Digital Watermarking for Virtual Physically Unclonable Function Data Concealment and Authentication

Digital Watermarking for Virtual Physically Unclonable Function Data Concealment and Authentication | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Digital Watermarking for Virtual Physically Unclonable Function Data Concealment and Authentication Raviha Khan, Hani Saleh, Brahim Mefgouda, Omar Alhussein, Sami Muhaidat This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7631388/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 25 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 22 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Split-learning-based Virtual Physically Unclonable Functions (VPUFs) in Internet of Things (IoT) networks remain vulnerable to eavesdropping and replay attacks due to insufficient security mechanisms that balance robustness with computational efficiency. This paper proposes a novel digital watermarking approach to improve the security of Split-Learning-based VPUFs.The suggested framework utilizes deep learning-based approaches to generate a watermark to be embedded in the latent representation of the VPUF response to provide additional security against eavesdropping and replay attacks without incurring significant hardware or computational overhead. Watermark embedding is done by simulating Rayleigh fading through Jake's Model to get the secret channel information, which is input to an autoencoder to create a strong latent representation. The formed latent watermark is embedded into the latent response of the VPUF. Experimental testing demonstrates high fidelity, reliability, and unforgability, confirming that the watermarking process does not compromise the VPUF’s performance. Further, the proposal supports dual-factor authentication through simultaneous verification of the extracted watermark and the retrieved latent response. This research not only enhances the strength and security of the baseline VPUF mechanism but also provides a cost-effective, scalable solution specifically designed for resource-constrained IoT networks. Physical sciences/Engineering Physical sciences/Mathematics and computing Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 25 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 30 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 29 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 27 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 25 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 21 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 07 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 06 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 05 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 04 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 02 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 02 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 29 Sep, 2025 Editor invited by journal 24 Sep, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 23 Sep, 2025 First submitted to journal 23 Sep, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7631388","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":525997889,"identity":"e1b86371-0156-4990-bee0-d784cc8a8c91","order_by":0,"name":"Raviha Khan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Khalifa University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Raviha","middleName":"","lastName":"Khan","suffix":""},{"id":525997890,"identity":"71f50731-03c7-4514-bab0-e45f277be107","order_by":1,"name":"Hani Saleh","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA3ElEQVRIie2OMQrCQBBFRwJJM7DtiqJX2JBCbOJVVhZSrdaChVapcgCL3CIXWNkildimFAQrwYCthSMWdhvtLPbB7+bN/wAezx8iKIYyBB7Y3xQEHqrvFXgrmHynTKLD3sAjRTYo7glCOobIGqcyLZbS9HKF/fJQKQQVbzGT7mFGC9PbBiiaRWURAjrXwq0cr4KGbXDW6DMpGwns1rqVhlogtCi4DmiYlcC10yCFWuZ5jbzJkrgUdZzzS9cwnbTtYz1iO3Xm19V6zJg6uWteyM8HgLD73uPxeDxdPAELlD+IZTYsfwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Khalifa University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hani","middleName":"","lastName":"Saleh","suffix":""},{"id":525997891,"identity":"fa10ecc4-87ab-4590-8eca-1dd5b710e8a7","order_by":2,"name":"Brahim Mefgouda","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Khalifa University of Science and 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and Authentication","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific 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This paper proposes a novel digital watermarking approach to improve the security of Split-Learning-based VPUFs.The suggested framework utilizes deep learning-based approaches to generate a watermark to be embedded in the latent representation of the VPUF response to provide additional security against eavesdropping and replay attacks without incurring significant hardware or computational overhead. Watermark embedding is done by simulating Rayleigh fading through Jake's Model to get the secret channel information, which is input to an autoencoder to create a strong latent representation. The formed latent watermark is embedded into the latent response of the VPUF. Experimental testing demonstrates high fidelity, reliability, and unforgability, confirming that the watermarking process does not compromise the VPUF’s performance. Further, the proposal supports dual-factor authentication through simultaneous verification of the extracted watermark and the retrieved latent response. This research not only enhances the strength and security of the baseline VPUF mechanism but also provides a cost-effective, scalable solution specifically designed for resource-constrained IoT networks.","manuscriptTitle":"Digital Watermarking for Virtual Physically Unclonable Function Data Concealment and Authentication","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-16 18:07:42","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7631388/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-10-30T05:19:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-29T17:00:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-27T08:03:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-25T14:32:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-21T07:23:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-07T12:07:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-06T10:45:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-05T15:58:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"6907232721423556206584471287500641908","date":"2025-10-04T13:24:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"191302269862048854343737766778248664956","date":"2025-10-03T18:16:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"233303379347766968608419068839857111788","date":"2025-10-03T10:46:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"34749231928011692561907746327189486376","date":"2025-10-03T08:30:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"140874574187628041730806525982162696104","date":"2025-10-03T03:50:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"27471159470363647689325513741087313507","date":"2025-10-03T01:04:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"110381818909234976176775823512395818080","date":"2025-10-03T01:00:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-02T21:27:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"297340617852867867320102163829947979649","date":"2025-10-02T21:25:12+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-02T17:36:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-29T05:36:03+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-24T18:05:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-23T12:31:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-09-23T04:37:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0bea3030-b081-4173-b2de-b8e2eb188fc4","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 16th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":55904771,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering"},{"id":55904772,"name":"Physical sciences/Mathematics and computing"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-02T16:08:10+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7631388","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-35159-4","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2026-02-25 15:58:02","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 25th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-16 18:07:42","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-026-35159-4","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-35159-4","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7631388","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7631388","identity":"rs-7631388","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}