fungi, with mentions of C. rugosa, G. harriotii and G. javanicum and occasionally for medicinal purposes ( P. sanguineus and L. crinitus ), reporting greater use in the past, with applications for the female reproductive system, kidneys, gastrointestinal tract and skeleton. The mode of transmission of vertical knowledge is responsible for the transfer of information on the uses of macrofungi. In this way, we can assure that this ethnic group does not have total aversion to macrofungi and is considered to be partially mycophilic (or nonmycophilic) but may still be in an accelerated process of erosion of ethnomycological knowledge. This ethnomycological study is pioneering among the native Guajajara peoples of Brazil in the state of Maranhão and reinforces the need to expand research to different villages to disseminate ethnomycological knowledge from different ethnic groups. This study can contribute to both the appreciation and conservation of the traditions and knowledge of Brazil's native peoples in terms of biodiversity and microdiversity. Declarations Ethics approval We obtained approval from the Ethics Committee (CEP/6.737.491) of UFPI, from the National Research Ethics Commission (CONEP/6.971.260), and consent from the Chiefs of the two villages for the conduct of the study. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Funding Declaration This work was supported by the Research Foundation of the State of Piauí (FAPEPI) and the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) in Brazil. Author Contribution Silva, JB and Barros, FCS, was involved in conceptualization, methodology, data gathering and writing; Guajajara, RP and Trierveiler LP, helped in conceptualization, methodology and formal analysis; Barros, RFM contributed to conceptualization and writing-review & editing. Acknowledgement We would like to express our gratitude to the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) for providing open access to selected journal databases, to FAPEPI and CAPES for the scholarship granted, and to the Federal University of Piauí for the infrastructure and support. To the chiefs and indigenous people of the Pé de Galinha and Três Irmãos villages for contributing to the research. To the religious leader Matusalém Braga. To Rayssa Barros. To Labee (Laboratory of Ethnobotany and Ethnoecology) of UFPI. Gratitude to the Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 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Journal of Fungi, USA, v.7, n.11, pp. 1–98, 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110933 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 06 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 05 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 03 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 15 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 13 Jan, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 12 Jan, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 12 Jan, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 11 Jan, 2026 First submitted to journal 05 Jan, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":61187,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation of the Pé de Galinha and Três Irmãos Indigenous Villages in the Cana Brava Reserve, municipality of Barra do Corda, Maranhão, Brazil.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8526491/v1/675cbccf32fe3dc4cfb24381.jpg"},{"id":100270256,"identity":"3ccbaae1-c8dd-46ce-a9d4-56f4c367054f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-14 19:46:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":284543,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCollection of macrofungi in the Cana Brava Indigenous Reserve, Barra do Corda/MA. \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e- Collection team from Pé de Galinha village. \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e- Macrofungi for sampling at the time of the interview;\u003cstrong\u003e c\u003c/strong\u003e- Indigenous person from Pé de Galinha village observing a macrofungus\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8526491/v1/7481298f361d2654f958990e.jpg"},{"id":100270257,"identity":"0a783f0e-d65a-4f38-99bb-42f43c3fe9e7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-14 19:46:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":312181,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRepresentativeness of the families of the Phyla Basidiomycota and Ascomycota identified in the Três Irmãos and Pé de Galinha Villages, Cana Brava Indigenous Reserve, Barra do Corda - MA, Brazil\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8526491/v1/1d2f8d76e823a21ca89e24da.jpg"},{"id":100270258,"identity":"759cf8b7-22ed-4df5-887c-040ec0fda95a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-14 19:46:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":371389,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMacrofungal species cited by the Guajajara indigenous peoples of the Três Irmãos and Pé de Galinha villages in the Cana Brava Reserve, Barra do Corda - Maranhão, for medicinal (a, b), edible (c) and recreational (d, e, f) uses. \u003cstrong\u003ea- \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePycnoporus sanguineus\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cstrong\u003eb- \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eLentinus crinitus\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cstrong\u003ec- \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuricularia tremellosa\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cstrong\u003ed- \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCalvatia rugosa\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cstrong\u003ee- \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eGeastrum harriotii\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cstrong\u003ef- \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eGeastrum javanicum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8526491/v1/c061f7387e25d3cfa805621c.jpg"},{"id":100372278,"identity":"f9203a5c-6348-48ff-8414-ad61f5650b6a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 08:11:54","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":262493,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWorkshop given at the Três Irmãos Indigenous Village School, of the Guajajara indigenous peoples of Barra do Corda-MA, Cana Brava Reserve: a, c - official photo with the participants (children, young people and adults); b - reinforcing visual resources, souvenirs and media; d, e - researcher explaining the use of macrofungi with samples of the species\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8526491/v1/06bf518f608d0a143d051acc.jpg"},{"id":100421999,"identity":"b68cf3f6-a684-40d9-b8bd-6f769e1b129c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 14:04:40","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2309403,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8526491/v1/b6ac56fb-d61b-4760-bb8f-73aa8adadd65.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Ethnomycology of the Guajajara indigenous peoples of Maranhão, Northeast Brazil","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthnomycology, which includes cultural, recreational, medicinal and edible uses, is an area of research focused on the interaction of fungi with local communities (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e). Owing to their ecological, medicinal, nutritional and health-promoting properties, macrofungi are gaining paramount importance among scientific and research communities around the world (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). They have macroscopic reproductive structures, called ascomata and basidiomata, and are important representatives of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious estimates have been proposed to elucidate the number of fungal species worldwide (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). The most widely accepted estimates between 2.5 and 3\u0026nbsp;million species were proposed by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e) and revised by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e). Few ethnomycological studies have been carried out in Brazil, mostly focusing on indigenous populations in the Amazon (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, ethnomycological studies on indigenous ethnic groups in Brazil are relevant because of the research of the British botanist Ghillean Prance in 1967 with indigenous Yanomamis from the Amazon. In the 1970s, Prance discovered the use of mushrooms as part of the Yanomami diet (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, the publication by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e) on the ethnomycology of Caiabi, Txic\u0026atilde;o and Txucurram\u0026atilde;e brought valuable contributions between the original peoples and the consumption of macrofungi.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndigenous communities have been using their ethnomycological knowledge on the collection of wild macrofungi for different daily uses since ancient times, such as medicinal, recreational or edible, and they have been considered secondary food resources (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e), ethnomycological research in Brazil has gone through two periods: utilitarian and cognitivist (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e). The utilitarian ones, carried out by naturalists and anthropologists, took place before the 1960s and described the use of fungi by different Brazilian indigenous groups in a generic way. On the other hand, research with a cognitive bias was marked by the work of (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnomycological research in Brazil is experiencing a third period (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e), called the period of diversity, in which the focus of research is no longer purely related to the ethnomycological knowledge of Amazonian indigenous people but also of other communities, both traditional (such as quilombolas) and local and/or rural communities (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e), ethnomycological investigations, in addition to having a cognitivist and diversity bias, have revealed new focuses for the knowledge and investigation of fungi through perception studies on the teaching of mycology (45, 54,) carried out in rural and indigenous schools in Brazil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven that studies are still insufficient in traditional communities and people, there is a need for research aimed at the original Guajajara peoples of the state of Maranh\u0026atilde;o to rescue ethnomycological knowledge in communities and its transmission to generations. To carry out this research, the following problem was posed: \"How are macrofungi perceived in the environment, and how is ethnomycological knowledge passed through the generations? Are macrofungal species used by the Guajajara ethnic group in Barra do Corda, Maranh\u0026atilde;o?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study was to document and compile the uses of macrofungi by the indigenous Guajajara people who live in the Cana Brava reserve, Barra do Corda-Maranh\u0026atilde;o, to evaluate and recover ethnomycological knowledge between indigenous generations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe villages of P\u0026eacute; de Galinha (5\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e29' 30\" S; 45\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e14'23\" W) and Tr\u0026ecirc;s Irm\u0026atilde;os (5\u003csup\u003e(0\u003c/sup\u003e) 40'00\" S; 45\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e29'43.0\" W) are located in the Cana Brava Indigenous Reserve in the city of Barra do Corda in Maranh\u0026atilde;o (Northeast Region of Brazil) and are 45 km from the city's urban center (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The municipality is located in the Alto Mearim and Graja\u0026uacute; microregion, 450 km from the capital of Maranh\u0026atilde;o, S\u0026atilde;o Lu\u0026iacute;s, and 350 km from the capital of Piau\u0026iacute;, Teresina.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBarra do Corda has a population of 84,532 inhabitants and a GDP per capita of 10,004.24 (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e). It has a land area of 5,187.673 km\u0026sup2; and a population density of 16.29 inhabitants per km\u0026sup2; in the Cerrado region. In Maranh\u0026atilde;o, the climatic seasons are well defined, with a rainy season from January to May, a dry season from June to December and a semihumid climate (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith very diverse vegetation, the state has the formations of the Amazon Rainforest in the west, the Cocais Forest in the east, mangroves in the coastal region and the Cerrado. The main indigenous lands include Alto Turia\u0026ccedil;\u0026uacute;, Ararib\u0026oacute;ia, Car\u0026uacute;, Aw\u0026aacute;, Krikati, Cana Brava, Kanela, Bacurizinho, and Porquinhos, lands that are home to the Guajajara and Canela do Maranh\u0026atilde;o ethnic groups (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e), the villages of Guajajara extend from the municipality of Barra do Corda/MA to the northeastern state of Par\u0026aacute;. Those located in Par\u0026aacute; are called Temb\u0026eacute; but share the same language and cultural traditions (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e). Guajajara also uses Portuguese to communicate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEthical aspects of the research\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e The ethnomycological study, which was both qualitative and quantitative, was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee (CEP) of the Federal University of Piau\u0026iacute; (UFPI), with opinion number 6.737.491, and was also approved by the National Research Ethics Commission (CONEP), with number 6.971.260. The National Foundation for Indigenous Peoples (FUNAI), under number 000173.0012899/2023, is in the National System for the Management of Genetic Heritage and Associated Traditional Knowledge (SISGEN), under number A360372, and in SISBIO, under number 84798.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBefore each interview, the informant signed the informed consent form, in compliance with Resolutions 304/2000 and 510/2016 of the National Health Council (CNS), to clarify possible doubts about the work, risks and/or benefits, and possible damage that may arise in the research, in addition to the Consent for Use of Image. Up to three people from the same household, a couple, a daughter or son of legal age (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;18 years), were interviewed individually to verify the transmission of knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy sample\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eP\u0026eacute; de Galinha village comprises 12 families (58 indigenous people), whereas Tr\u0026ecirc;s Irm\u0026atilde;os village comprises 52 families (approximately 230 indigenous people), ranging from infants to elderly individuals. A total of 96 participants, including Guajajara indigenous men and women, were interviewed: 27 indigenous people in P\u0026eacute; de Galinha Village (28.2%) and 69 in Tr\u0026ecirc;s Irm\u0026atilde;os Village (71.8%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interviewees were classified according to the age group established by the (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e) as young people (18 to 24), adults (25 to 59) and elderly individuals (aged 60 and over). Among those interviewed, 20 were young people, 52 were adults, and 24 were elderly. The sample universe was established via the Comentto calculator (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://comentto.com/calculadora-amostral/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://comentto.com/calculadora-amostral/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), with a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTechniques and field research\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo build rapprochement and trust, the \u003cem\u003erapport\u003c/em\u003e technique was used, which, according to (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e), is necessary to strengthen contact with indigenous people and to ensure that the researcher is allowed to stay in the field. A pilot excursion was carried out in September 2021 to make the first contact with indigenous people, which was mediated with the support of a religious leader (Matusal\u0026eacute;m Braga), to obtain the chiefs' consent to carry out the study. A total of 15 excursions were conducted, each lasting three to five days for data collection. These excursions took place during the months of January to May, the rainy season, and were best suited for collecting macrofungi. Followed by August to November, when semi-structured interviews were conducted.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe semi-structured interviews (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) were carried out via forms with open and closed questions about socioeconomic data (gender, age, schooling, profession, length of time living in the community, monthly income, and type of housing) and information about fungal knowledge and its uses, food, medicine, and recreation, as proposed by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the same time, the Checklist interview technique (Bernard, 1988) was used, which uses a photographic catalog as a visual stimulus, a reinforcing resource at the time of the interviews, to recover ethnomycological information about the species occurring in the study area (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), according to (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThus, before this technique was first applied, photographs were taken of the macrofungi occurring around the village and nearby forests, in addition to collecting the samples. These photographs were printed on an Epson (375) multifunction printer, A4 sheet size (297x210 millimeters), with color images to be used during the interviews. In addition to the images, macrofungal samples (fresh or dried) were used.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCollecting ethnomycological data\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMycological material with vernacular names was collected via guided tours according to (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Collections were carried out on different substrates (trunks, thin branches, soil and litter or leaf litter) with the aid of materials such as stylus or penknife, ruler, pencil and pen, field notebooks for taking notes, paper bags and plastic boxes with dividers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e). At the time of collection, the macrofungi were sized and photographed (RedMi 9pro camera/cell phone and iPhone 15), and their morphological characteristics (size, color, substrate) were analyzed (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe samples were packed in transparent collection boxes, separated so as not to damage the structures and then transported in fresh cardboard boxes to observe their structures for macro- and microscopic identification. To help with identification, the study relied on the partnership of LEMic-UFSCar (Laboratory of Mycological Studies at the Federal University of S\u0026atilde;o Carlos). The samples were then herborized and deposited in the collection of the Graziela Barroso Herbarium (TEPB) at the Federal University of Piau\u0026iacute; (UFPI).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo investigate the interviewees' perceptions of ethnotaxonomy, the following questions were asked: How do you know this organism in nature? Which ones do you use (for food, medicine or recreation)? The aim was to obtain data on macrofungi, such as popular names, uses, notions of ethnotaxonomy, ecology and the transmission of knowledge through local narratives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentified three fundamental types of ways in which knowledge can be transmitted socially: 1) vertical transmission (intrafamily): transmission from parents to their offspring, which is a transmission within the same genealogy; 2) horizontal transmission (extrafamily): transmission between any individuals of the same generation, with a kinship relationship of limited importance; and 3) oblique transmission (transfamily): transmission of knowledge from members of a given generation arising from digital technologies, the internet, books, TV, and radio (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Mycobank database (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://comentto.com/calculadora-amostral/\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ewww.mycobank.org/name\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.mycobank.org/name\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) was used to look up the spelling of species and family names, as well as the abbreviations of authors' names (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e). We used the value of use (VU) index proposed by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e), adapted by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e) and adapted by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e), where the sum of the number of uses given by the informant (U) is divided by the total number of informants (n) who cited it, thus obtaining the following formula: VU=(ΣU)/n. In the analysis, a distinction was made between citations of current use value (current VU) and potential use value (potential VU).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis index therefore assumes the relative importance of the macrofungus by the number of uses it has. Current VU considers the uses still routinely performed by the informants, and potential VU considers the uses present in the memory but that are no longer used by them (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProfile of the interviewees\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsidering the objectives of knowing and documenting the diversity and uses of macrofungi in the two indigenous villages of Barra do Corda, Maranh\u0026atilde;o, and on the basis of information and knowledge about macrofungi, 96 informants took part in the study: 52 women (54.1%) and 44 men (45.9%). Women's participation is focused on domestic care, agricultural activities and handicrafts. Men's activities include fishing, hunting and farming. According to the respondents' schooling, 27% were illiterate, 42% had incomplete primary education, 29% had incomplete secondary education, and 2% had higher education. The interviewees had lived in the villages for more than 14 years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgriculture (planting manioc, cassava, corn and rice, and sweet potatoes), fishing and hunting (paca, agouti, armadillo, deer, and wild rabbit) and livestoc farming (raising cattle, bush \u003cem\u003epigs-caititu\u003c/em\u003e and chickens) are the sources of income and food for Guajajara indigenous families, in addition to utilitarian handicrafts, such as making hammocks, necklaces, bracelets, headdresses used in festivities such as head adornment (Guajajara means owners of the headdress), maracas, wooden toys and aid from the Bolsa Fam\u0026iacute;lia Ind\u0026iacute;gena (the Brazilian government's social program).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRecognition of macrofungi and vernacular names\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe macrofungi were organized into 16 families, distributed in the phyla Basidiomycota (15 families) and Ascomycota (only one: Rutstroemiaceae). The Polyporaceae family had the greatest number of species (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e), followed by the Ganodermataceae and Marasmiaceae families, both with five species (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the diversity of the Basidiomycota phylum was greater than that of the Ascomycota phylum, which was expected since most macroscopic fungi are basidiomycetes. The Basidiomycota include several well-known representatives, including edible mushrooms. This phylum is characterized by the formation of the basidium, a microstructure that produces sexual spores (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the Basidiomycota phylum, the Polyporaceae family stands out for its greater diversity of species, with a total of 42 species documented (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Gibertoni and Drechsler-Santos corroborated this finding, considering the Polyporaceae family to be among the most diverse fungi in Brazil (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn any case, it is necessary to consider that the representatives of this family are recognized for having stipitate basidiomes and a dimitic hyphal system, with skeleton-conective hyphae or of the \"bovist\" type, i.e., with a central axis, presenting different types of branching, generally arboriform with dichotomous branches and branched segments ending in slender tips; it contains generative hyphae with rings and cylindrical to subcylindrical basidiospores (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe vernacular name most often cited by the Guajaraja was \u003cem\u003eurup\u0026eacute;\u003c/em\u003e, a term they used to refer to species known to be found in or around the village. A term is then added to the lexeme, resulting in the following combination: orange mushroom \u003cem\u003e(Pycnoporus sanguineus)\u003c/em\u003e, brown mushroom \u003cem\u003e(Auricularia tremellosa)\u003c/em\u003e, ball mushroom \u003cem\u003e(Calvatia rugosa)\u003c/em\u003e, hair mushroom \u003cem\u003e(Lentinus crinitus)\u003c/em\u003e and earth flower \u003cem\u003e(Geastrum hariotti).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith respect to nomenclature, in the classic work of Rodrigues the term used by the indigenous people in the Tupi-Guarani language is \"urup\u0026ecirc;\", (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e) with a closed sound, which differs from our findings for the denomination of mushroom among the original Guajajara peoples, where the pronunciation is with an open sound and the word is written in the \"Tenentehara\" language with the acute accent \"urup\u0026eacute;\".\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the villages studied, few names are related to and attributed to macrofungi (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), and they mostly refer to the location of the \"forest\", the environment where they are found, as well as resembling \"plants\". The same name \u003cem\u003eurup\u0026eacute;\u003c/em\u003e can be attributed to more than one species. The results corroborate those presented by Reis et al. regarding Karaj\u0026aacute;s' indigenous peoples. According to previous studies, these people sometimes recognize and call fungal plants (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccurrence and diversity of macrofungal species documented in the P\u0026eacute; de Galinha and Tr\u0026ecirc;s Irm\u0026atilde;os villages, Cana Brava Indigenous Reserve, Barra do Corda - MA, Brazil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily/Species\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSUB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNoV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNoV Guajajara\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNCI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVUA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVUP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Agaricaceae Singer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCalvatia rugosa\u003c/em\u003e (Berk.) Curtis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute; -zeapo'a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLUD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeucocoprinus birnbaumii\u003c/em\u003e (Corda.) Singer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeucocoprinus cretaceus\u003c/em\u003e (Bull.) Locq.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Auriculariaceae Fr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuricularia cornea\u003c/em\u003e Ehrenb.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuricularia tremellosa\u003c/em\u003e (Fr.) Pat.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrown mushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute; -ipyn-pit\u0026aacute;g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCOM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.Clavulinaceae Donk.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClavulina cristata\u003c/em\u003e (Holmsk.) J. Schr\u0026ouml;t.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.Dacrymycetaceae Martin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDacryopinax spathularia\u003c/em\u003e (Schwein.) G.W. Martin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Ganodermataceae Donk.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAmauroderma exile\u003c/em\u003e (Berk.) Torrend\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAmauroderma rude\u003c/em\u003e (Berk.) Torrend\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAmauroderma\u003c/em\u003e sp.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGanoderma lucidum\u003c/em\u003e (Fr.) P. Karst. complex\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGanorderma\u003c/em\u003e sp.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTVI\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTVI\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTVITVI\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6. Meruliaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFlavodon flavus\u003c/em\u003e (Klotzsch) Ryvarden\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e7.\u003c/em\u003e Geastraceae Corda.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGeastrum hariotii\u003c/em\u003e Lloyd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGeastrum javanicum\u003c/em\u003e L\u0026eacute;v.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOL\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIputyr - ywy\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIputyr - ywy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLUD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLUD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,12\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,08\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.Hygrophoraceae Lotsy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHygrocybe coccinea\u003c/em\u003e (Schaef.) P. Kumm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.Hymenogastraceae Vittad.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePleurotus ostreatus\u003c/em\u003e (Jacq.) P. Kumm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhellinus gilvus\u003c/em\u003e (Schwein.) Pat.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePsilocybe cubensis\u003c/em\u003e (Earle) Singer\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMarasmiellus ramealis\u003c/em\u003e (Bull.) Singer\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMarasmiellus\u003c/em\u003e sp.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMarasmius sullivantii\u003c/em\u003e Mont.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMarasmius\u003c/em\u003e sp.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMarasmius\u003c/em\u003e sp.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrogia cantharelloides\u003c/em\u003e (Mont.) Pat.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEST\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFOM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFOM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSUN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.Mycenaceae Overeem.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMycena chlorophos\u003c/em\u003e (Berk) Sacc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMycena vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e (Pers.) P. Kumm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFOM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFOM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.Omphalotaceae Bresinsky.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGymnopus\u003c/em\u003e sp.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGymnopus\u003c/em\u003e sp.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOL\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.Polyporaceae G\u0026auml;umann.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHexagonia hydnoides\u003c/em\u003e (Sw.) M. Fidalgo\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLentinus brumalis\u003c/em\u003e (Pers.) Zmitr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLentinus crinitus\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Fr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFomes fomentarius\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Fr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePycnoporus sanguineus\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Murril\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrametes betulina\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Pilat\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrametes versicolor\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Lloyd\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrametes\u003c/em\u003e sp.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePolyporus\u003c/em\u003e sp.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTVI\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOL\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOL\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOL\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTVI\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;- i'aw\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;-n\u0026aacute;raz\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMED\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMED\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13. Phallaceae rope\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhallus indusiatus\u003c/em\u003e Vent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14. Rutstroemiaceae Jen Koe; Sch.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRutstroemia echinophila\u003c/em\u003e (Bull.) H\u0026ouml;hn.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15. Schizophyllaceae Quel.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSchizophyllum commune\u003c/em\u003e Fr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTVI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16. Stereaceae Pil\u0026aacute;t.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStereum ostrea\u003c/em\u003e (Blume \u0026amp; Ness.) Fr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrup\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubstrate (SUB); Soil (SOL); Decomposing Trunk (TEC); Living Trunk (TVI); Membranaceous Leaf (FOM); Dung (EST); Vernacular Name (Nov); Guajajara Vernacular Name (NoV); Not Cited (NC); No Use Value (-); Citation Number (NCI); Current Use Value (VUA); Potential Use Value (VUP)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the Caiabi of the northern Brazilian Amazon use the term \u003cem\u003euep\u0026oacute;\u003c/em\u003e, mainly for fungi growing on trees (with one exception), and add adjectives to distinguish the different types (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e). The Sanomas group of Yanomami uses the prefix \u003cem\u003epar\u0026oacute;lito\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003euonch\u0026ecirc;l\u0026aacute;\u003c/em\u003e, with different combinations of specific adjectives, to distinguish between inedible fungi belonging to the Auriculariaceae, Clavariaceae, Polyporaceae, Strophariaceae and Xylariaceae families (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrazil's indigenous populations have two distinct patterns of fungal classification. Some ethnic groups have a fairly simple vocabulary and name fungi only according to a property or similarity that could characterize them, whereas others exhibit a broader awareness of different fungi, as demonstrated by their complex vocabulary, in which classifying lexemes is used to refer to different fungal taxa (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTransmission of ethnomycological knowledge among Guajajara\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eVertical or intrafamily transmission (62%) was the main process responsible for the spatial dynamics of local knowledge about macrofungi in the villages investigated. Gender is one of the main variables influencing the distribution of local knowledge (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the interviewees, men (71%) transmit ethnomycological knowledge more than women do (29%). Hunting, fishing and farming practices somehow contribute to ethnomycological knowledge among men, perhaps because of the deeper contact they have with the \"forest\", which can be passed down through generations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Switzerland (Geneva), the majority of mushroom collection is performed by men, who also have greater mycological knowledge and pass it on with greater prevalence between generations unlike in Mexico, where women are involved in the entire process of collecting, selling, managing, learning about ecology, taxonomy and teaching about macrofungi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e). In Brazil, in rural communities in Northeast China, women are also protagonists in collecting and disseminating information about fungi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe characterization of the oral transmission of vertical knowledge is similar to that reported in studies with medicinal plants in the Northeast Region of Brazil, where the socialization of knowledge occurs mostly among family members (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mode of horizontal transmission (17%) was the least mentioned by the interviewees. However, for the oblique mode of transmission, 21% of the interviewees obtained their knowledge through exogenous influence within the family, such as the school, which contributed positively to the acquisition of knowledge. A small proportion of young people (8%) make playful use of species in games (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne interviewee (H-74 years old) said that in the past, \u003cem\u003eurup\u0026eacute;s\u003c/em\u003e were used more by older people to cure various illnesses. He also referred to a \"healer\" who treated indigenous people's illnesses using macrofungi in the form of tea (decoction) and \u003cem\u003eP. sanguineus\u003c/em\u003e, for example, to treat diseases of the female genital tract and kidneys. In one of the speeches, the interviewee says, \"\u003cem\u003eI was about to die with severe pain in my stomach, I went to the healer, he gave me the tea to drink and soon I was cured\u003c/em\u003e\". \"\u003cem\u003eMy son's wife shed a lot of blood when she was having a baby, becoming very weak (...), we went to the healer, and he gave her urup\u0026ecirc;-laranja to drink as a tea, and soon the blood stopped\u003c/em\u003e,\" he concludes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe use of teas was also mentioned by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e). The participants in the present study mentioned that their grandparents made medicinal use of wood ear tea (Basidiomycota) to cure ailments; however, they were unable to recognize which species of wood ear it was or for which ailment the tea was made.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA recent study assessed how ethnomycological knowledge is transmitted among indigenous communities in Mexico. The oldest people in these communities have the most knowledge about the traditional use of wild mushrooms and are responsible for passing on this knowledge to younger people. Men collect and know the mushrooms that grow in forest areas far from villages, whereas women and children collect them on neighboring lands (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the point of view of cultural evolution, knowledge transmitted vertically is highly conservative, as this form hinders the diffusion of innovations, and cultural evolution is therefore slow (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). In the case of horizontal knowledge transmission, the exchange of information between individuals (not family members) and the group accelerates cultural evolution. Thus, traditional knowledge about the use of macrofungi is transmitted orally from generation to generation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe knowledge that is supported over generations in communities is necessary for the formation of its members. According to (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e), this knowledge can be expressed at three levels: intrafamily, extrafamily and transfamily.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMacrofungal species with potential for use\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOf the species documented, six were cited for the following uses: medicinal (\u003cem\u003eP. sanguineus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eL. crinitus\u003c/em\u003e), recreational (\u003cem\u003eC. rugosa, G. harriotii and G. javanicum\u003c/em\u003e) and edible (\u003cem\u003eA. tremellosa\u003c/em\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe medicinal use of \u003cem\u003eP. sanguineus\u003c/em\u003e has been recorded in the Caiabi ethnic group (Northern Brazil), which is used against very bad dreams (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). In rural communities in northeastern Brazil, it is cited as a regulator of the menstrual cycle (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e) and has anti-hemorrhagic and anti-inflammatory effects (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e). In various regions of Mexico, the species is used for different medicinal purposes by indigenous groups, including inflammation of the feet and as a cosmetic to make cheeks rosy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiochemicals have indicated that \u003cem\u003eP. sanguineus\u003c/em\u003e has anti-inflammatory activity and great potential for therapeutic and pharmacological use, as well as for biological control against phytopathogens (\u003cem\u003eBotrytis cinerea\u003c/em\u003e Pers. and \u003cem\u003eFusarium oxysporum\u003c/em\u003e Schltdl), as cited by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother medicinal species mentioned was \u003cem\u003eL. crinitus\u003c/em\u003e, known as urup\u0026eacute;-de-cabelo by Guajajara. The species is used for treating diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. One interviewee (H 69 years old), during the interview, said, \u003cem\u003e\"Strong in curing stomach pains, diarrhea (dysentery), in the absence of medicine from the city, we use urup\u0026eacute; as a tea and it gets well, being found in the forest where we live\".\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eAuricularia tremellosa\u003c/em\u003e was mentioned in the edible category. Two interviewees (H-49; H-61 years old) mentioned that their parents used to eat the macrofungus in the forest \u003cem\u003ein natura\u003c/em\u003e: \u003cem\u003e\"our parents used to go hunting in the forest, in the cold weather, and they would find the urup\u0026eacute; 'marron-soft flower' on the trunks and eat it to last the hunt and then go back to the village\".\u003c/em\u003e The species is edible in various regions of the world, as in the study by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e) on the global diversity of the genus \u003cem\u003eAuricularia\u003c/em\u003e, which carried out morphological examinations and multigenetic phylogenetic analyses of 277 samples from 35 countries in Asia, Europe, North and South America, Africa and Oceania. They reported that its distribution is very important because of its edibility and medicinal properties. Prado-Elias described this species as being edible by ancient people, being cooked together with beans and used in meals (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe consumption of mushrooms was also reported by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e). The authors noted that the Uitoto, Muinane and Andoke indigenous people of the Colombian Amazon use macrofungi as food. The review by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e) reported the consumption of mushrooms by the Hot\u0026iuml; indigenous people of the Venezuelan Amazon and by Bardales (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) by the rural and riverside peoples of the Peruvian Amazon. In Chinese medicine, this fungus is widely used as an anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antitumor agent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the reports by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e) on the consumption of mushrooms by the Yanomami Indians (Sanuma), they noted that they boil the fungi in water before eating them and that a few species are eaten roasted on banana leaves. The authors report having tried three of these species: \u003cem\u003eFavolus brasiliensis\u003c/em\u003e (Fr.) Fr. and \u003cem\u003eLentinus\u003c/em\u003e sp., boiled in water for 30 minutes, and \u003cem\u003ePolyporus aquosus\u003c/em\u003e Henn. According to these authors, the fungi did not offer a specific flavor.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInvestigated the ethnomycological relationships of the Karaj\u0026aacute; indigenous people who live on Bananal Island, located in Tocantins, in the Cerrado region. The authors reported that the Karaj\u0026aacute; indigenous people are not so averse to fungi, using them for recreational purposes, as ornaments and decorations during their festivities and occasionally for medicinal purposes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile recognizing macrofungi, some interviewees mentioned three species that were used by children and young people in (playful) games in the village: \u003cem\u003eC. rugosa, G. javanicum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. harriotii.\u003c/em\u003e The attributed use is observed by other authors in rural communities, where playful use is mainly with fungi known as \u003cem\u003eearthballs\u003c/em\u003e (powdery fungi or \u003cem\u003epuffballs\u003c/em\u003e), which easily release a large cloud of spores when pressed, drawing the attention of children in particular (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther authors have reported the use of macrofungi, which are species of the genera \u003cem\u003eAgaricus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCoprinus\u003c/em\u003e, as playful objects in rural communities in the state of Piau\u0026iacute;, Northeast Brazil (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e). In Latin American communities, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e) reported the use of \u003cem\u003eCookeina sulcipes\u003c/em\u003e (Berk.) Kuntze and \u003cem\u003eC. tricholoma\u003c/em\u003e as play objects in Mexico (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eUse value of macrofungi\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe value of use was calculated for the six species that had a total of 24 mentions of use by the indigenous people interviewed (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Among the families recorded, Polyporaceae was best represented in the citations, followed by the Marasmiaceae family. In the recreational category, C. \u003cem\u003erugosa\u003c/em\u003e received the most mentions (seven), especially by the youngest interviewees. The use of \u003cem\u003eP. sanguineus\u003c/em\u003e to treat ailments linked to the female genital tract, kidneys and back pain in the form of tea (decoction) was mentioned five times. The instructions are to cook the urup\u0026eacute; for half an hour in a liter of water, wait for it to cool and then take it once a day on an empty stomach until it is cured.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the \u003cem\u003eP. sanguineus\u003c/em\u003e species, the citation for the treatment of diseases of the female genital tract is reported by the same family; at the time of delivery, after the child was born, the indigenous woman suffered severe bleeding. They experienced the situation and recounted that they went in search of the orange urup\u0026eacute; (\u003cem\u003eP. sanguineus\u003c/em\u003e), \u003cem\u003e\"made the tea for the indigenous woman to drink, and as soon as the heavy bleeding stopped\".\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe value of a macrofungus is computed to quantify the importance of a specific macrofungus on the basis of the frequency with which it is mentioned by a group of people. In some communities, the use value can be considered high or low. A low use value of the species was observed, considering the Guajajara native peoples, who are partially mycophilic. These findings contrast with the data presented in a study carried out in three communities in the Philippines, which revealed the high use value of macrofungal species, such as \u003cem\u003eVolvariella volvacea\u003c/em\u003e (Bull.) Singer, with a use value of 0.86, were therefore classified as mycophilic communities (they have an affinity for and use macrofungi). It is therefore the most popular edible macrofungus in the Philippines (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the past, macrofungi were used more frequently by Guajajara, which is linked to the medicinal category. The use of pharmaceutical medicines and ease of acquisition may have replaced the practice of the use of macrofungi by natives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe medicinal uses were grouped into four body systems, according to the World Health Organization (Who 2000). \u003cem\u003ePycnoporus sanguineus\u003c/em\u003e has the highest use value, with indications for the female reproductive system, kidneys and skeletal system (back pain). For the species \u003cem\u003eL. crinitus\u003c/em\u003e, the indication for use was attributed to the gastrointestinal system.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe use value index described does not indicate that the species is actually used; it only shows that it has or had a type of use in the villages studied. In this sense, there was more mention of use with species from the Geastrales family, followed by Polyporales, where the informants' indications covered more than one body system, such as the female genital tract and gastrointestinal tract.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the past, Brazil's indigenous peoples were classified as nonmycophilic in the first scientific studies on ethnomycology (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). However, subsequent research confirmed the common use of mushrooms as food by at least some tribes, especially among Yanomami, citing species with greater use value (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, the Andean peoples of South America are extremely mycophilic (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). Mushroom consumption has been reported in the Colombian Amazon (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e), Peru (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e), Venezuela (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e), Mexico (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e) and Ecuador, for example (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePointed to the mushroom \u003cem\u003eF. brasiliensis\u003c/em\u003e as one of the species most collected and consumed by the Yanomami tribe of the Amazon (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e). The authors characterized this species to better understand its nutritional and food potential (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current use value of the edible species \u003cem\u003eA. tremellosa\u003c/em\u003e is zero, given that the species has been consumed in the past but currently has no real use by the Guajajara. The ethnic groups that consume mushrooms generally do not cultivate them but collect them only during their forays into the forest or from fallen logs in their plantations. The edible mushrooms found in the Awaris region are mainly collected in areas open to planting. The mushrooms are eaten \u003cem\u003efresh\u003c/em\u003e or cooked/roasted (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eReturn to the community\u003c/b\u003e: \u003cb\u003eResearch does not end in the forest\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs the study developed, it was possible to see, through reports and experiences, that the native Guajajara people make little use of macrofungi or are unaware of their potential. In view of this, the need was identified to share the importance of mycology and the various uses of macrofungi with these people, especially in the school environment, where knowledge can be materialized and disseminated effectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo this end, a workshop was held at the community school, with the participation of children, young people and adults (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). On this occasion, various visual resources, such as books, printed photos of the macrofungi found in the village, fresh and dried samples arranged in dividing boxes, and audio and video media, were used to obtain data. The lecture was given in simple, accessible language, making it easy for everyone present to understand.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the end of the activity, the participants received souvenirs in the form of mushroom boxes as a symbolic memory of a unique moment: the return of the research to the community. The return of the research to the indigenous community represents a gesture of respect, ethics and appreciation of traditional knowledge and the fundamental role that these communities play in preserving biodiversity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe analyses carried out in this study revealed that the Guajajara native peoples have little recognition of the macrofungi in the environment in which they live, showing a weak perception of the use of the various \"urup\u0026eacute;s\" found in the villages studied. Although macrofungi are no longer used as a component of their diet today, Guajajara recognized that some species may have food potential, such as the reports on the species \u003cem\u003eA. tremellosa\u003c/em\u003e mentioned in the diet by their ancestors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Guajajara indigenous peoples also playfully use fungi, with mentions \u003cem\u003eof C. rugosa, G. harriotii\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. javanicum\u003c/em\u003e and occasionally for medicinal purposes (\u003cem\u003eP. sanguineus and L. crinitus\u003c/em\u003e), reporting greater use in the past, with applications for the female reproductive system, kidneys, gastrointestinal tract and skeleton. The mode of transmission of vertical knowledge is responsible for the transfer of information on the uses of macrofungi.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this way, we can assure that this ethnic group does not have total aversion to macrofungi and is considered to be partially mycophilic (or nonmycophilic) but may still be in an accelerated process of erosion of ethnomycological knowledge. This ethnomycological study is pioneering among the native Guajajara peoples of Brazil in the state of Maranh\u0026atilde;o and reinforces the need to expand research to different villages to disseminate ethnomycological knowledge from different ethnic groups. This study can contribute to both the appreciation and conservation of the traditions and knowledge of Brazil's native peoples in terms of biodiversity and microdiversity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEthics approval\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe obtained approval from the Ethics Committee (CEP/6.737.491) of UFPI, from the National Research Ethics Commission (CONEP/6.971.260), and consent from the Chiefs of the two villages for the conduct of the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeclaration\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the Research Foundation of the State of Piau\u0026iacute; (FAPEPI) and the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) in Brazil.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilva, JB and Barros, FCS, was involved in conceptualization, methodology, data gathering and writing; Guajajara, RP and Trierveiler LP, helped in conceptualization, methodology and formal analysis; Barros, RFM contributed to conceptualization and writing-review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe would like to express our gratitude to the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) for providing open access to selected journal databases, to FAPEPI and CAPES for the scholarship granted, and to the Federal University of Piau\u0026iacute; for the infrastructure and support. To the chiefs and indigenous people of the P\u0026eacute; de Galinha and Tr\u0026ecirc;s Irm\u0026atilde;os villages for contributing to the research. To the religious leader Matusal\u0026eacute;m Braga. To Rayssa Barros. To Labee (Laboratory of Ethnobotany and Ethnoecology) of UFPI. Gratitude to the Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analyzed during this study were included in this published article (along with the supplementary files).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdeniyi MA, Odeyemi Y, Odeyemi O. Ecology, diversity, and seasonal distribution of wild mushrooms in a Nigerian tropical forest reserve. 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Journal of Fungi, USA, v.7, n.11, pp. 1\u0026ndash;98, 2021. \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110933\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/jof7110933\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-ethnobiology-and-ethnomedicine","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jeet","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine](http://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13002","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13002/3","title":"Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine","twitterHandle":"@ethnobiomed","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Mycology, Biodiversity, Ethnomycological knowledge, Uses, Perception","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8526491/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8526491/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe Cerrado biome is home to diverse traditional communities, including indigenous peoples. The Guajajara are present in this biome, occupying areas from the state of Maranh\u0026atilde;o to the northeast of Par\u0026aacute;. Considering the importance of research into ethnomycological knowledge in indigenous communities for the preservation of culture and the environment, especially in relation to macrofungi, the aim of this study was to document and compile the uses of macrofungi by the original Guajajara peoples to evaluate and revitalize traditional knowledge among indigenous generations. The study was carried out in the Cana Brava reserve, located in Barra do Corda, in the state of Maranh\u0026atilde;o (northeast Brazil). The methodological approach used rapport techniques, semistructured interviews, guided tours, checklist interviews with photo albums and fresh or dried fungal samples, field notebooks and quantitative analysis via Use Value. Ninety-six indigenous people from the P\u0026eacute; de Galinha (28.2%) and Tr\u0026ecirc;s Irm\u0026atilde;os (71.8%) villages were interviewed, 54.1% female and 45.9% male. Discourse analysis revealed that Guajajara once used at least six of the 42 species documented. Although they no longer use them in their diet, they agree that \u003cem\u003eAuricularia tremellosa\u003c/em\u003e (Fr.) Pat. was used in the diet of their ancestors. For recreational purposes, they use \u003cem\u003eCalvatia rugosa\u003c/em\u003e (Berk. \u0026amp; M.A. Curtis) D.A. Reid, \u003cem\u003eGeastrum hariotii\u003c/em\u003e Lloyd. and \u003cem\u003eG. javanicum\u003c/em\u003e Lev. and occasionally for medicinal purposes: \u003cem\u003ePycnoporus sanguineus\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Murrill and \u003cem\u003eLentinus crinitus\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Fr. We can be sure that these villages do not have a total aversion to macrofungi and can be considered partially mycophilic. Vertical transmission is responsible for the dynamics of macrofungal knowledge. This study can contribute both to the appreciation and conservation of traditions and to Brazilian fungal biodiversity.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Ethnomycology of the Guajajara indigenous peoples of Maranhão, Northeast Brazil","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-14 19:46:55","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8526491/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-02-06T07:26:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-06T04:37:56+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-03T06:03:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-15T06:47:53+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"14346040038671937453507752130198157549","date":"2026-01-15T04:40:12+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"29130859219275589098875568754959881035","date":"2026-01-14T16:52:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"181375491418148040642805843717580188053","date":"2026-01-14T02:06:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-12T06:38:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-12T06:37:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-01-11T23:23:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine","date":"2026-01-06T04:15:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-ethnobiology-and-ethnomedicine","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jeet","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine](http://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13002","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13002/3","title":"Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine","twitterHandle":"@ethnobiomed","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5d01aa22-807a-45c7-adea-bd4e9401a907","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 14th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-09T06:09:14+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-14 19:46:55","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8526491","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8526491","identity":"rs-8526491","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}