Assessment of the Annual Effective Dose and Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk Due to Natural Background Radiation Levels in West Pokot, Kenya

Assessment of the Annual Effective Dose and Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk Due to Natural Background Radiation Levels in West Pokot, Kenya | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Assessment of the Annual Effective Dose and Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk Due to Natural Background Radiation Levels in West Pokot, Kenya Elijah Pkemoi, Elijah Mwangi, Michael Josiah Mangala, Susan Waiyego Karuga This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4266316/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This research determined the annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE) and excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) resulting from background ionizing radiation (BIR) within the vicinity of the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining sites in West Pokot, Kenya. The study employed a portable hand-held Thermo Scientific RADEYE PRD Personal Radiation Detector for data collection. Measurements of the ADR in air were conducted at thirty-two distinct locations within the sites and their surroundings, each positioned 1.0 meters above ground level. The recorded ADRs ranged from 66 to 155 nGy h − 1 within the sites, with an average of 106 ± 22 nGy h − 1 . These readings were above the global average value of 60 nGy h − 1 . The AEDE ranged from 0.08 to 0.19 mSv, with a mean of 0.13 ± 0.03 mSv/yr, which is below the threshold limit of 1 mSv/yr. The excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) ranged from 0.28x10 − 3 to 0.67x10 − 3 , with an average of 0.46 ± 0.10. These values surpass the recommended limit value of 0.299×10 − 3 . While the AEDE values were compliant with international recommendations of 1 mSv/y, the ELCR values surpassed the average recommended limit. This suggests that artisanal gold mining sites pose no immediate radiological health hazards due to the absorbed dose from the BIR, yet the risk of cancer development over a lifetime of exposure remains considerably high. Thus, routine monitoring of the BIR and radioactivity concentration in soil and rocks and minimizing prolonged exposure are recommended to ensure the safety of workers and residents. Background ionizing radiation (BIR) Gold mining Annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE) Excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) and Absorbed dose rate (ADR) Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Our environment is constantly exposed to radiation from both natural and human-made sources. The natural background ionizing radiation is produced by cosmic rays and naturally occurring radioactive elements in the Earth's crust, including within living organisms (Adebiyi et al., 2021; Jwanbot et al., 2013; UNSCEAR, 2000). Radionuclides such as 40 K and those produced during the decay of 238 U and 232 Th significantly contribute to human exposure, with concentrations varying in soil and rocks due to geological factors (Akortia et al., 2021; Azeem et al., 2023). In addition to natural sources, human activities such as nuclear reactors, medical procedures, industry, and research introduce radiation into the environment (Adebiyi et al., 2021; Hu et al., 2010). Globally, humans receive an average dose of approximately 80% from natural sources and 20% from human-made sources (Ademola et al., 2014; Marciniak et al., 2022; Masok et al., 2015). Geological conditions affect radiation emissions, with higher levels found in igneous rocks such as granite and lower levels in sedimentary rocks, except for shale and phosphate rocks (Sanjurjo-Sánchez & Alves, 2017). The increased global focus on evaluating radiation levels and their environmental impacts stems from recognizing the harmful effects of ionizing radiation on biological tissues. Understanding these levels is crucial due to the damaging consequences of high-energy ionizing radiation interacting with biological matter, causing ionization, and releasing charged particles and free radicals that damage cellular structures. This damage extends to DNA, resulting in base damage, sugar damage, single-strand breaks (SSBs), double-strand breaks (DSBs), and DNA‒protein cross-links (Collins & Azqueta, 2014; Islam, 2017). DNA damage contributes to gene mutation, chromosomal anomalies, cell death, mutagenesis, and carcinogenesis, often leading to chronic diseases and various types of cancer (Avwiri et al., 2017; Chatzipapas et al., 2023; Kaur et al., 2019; Qureshi et al., 2014). Considering these health implications, cancer remains a significant adverse outcome associated with ionizing radiation exposure, highlighting the need for a thorough investigation and mitigation of potential environmental consequences that address ecological and health concerns. The Ortum and Muruny River regions are rich in gold mineral deposits, leading to extensive mining activities. These operations involve excavating and crushing rocks and alluvial ores associated with gold mineral deposits, redistributing radionuclides into the environment and increasing radiation dose levels. Excavation and crushing release radionuclides and dust particles, contributing to heightened radiation levels in the vicinity (Adebayo et al., 2022; Ogundele et al., 2021; Thomson, 2021). Given that human activities increase radionuclide content and radiation levels, it is crucial to monitor and evaluate radiation levels to maintain exposure as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA principle) (Charles, 2007; Kuzmanović et al., 2023). In recent years, studies have been conducted to investigate human exposure to background radiation, examining natural radioactivity levels and background radiation exposure in various soil types, including surface soil, agricultural and farm soil (Azeem et al., 2023; El-Gamal et al., 2019), gold mining soil (Ogundele et al., 2021), quarry soil (Ofomola et al., 2023), environmental soil (Raja & Neelakantan, 2022), and uncultivated soil (Csordás et al., 2023), across different global regions. However, there is a significant research gap regarding radiation assessment within and around the mining sites in Ortum and the Muruny River in West Pokot. To address this gap, this study conducted the initial investigation in the region, with the primary objective of evaluating and measuring the absorbed dose rate of background radiation in the air. The measured dose rate is used to calculate the annual AEDE experienced by individuals near the site, including miners and the general public. Additionally, the study assessed the ELCR associated with this background radiation exposure. The findings were compared against established recommended standards to determine the radiological health implications. Furthermore, this research will be used to establish a radiation baseline for the region, as no prior radiological studies have been conducted in the area. The pictures show mining activities taking place at the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mines, West Pokot Fig. 1. Materials And Methods Study Sites The research study area is located in Ortum and the Muruny River in West Pokot, Kenya. It is between the Mtelo and Cheranganyi Hills in the Pokot South subcounty. The study area covers a total of approximately 20 km 2 between longitudes 35°22'08" to 35°27'11" east and latitudes 1°27'37" to 1°32'01" north Fig. 2. It has a population of approximately 3,000people and an altitude ranging from 1360 to 1420 m. The climate is characterized as savanna, with average temperatures ranging from 21°C to 31°C. The eastern part of the study area is composed of intrusive and volcanic rocks, which cover the Ortum and Muruny River artisanal gold mining areas. The middle section consists of sedimentary rocks, while the western part is primarily defined by arenite, limestone, weathering rocks, and intermittent granite intrusion formations in the north and south. Background radiation dose measurements In this study, a portable hand-held Thermo Scientific RADEYE PRD Personal Radiation Detector was used to measure the absorbed gamma radiation field equivalent dose rate in nGy h − 1 around the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining sites in situ. The Geiger counter serves as a personal dosimeter designed for detecting and measuring radiation levels in outdoor environments, homes, and workplaces. It is capable of determining the equivalent dosage rate and the specific radioactivity of caesium-137, β-particles, γ-rays, and X-rays; this device operates by registering electrical pulses triggered by radiation passing through a Geiger tube. These pulses are then recorded as counts by the CPU. A total of thirty-two measurements were taken from various locations, with GPS readings recorded at each point around the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining area to assess background radiation at 1 m above ground level. The detector window was directed at specified target areas during these measurements. To ensure accuracy, three measurements were taken at each point, three minutes apart. The average absorbed dose rate (ADR) was then calculated in nGy h − 1 . This selection of measurement points aimed to evenly cover the entire study area. The ADR value was essential for calculating the annual effective dose equivalent AEDE in µSv y − 1 for both miners and the general public using a specific equation. $$AEDE\left(Outdoor\right)\left(\mu Sv y־¹\right)=D\left(nGyh־¹\right)\times T\times Q\times OF\times 10{־}^{3}$$ 1 where T is the time in hours per year (8760), Q is the 0.7 SvG y − 1 conversion factor, and OF is the occupancy factor of 0.2 (Ogundele et al., 2021 ), which relates to the human effective dose acquired by miners to the absorption rate at mining sites. The AEDE recommended limit is 1 mSv/yr. The ability of radiation to cause cancer in the human body over a specific limit of exposure for a given length of time, based on an average human lifetime of 70 years, is known as an ELCR. Using AEDE values, the ELCR was determined using the following equation: $$ELCR=\left(DL\right)\left(AEDE\right)\left(RF\right)$$ 2 where RF is the risk factor (Sv − 1 ), DL is computed using the mean length of life (70 years), which is the fatal cancer risk per Sievert, and AEDE refers to the annual effective dose equivalent. ICRP reports proposed an RF of 0.050 when public stochastic effects are utilized from low dose rates from background radiation (Ofomola et al., 2023 ). Results and Discussion The measured values of the BIR, AEDE, and ELCR along with the corresponding coordinates of the measured area are presented in Table 1 . This study provides a comprehensive overview of the measured absorbed dose rates around the Ortum and Muruny River artisanal gold mining areas Fig. 2 . The background radiation dose rates in the study area varied from 66.9 ± 6.2 nGy h − 1 to 155 ± 20.1 nGy h − 1 , with a mean value of 106 ± 22 nGy h − 1 . Despite being above the recommended safe limit of 60 nGy h − 1 , (Shehzad et al., 2019 ), the calculated AEDE values were below the limit of 1 mSv/yr for all sites. The AEDE values ranged from 0.08 mSv to 0.19 mSv, with a mean of 0.13 ± 0.03 mSv/yr. These findings suggest a consistent trend in background radiation exposure in the sampled areas, attributed mainly to gamma radiation from geological features, radon, and cosmic rays (Joel et al., 2021 ; Ravisankar et al., 2016 ). The variation in radionuclide concentrations in soil and rocks, specifically ( 238 U, 232 Th, and 40 K), along with altitude, contributes to these exposure levels exceeding global averages for the background exposure dose rate. The measured ADRs slightly surpassed the global average of 60 nGy h − 1 , but the computed mean AEDE values of 0.13 ± 0.03 mSv/yr for the mining sites remained below the recommended limits of 1 mSv/yr. Figure 3 illustrates this compliance with permissible limits of 1.00 mSv/yr for the general public and 20.00 mSv/yr for occupational workers (ICRP) (2007). The manifestation of cancer resulting from exposure to ionizing radiation does not manifest immediately; rather, its development is a gradual process that may last several years. According to (Ainsbury et al., 2023 ; Seibold et al., 2020 ), after radiation exposure, various cancer types may emerge, albeit with varying frequencies, requiring detection through epidemiological methods. The interval between radiation exposure and the identification of cancer is termed the latent period, and this period can extend over numerous years. In the majority of cases, cancer becomes apparent only in individuals who have reached an advanced age. The concept of ELCR is thus defined as the likelihood that an individual will experience cancer throughout their lifetime as a consequence of radiation exposure (Sridharan et al., 2016 ). The average ELCR due to background radiation exposure ranged from 0.28x10 − 3 to 0.67x10 − 3 , with an average of 0.46 ± 0.10 (Table 1 ). The values surpass the recommended limit value of 0.299×10 − 3 (300 persons per 1 million population) (Avwiri et al., 2017 ; UNSCEAR, 2008 ), indicating a notably elevated probability of developing cancer over a lifetime within the artisanal gold mining environment Fig. 4 . Approximately 94% of the measured points exceeded the recommended limits, representing a substantial increase in cancer cases, which is detectable only through epidemiological studies. The lifetime cancer risk due to gamma radiation exposure in Muzaffarabad, the state capital of Pakistan, was assessed. The annual effective dosage resulting from radon exposure ranged between 0.4 and 3.78 mSv/yr for indoor measurements, with a mean of 1.18 mSv/yr. The corresponding calculated ELCR varied between 1.49x10 − 3 and 14.01x10 − 3 , with an average value of 4.38x10 − 3 (Rafique et al., 2021 ). The results of the exposure dose rate in this research are far greater than the results estimated in this investigation. Table 1 The calculated ADRs, AEDEs and ELCRs around the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining sites Sampling Points Latitude Longitude BIR (nGy/h) AEDE (mSv/yr) ELCR OR1 1.465742 35.370481 89.3 ± 14.0 0.11 0.39 OR2 1.467617 35.371874 96.1 ± 4.2 0.12 0.42 OR3 1.466224 35.369739 78.8 ± 10.1 0.10 0.35 OR4 1.465789 35.369714 112 ± 8 0.14 0.49 OR5 1.463916 35.370744 103 ± 5 0.13 0.46 OR6 1.463446 35.370375 97.4 ± 5.4 0.12 0.42 OR7 1.470406 35.373212 100 ± 7 0.12 0.42 OR8 1.462738 35.369976 95.4 ± 8.5 0.12 0.42 OR9 1.461973 35.368365 89.2 ± 11.5 0.11 0.39 OR10 1.466759 35.371024 126 ± 10 0.15 0.53 OR11 1.466464 35.372246 155 ± 1 0.19 0.67 OR12 1.471197 35.373001 134 ± 11 0.16 0.56 OR13 1.473406 35.372718 113 ± 10 0.14 0.49 OR14 1.476493 35.374381 99.6 ± 10.1 0.12 0.42 OR15 1.455694 35.366144 68.6 ± 8.0 0.08 0.28 RM16 1.531431 35.445249 79.3 ± 9.1 0.10 0.35 RM17 1.530554 35.450515 66.9 ± 3.2 0.08 0.28 RM18 1.531261 35.448526 119 ± 9 0.15 0.53 RM19 1.532592 35.447013 106 ± 6 0.13 0.46 RM20 1.533046 35.452786 134 ± 11 0.16 0.56 RM21 1.533435 35.452995 129 ± 8 0.16 0.56 RM22 1.532039 35.446078 114 ± 8 0.14 0.49 RM23 1.529771 35.444256 99.1 ± 9.2 0.12 0.42 RM24 1.536355 35.464646 101 ± 8 0.12 0.42 RM25 1.531567 35.462227 88.2 ± 9.5 0.11 0.39 RM26 1.535228 35.451392 92.3 ± 4.5 0.11 0.39 RM27 1.530801 35.417655 78.7 ± 5.3 0.10 0.35 RM28 1.529876 35.420365 136 ± 13 0.17 0.60 RM29 1.531612 35.415229 145 ± 12 0.18 0.63 RM30 1.515456 35.409538 131 ± 8 0.16 0.56 RM31 1.496562 35.401901 122 ± 11 0.15 0.53 RM32 1.483003 35.382558 111 ± 10 0.14 0.49 Mean ± SD 106 ± 22 0.13 ± 0.03 0.46 ± 0.10 MAX 155 0.19 0.665 MIN 66 0.08 0.28 Conclusion This study assessed the annual effective dose and ELCR from background radiation within and around the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining sites to establish baseline data for these locations. A total of 32 measurements were taken at 1 m above the ground at various locations. The average absorbed dose of 82.9 ± 13.9 nGy h − 1 was greater than the global mean of 60 nGy h − 1 . The mean AEDE value was 0.32 ± 0.04 mSv/yr, which is slightly lower than the global average of 1 mSv/yr. The calculated mean AEDE values remain within permissible limits of 1 mSv/yr. However, the average ELCR of 0.46 ± 0.10 slightly exceeds the standard limit of 0.299×10 − 3 , likely due to enhanced radionuclide concentrations resulting from excavation activities. While the immediate radiological health effects of absorbed doses appear manageable, the probability of cancer developing over a lifetime within artisanal gold mining areas is greater. As a recommendation, regular background radiation monitoring, assessment of radionuclide concentrations in soil and rocks, and careful management of exposure are advised by local authorities, mining management, and interested researchers. 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Pkemoi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACHhBhwCDDwN4AYlgQr4WHgecAiCFBrBYQJZEAoonQYs5z+OiGDwU2PAY3n1/d8KNAgoG/vTsBrxbL3ra0mzMM0ngMbueU3ewBOkzizNkNeLUYnOcxu81jcBikJe0GD1CLgUQuIS3834Ba/gMddibt5h+itJztYQNqOcBjcIP92G2ibLHsOWYG9Esyj+SZHLbbMgYSPAT9Ys6T/OzGhz92cnzHjz+7+eaPjRx/ey8Bh8EYCkC3gWgevMpRtMg3sD8gqHoUjIJRMApGJgAARBpI9nAtuQwAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nairobi","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Elijah","middleName":"","lastName":"Pkemoi","suffix":""},{"id":311971346,"identity":"88063008-6a16-4de4-98c5-2be0dd90480a","order_by":1,"name":"Elijah Mwangi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nairobi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Elijah","middleName":"","lastName":"Mwangi","suffix":""},{"id":311971347,"identity":"d51839d6-5dbc-4eee-b861-8300c81fbc48","order_by":2,"name":"Michael Josiah Mangala","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nairobi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Michael","middleName":"Josiah","lastName":"Mangala","suffix":""},{"id":311971348,"identity":"9bf0e550-4349-45a0-9923-915fa87ad316","order_by":3,"name":"Susan Waiyego Karuga","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nairobi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Susan","middleName":"Waiyego","lastName":"Karuga","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-04-14 21:44:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4266316/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4266316/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":58285912,"identity":"6e17ab40-9d4e-4776-8a40-a03565cfbdfe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-13 12:10:59","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":268970,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePictures showing mining activities taking place at the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mines, West Pokot\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4266316/v1/57479d989e78acc80d0250b9.png"},{"id":58285915,"identity":"3fc4ad9f-3d1d-4273-ab67-bcf5a13a7bd1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-13 12:10:59","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":245878,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeology of West Pokot County and samplingpoints (geology and mines)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4266316/v1/ea0dfbdfc1975574f36aa975.png"},{"id":58285913,"identity":"7c336936-a6fd-4447-aa98-91c6df7313ca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-13 12:10:59","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19417,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe graph of estimated AEDE within artisanal gold mining sites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4266316/v1/9632f963a9eedf8ae3e6952d.png"},{"id":58285914,"identity":"bd26420a-9289-4c2c-90e5-3430ca823dff","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-13 12:10:59","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":9671,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph of the estimated ELCR within artisanal gold mining sites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4266316/v1/c8e3a3dd5af51c77bdea3d12.png"},{"id":73938228,"identity":"960cf0a6-d01e-4306-af0e-90c55ab907c1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-16 07:32:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1312626,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4266316/v1/a3902e3a-d716-4004-b144-69406c8ae835.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Assessment of the Annual Effective Dose and Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk Due to Natural Background Radiation Levels in West Pokot, Kenya","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur environment is constantly exposed to radiation from both natural and human-made sources. The natural background ionizing radiation is produced by cosmic rays and naturally occurring radioactive elements in the Earth\u0026apos;s crust, including within living organisms\u0026nbsp;(Adebiyi et al., 2021; Jwanbot et al., 2013; UNSCEAR, 2000). Radionuclides such as \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK and those produced during the decay of \u003csup\u003e238\u003c/sup\u003eU and \u003csup\u003e232\u003c/sup\u003eTh significantly contribute to human exposure, with concentrations varying in soil and rocks due to geological factors (Akortia et al., 2021; Azeem et al., 2023). In addition to natural sources, human activities such as nuclear reactors, medical procedures, industry, and research introduce radiation into the environment (Adebiyi et al., 2021; Hu et al., 2010). Globally, humans receive an average dose of approximately 80% from natural sources and 20% from human-made sources (Ademola et al., 2014; Marciniak et al., 2022; Masok et al., 2015). Geological conditions affect radiation emissions, with higher levels found in igneous rocks such as granite and lower levels in sedimentary rocks, except for shale and phosphate rocks (Sanjurjo-S\u0026aacute;nchez \u0026amp; Alves, 2017). The increased global focus on evaluating radiation levels and their environmental impacts stems from recognizing the harmful effects of ionizing radiation on biological tissues. Understanding these levels is crucial due to the damaging consequences of high-energy ionizing radiation interacting with biological matter, causing ionization, and releasing charged particles and free radicals that damage cellular structures. This damage extends to DNA, resulting in base damage, sugar damage, single-strand breaks (SSBs), double-strand breaks (DSBs), and DNA‒protein cross-links (Collins \u0026amp; Azqueta, 2014; Islam, 2017). DNA damage contributes to gene mutation, chromosomal anomalies, cell death, mutagenesis, and carcinogenesis, often leading to chronic diseases and various types of cancer (Avwiri et al., 2017; Chatzipapas et al., 2023; Kaur et al., 2019; Qureshi et al., 2014). Considering these health implications, cancer remains a significant adverse outcome associated with ionizing radiation exposure, highlighting the need for a thorough investigation and mitigation of potential environmental consequences that address ecological and health concerns. The Ortum and Muruny River regions are rich in gold mineral deposits, leading to extensive mining activities. These operations involve excavating and crushing rocks and alluvial ores associated with gold mineral deposits, redistributing radionuclides into the environment and increasing radiation dose levels. Excavation and crushing release radionuclides and dust particles, contributing to heightened radiation levels in the vicinity (Adebayo et al., 2022; Ogundele et al., 2021; Thomson, 2021). Given that human activities increase radionuclide content and radiation levels, it is crucial to monitor and evaluate radiation levels to maintain exposure as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA principle) (Charles, 2007; Kuzmanović et al., 2023). In recent years, studies have been conducted to investigate human exposure to background radiation, examining natural radioactivity levels and background radiation exposure in various soil types, including surface soil, agricultural and farm soil (Azeem et al., 2023; El-Gamal et al., 2019), gold mining soil (Ogundele et al., 2021), quarry soil (Ofomola et al., 2023), environmental soil (Raja \u0026amp; Neelakantan, 2022), and uncultivated soil (Csord\u0026aacute;s et al., 2023), across different global regions. However, there is a significant research gap regarding radiation assessment within and around the mining sites in Ortum and the Muruny River in West Pokot. To address this gap, this study conducted the initial investigation in the region, with the primary objective of evaluating and measuring the absorbed dose rate of background radiation in the air. The measured dose rate is used to calculate the annual AEDE experienced by individuals near the site, including miners and the general public. Additionally, the study assessed the ELCR associated with this background radiation exposure. The findings were compared against established recommended standards to determine the radiological health implications. Furthermore, this research will be used to establish a radiation baseline for the region, as no prior radiological studies have been conducted in the area. The pictures show mining activities taking place at the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mines, West Pokot Fig. 1.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials And Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy Sites\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research study area is located in Ortum and the Muruny River in West Pokot, Kenya. It is between the Mtelo and Cheranganyi Hills in the Pokot South subcounty. The study area covers a total of approximately 20 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e between longitudes 35\u0026deg;22\u0026apos;08\u0026quot; to 35\u0026deg;27\u0026apos;11\u0026quot; east and latitudes 1\u0026deg;27\u0026apos;37\u0026quot; to 1\u0026deg;32\u0026apos;01\u0026quot; north Fig. 2. It has a population of approximately 3,000people and an altitude ranging from 1360 to 1420\u0026nbsp;m.\u0026nbsp;The climate is characterized as\u0026nbsp;savanna, with average temperatures ranging from 21\u0026deg;C to 31\u0026deg;C. The eastern part of the study area is composed of intrusive and volcanic rocks, which cover the Ortum and Muruny River artisanal gold mining areas. The middle section consists of sedimentary rocks, while the western part is primarily defined by arenite, limestone, weathering rocks, and intermittent granite intrusion formations in the north and south.\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"Background radiation dose measurements","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, a portable hand-held Thermo Scientific RADEYE PRD Personal Radiation Detector was used to measure the absorbed gamma radiation field equivalent dose rate in nGy h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e around the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining sites in situ. The Geiger counter serves as a personal dosimeter designed for detecting and measuring radiation levels in outdoor environments, homes, and workplaces. It is capable of determining the equivalent dosage rate and the specific radioactivity of caesium-137, β-particles, γ-rays, and X-rays; this device operates by registering electrical pulses triggered by radiation passing through a Geiger tube. These pulses are then recorded as counts by the CPU. A total of thirty-two measurements were taken from various locations, with GPS readings recorded at each point around the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining area to assess background radiation at 1 m above ground level. The detector window was directed at specified target areas during these measurements. To ensure accuracy, three measurements were taken at each point, three minutes apart. The average absorbed dose rate (ADR) was then calculated in nGy h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. This selection of measurement points aimed to evenly cover the entire study area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ADR value was essential for calculating the annual effective dose equivalent AEDE in \u0026micro;Sv y\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for both miners and the general public using a specific equation.\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$AEDE\\left(Outdoor\\right)\\left(\\mu Sv y־\u0026sup1;\\right)=D\\left(nGyh־\u0026sup1;\\right)\\times T\\times Q\\times OF\\times 10{־}^{3}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e is the time in hours per year (8760), \u003cem\u003eQ\u003c/em\u003e is the 0.7 \u003cem\u003eSvG y\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e conversion factor, and \u003cem\u003eOF\u003c/em\u003e is the occupancy factor of 0.2 (Ogundele et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), which relates to the human effective dose acquired by miners to the absorption rate at mining sites. The AEDE recommended limit is 1 mSv/yr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ability of radiation to cause cancer in the human body over a specific limit of exposure for a given length of time, based on an average human lifetime of 70 years, is known as an ELCR. Using AEDE values, the ELCR was determined using the following equation:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$ELCR=\\left(DL\\right)\\left(AEDE\\right)\\left(RF\\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eRF\u003c/em\u003e is the risk factor (Sv\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e), \u003cem\u003eDL\u003c/em\u003e is computed using the mean length of life (70 years), which is the fatal cancer risk per Sievert, and AEDE refers to the annual effective dose equivalent. ICRP reports proposed an \u003cem\u003eRF\u003c/em\u003e of 0.050 when public stochastic effects are utilized from low dose rates from background radiation (Ofomola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe measured values of the BIR, AEDE, and ELCR along with the corresponding coordinates of the measured area are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the measured absorbed dose rates around the Ortum and Muruny River artisanal gold mining areas Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The background radiation dose rates in the study area varied from 66.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.2 nGy h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e to 155\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.1 nGy h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, with a mean value of 106\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22 nGy h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. Despite being above the recommended safe limit of 60 nGy h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, (Shehzad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), the calculated AEDE values were below the limit of 1 mSv/yr for all sites. The AEDE values ranged from 0.08 mSv to 0.19 mSv, with a mean of 0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 mSv/yr. These findings suggest a consistent trend in background radiation exposure in the sampled areas, attributed mainly to gamma radiation from geological features, radon, and cosmic rays (Joel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ravisankar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The variation in radionuclide concentrations in soil and rocks, specifically (\u003csup\u003e238\u003c/sup\u003eU, \u003csup\u003e232\u003c/sup\u003eTh, and \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK), along with altitude, contributes to these exposure levels exceeding global averages for the background exposure dose rate. The measured ADRs slightly surpassed the global average of 60 nGy h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, but the computed mean AEDE values of 0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 mSv/yr for the mining sites remained below the recommended limits of 1 mSv/yr. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e illustrates this compliance with permissible limits of 1.00 mSv/yr for the general public and 20.00 mSv/yr for occupational workers (ICRP) (2007).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe manifestation of cancer resulting from exposure to ionizing radiation does not manifest immediately; rather, its development is a gradual process that may last several years. According to (Ainsbury et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Seibold et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), after radiation exposure, various cancer types may emerge, albeit with varying frequencies, requiring detection through epidemiological methods. The interval between radiation exposure and the identification of cancer is termed the latent period, and this period can extend over numerous years. In the majority of cases, cancer becomes apparent only in individuals who have reached an advanced age. The concept of ELCR is thus defined as the likelihood that an individual will experience cancer throughout their lifetime as a consequence of radiation exposure (Sridharan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe average ELCR due to background radiation exposure ranged from 0.28x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e to 0.67x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e, with an average of 0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The values surpass the recommended limit value of 0.299\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e (300 persons per 1\u0026nbsp;million population) (Avwiri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; UNSCEAR, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), indicating a notably elevated probability of developing cancer over a lifetime within the artisanal gold mining environment Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. Approximately 94% of the measured points exceeded the recommended limits, representing a substantial increase in cancer cases, which is detectable only through epidemiological studies. The lifetime cancer risk due to gamma radiation exposure in Muzaffarabad, the state capital of Pakistan, was assessed. The annual effective dosage resulting from radon exposure ranged between 0.4 and 3.78 mSv/yr for indoor measurements, with a mean of 1.18 mSv/yr. The corresponding calculated ELCR varied between 1.49x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e and 14.01x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e, with an average value of 4.38x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e (Rafique et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The results of the exposure dose rate in this research are far greater than the results estimated in this investigation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe calculated ADRs, AEDEs and ELCRs around the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining sites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSampling Points\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLatitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLongitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBIR (nGy/h)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAEDE (mSv/yr)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eELCR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.465742\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.370481\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.467617\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.371874\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.466224\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.369739\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.465789\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.369714\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.463916\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.370744\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.463446\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.370375\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.470406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.373212\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.462738\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.369976\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.461973\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.368365\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.466759\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.371024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e126\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.466464\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.372246\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e155\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.471197\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.373001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e134\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.473406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.372718\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e113\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.476493\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.374381\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.455694\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.366144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.531431\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.445249\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.530554\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.450515\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.531261\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.448526\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e119\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.532592\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.447013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.533046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.452786\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e134\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.533435\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.452995\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e129\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.532039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.446078\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e114\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.529771\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.444256\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.536355\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.464646\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.531567\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.462227\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.535228\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.451392\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.530801\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.417655\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.529876\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.420365\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e136\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.531612\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.415229\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e145\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.515456\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.409538\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e131\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.496562\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.401901\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRM32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.483003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.382558\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMAX\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e155\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.665\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMIN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study assessed the annual effective dose and ELCR from background radiation within and around the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining sites to establish baseline data for these locations. A total of 32 measurements were taken at 1 m above the ground at various locations. The average absorbed dose of 82.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.9 nGy h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e was greater than the global mean of 60 nGy h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. The mean AEDE value was 0.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04 mSv/yr, which is slightly lower than the global average of 1 mSv/yr. The calculated mean AEDE values remain within permissible limits of 1 mSv/yr. However, the average ELCR of 0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10 slightly exceeds the standard limit of 0.299\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e, likely due to enhanced radionuclide concentrations resulting from excavation activities. While the immediate radiological health effects of absorbed doses appear manageable, the probability of cancer developing over a lifetime within artisanal gold mining areas is greater. As a recommendation, regular background radiation monitoring, assessment of radionuclide concentrations in soil and rocks, and careful management of exposure are advised by local authorities, mining management, and interested researchers. Additionally, the working hours of exposure for miners and the public should be minimized.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e \u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no funding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interest declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdebayo, A. S., Olufemi, A. P., Ogundele, L. T., Okunnuwa, O. Q., Toyeje, A. B., \u0026amp; Olowookere, C. J. (2022). Ecological and human health risk assessments of metals in soil and tailing from Ife-Ijesha gold mining area, Southwest Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Earth Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e81\u003c/em\u003e(18), 462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10581-9\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdebiyi, F. M., Ore, O. T., Adeola, A. O., Durodola, S. S., Akeremale, O. F., Olubodun, K. O., \u0026amp; Akeremale, O. K. (2021). Occurrence and remediation of naturally occurring radioactive materials in Nigeria: A review. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Chemistry Letters\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e19\u003c/em\u003e(4), 3243\u0026ndash;3262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01237-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdemola, A., Ayo, I., Babalola, B., Folasade, O., Onyinye, A., Onuh, O., Emmanuel, E., \u0026amp; Enyenihi, E. (2014). 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Siegel, O. Selinus, \u0026amp; R. Finkelman (Eds.), \u003cem\u003ePractical Applications of Medical Geology\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 475\u0026ndash;523). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53893-4_15\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUNSCEAR. (2000). Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation UNSCEAR 2000 Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes VOLUME I: Sources United Nations.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUNSCEAR. (2008). Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation UNSCEAR 2008 Report Volume I: Sources Report to the General Assembly Scientific Annexes A and B.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Background ionizing radiation (BIR), Gold mining, Annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE), Excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR), and Absorbed dose rate (ADR)","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4266316/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4266316/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis research determined the annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE) and excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) resulting from background ionizing radiation (BIR) within the vicinity of the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining sites in West Pokot, Kenya. The study employed a portable hand-held Thermo Scientific RADEYE PRD Personal Radiation Detector for data collection. Measurements of the ADR in air were conducted at thirty-two distinct locations within the sites and their surroundings, each positioned 1.0 meters above ground level. The recorded ADRs ranged from 66 to 155 nGy h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e within the sites, with an average of 106\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22 nGy h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. These readings were above the global average value of 60 nGy h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. The AEDE ranged from 0.08 to 0.19 mSv, with a mean of 0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 mSv/yr, which is below the threshold limit of 1 mSv/yr. The excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) ranged from 0.28x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e to 0.67x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e, with an average of 0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10. These values surpass the recommended limit value of 0.299\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e. While the AEDE values were compliant with international recommendations of 1 mSv/y, the ELCR values surpassed the average recommended limit. This suggests that artisanal gold mining sites pose no immediate radiological health hazards due to the absorbed dose from the BIR, yet the risk of cancer development over a lifetime of exposure remains considerably high. Thus, routine monitoring of the BIR and radioactivity concentration in soil and rocks and minimizing prolonged exposure are recommended to ensure the safety of workers and residents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessment of the Annual Effective Dose and Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk Due to Natural Background Radiation Levels in West Pokot, Kenya","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-06-13 12:10:54","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4266316/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"921ee499-48fb-4b86-8ce8-16edf7d04e12","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 13th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-01-16T07:24:32+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-06-13 12:10:54","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4266316","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4266316","identity":"rs-4266316","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}