I need to see me on TV: Parasocial affirmations of sexual and gender identity development of LGBTQ+ mass media consumers

I need to see me on TV: Parasocial affirmations of sexual and gender identity development of LGBTQ+ mass media consumers | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article I need to see me on TV: Parasocial affirmations of sexual and gender identity development of LGBTQ+ mass media consumers Dr. Don Lowe This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4208366/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This project presents a new cycle model of media usage by LGBTQ+ community members in the United States that reveals a purpose previously unnamed and undefined. While parasocial contact, parasocial interaction, and parasocial relationships have been present in the academic literature for quite some time (as early as 1956 when Horton and Wohl first wrote of the phenomenon), use of media to parasocially affirm one’s LGBTQ+ status is unique to this study. This study used qualitative methods to examine a specific mass media audience, LGBTQ+ individuals, and asked them, in one-on-one interviews, how they utilize mass media to assist with their sexual and gender identity development. Arguably, the most important finding is that: instead of parasocial interactions or parasocial relationships participants reported parasocial affirmations. Parasocial affirmations are defined by this project as usage experiences of media characters/personalities that allow for visualization of self-acceptance. These affirming associations in turn create a need for additional experiences and the process starts again. The affirmations include information about successful negotiation of sexual and/or gender identity and therefore, affirming their own sexual and gender identity. Theoretical implications of this study include an extension of the parasocial interaction/relationship theory with the addition of parasocial Publishing/Media Cultural Studies Gender Studies Parasocial affirmation Parasocial identification Sexuality LGBTQ+ Transgende Mass Media Figures Figure 1 Introduction Sexual and gender identity development of LGBTQ + community members, while similar to that of their cisgender, heterosexual counterparts, occurs differently. Most often during adolescence and early adulthood, sexual and gender identity development occur alongside other aspects of identity development such as race or ethnicity, class status, nationality, religious affiliation, age, physical and/or cognitive abilities, and political beliefs. Faced with affirming an identity wrought with stigma and emotional pitfalls, LGBTQ + community members often opt to stay in the proverbial closet and work through the identity development process alone. Whether real or imagined, LGBTQ + community members fear ridicule, rejection, and even physical violence upon revelation of their sexual and gender identities. Therefore, they opt for more impersonal means for information seeking, emotional processing, affiliation and affirmation. With these concepts in mind, this study asked members of the LGBTQ + community to describe their interactions with mass media product in relationship to their sexual and/or gender identity development. Key to the study was identifying, when faced with lack of interpersonal communication/interaction for identity development, how participants utilized mass media product to ascertain much needed information and support. This study discovered a previously unnamed aspect of parasocial interaction/parasocial relationship theory—parasocial affirmations. Literature Review/Theory Parasocial Interaction Parasocial interaction has been defined in a variety of ways by a variety of scholars. Parasocial interaction can be described as the phenomenon by which viewers form beliefs and attitudes about people they know only through media, regardless of whether those people are real or fictional (Paluck, 2009; Schiappa et al., 2006). The studies of this phenomenon have led scholars to address parasocial interactions as the mediated equivalent of interpersonal communication (Schiappa et al., 2006). Many believe these parasocial interactions occur because the human brain tends to process media experiences in much the same way as it processes “direct” experiences with actual people (Kanazawa, 2002). First theorized by Horton and Wohl (1956), parasocial interaction is defined as a “seeming(ly) face-to-face relationship between spectator and performer” (p. 215). Horton and Wohl (1956) proposed that television and radio personalities “foster an illusory parasocial relationship” with listeners and viewers (p. 218). They also included emotional attachment on the part of the audience member who was seeking advice from the media personalities, seeing the media personalities as friends, imagining being part of a favorite program’s social world, and, of course, a desire to meet the media personality (A. Rubin et al., 1985, p. 157). A. Rubin and Stepp (2000) wrote that media formats and techniques encourage and promote the development of parasocial relationships to build and maintain audiences. Most scholars agree, parasocial interaction is best explained through the uses and gratifications lens (Harris & Sanborn, 2014). Like R. Rubin and McHugh’s (1987) reference to the parallels of parasocial interaction to uncertainty reduction theory, A. Rubin (2009) states that parasocial interaction “reinforces” the relevance of interpersonal concepts such as attraction, similarity, homophily, impression management, and empathy (p. 169). Other aspects of parasocial interaction include effects on media attitudes, through self-improvement (Gibbons & Buunk, 1999) and can lead to assimilative effects (i.e., the comparer wanting to become more like the better off comparison target). These types of feelings are associated with increased enjoyment of entertainment content” (Lewis & Weaver, 2016; Lewis et al., 2019, p. 18). Parasocial Relationships Parasocial relationships tend to occur in distinct stages, although to date, the actual stages are not agreed upon. Brown ( 2015 ) offered four processes of audience involvement with media personae: (1) transportation (i.e., immersion in a narrative enough to forget surroundings), (2) parasocial interaction (i.e., an imaginary interaction between media consumer and media figure), (3) identification (i.e., putting one’s self in the place of a media persona), and (4) worship (i.e., idolization of a media figure to degree of emulating worship). Ultimately, parasocial relationships take interactions to a more emotional level than interactions and identifications which take place usually during viewing. Parasocial relationships are more enduring and require more attention while not viewing the medium (source). The parasocial relationship literature is replete with studies focusing on heterosexual consumers of media in a multitude of contexts (Hoffner & Cantor, 1991; Maccoby & Wilson, 1957; Paluck, 2009; Schiappa et al., 2006) and contains a few studies focusing on LGBTQ + media consumers (Gomillion & Giuliano, 2011; Savin-Williams & Diamond, 2000). Gomillion and Giuliano (2011) discovered that lesbian, gay, and bisexual respondents used media models to process their self-realizations, coming out stories, and overall identities. Their respondents said that media models served as a source of pride, inspiration, and comfort. McKee (2000) found that gay men recalled media images as the most important source of information about gay identity from their youth. Most of the participants reported strong impacts from the limited number of available images. When adolescents seek role models, they tend to focus on the attitudes and behaviors they see depicted by characters in the media, and therefore, may believe the world these individuals create and inhabit is an accurate representation of the world in which they themselves live (Gillig & Murphy, 2016). Essentially, adolescents utilize media product to satiate real and perceived needs. Parasocial relationships have been documented in every type of mass media from novels to radio and in a large variety of contexts including entertainment education, reality TV, home shopping channels, news, sports, and religious programming. For example, Tian and Hoffner (2009) studied parasocial interaction with liked, neutral, and disliked characters in the tv show Lost . The authors discovered, “Perceived similarity played an important role both in the process of identifying with a character during media consumption and in the development of a parasocial bond” (Tian & Hoffner, 2010, p. 263). The authors went on (1) to break down identification and parasocial interaction as two different processes (according to Cohen, 2001 ); (2) to point out that once a viewing experience ends audience members are aware that characters are distinct entities from themselves; (3) to describe how efforts are made by viewers to become more like media characters; (4) to refer to Bandura’s claim of more influence associated with people audiences perceive to be similar to themselves; (5) to point out that identification was less likely than parasocial interaction to predict efforts of change in audience members to become more like media characters; and (6) to point out that identification is considered more temporary than parasocial interaction. Other variables cited as attraction to and involvement in parasocial interaction/relationship include liking, homophily, loneliness, and age of subjects. Bringing LGBTQ + Audiences to Parasocial Relationship Studies Historically, social scientists’ focus has been on media’s role in the formation of gender identity (Brickell, 2006 ; Hird, 2001), sexual behaviors (Bleakley et al., 2011 ; Brown, 2002 ), and identity negotiation on the interpersonal level (Gilchrist & Sullivan, 2006 ). There is a dearth of research that examines parasocial relationships and transgender representation or audiences. Studies focusing on both LGBTQ + media representations and LGBTQ + audiences include Bond, 2018 ; Gomillion and Giuliano, 2011; Meyer and Wood, 2013; and Bond and Compton, 2015 , with only Bond ( 2018 ) and Bond ( 2015 ) using the term parasocial relationships instead of interactions. Gomillion and Giuliano (2011) found that media influences LBGBTQ + audience members’ self-realization, coming out, and current identities by providing role models and inspiration (Gomillion & Giuliano, 2011). Bond et al.’s, (2015), research on the effect of representation of LGBTQ + portrayals on heterosexual audiences described a “positive relationship existed between exposure to on-screen gay characters and gay equality endorsement” (Bond et al., 2015, p. 727). Additionally, Bond’s research reported that racial minority participants experienced far greater impact from media portrayals of LGBTQ + characters than did the study’s white participants. This finding points to the general state of mass media portrayals of LGBTQ + individuals focusing primarily on affluent, white, gay males (Bond 2018 ). In other words, research repeatedly shows less support for LGBTQ + individuals from racial minority groups (Demby, 2013 ). Exact reasons for this phenomenon are yet to be determined but is often attributed to historically strong religious affiliations of racial minority groups. The research most directly linked to the study proposed in this text comes from Bond ( 2018 ). Bond ( 2018 ) examined the importance and the differences of parasocial relationships among heterosexual, lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adolescents. Bond ( 2018 ) found that LGB adolescents are more likely than their heterosexual counterparts to develop parasocial relationships (PSRs) based on factors other than gender. Bond ( 2018 ) also wrote LGB adolescents were more likely to establish “stronger PSRs if they did not have real-life social relationships” (p. 472). In other words, “if LGB adolescents are not experiencing sexual identity formation with the assistance of face-to-face communication among peers, they may look elsewhere for support and information. A possible alternative may include turning to television as a major source of information”(Bond & Drogos, 2009, p. 33). Uses and Gratifications Uses and gratifications theory originally sought to switch the focus of mass media effects research from the powerful assumptions of direct influence theories (magic bullet, etc.) to more indirect effects, particularly a more audience-centered approach. Uses and gratifications proposed that audiences were much more active in their use of mass media. Katz, et al., (1974) proposed uses and gratifications theory to be concerned with the “social and psychological origins of needs, which generate expectations from mass media or other sources, which lead to differential patterns of media exposure (or engagement in other activities), resulting in need gratifications and other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended one” (p. 20). Haridakis (2012) writes, “ U&G emphasizes the centrality of the individual in the audience–media use–effects relationship. Research guided by this audience-centered perspective has suggested that understanding media effects requires consideration of audience members’ individual differences, expectations, goals, level of purposiveness and activity when using media to satisfy their needs and desires [….] much U&G research has focused on how and why people use media” (p. 378). Therefore, arguments have been made that parasocial interaction/relationships can be considered psychological antecedents of the uses and gratifications approach (Cortese & Rubin, 2010). Research Questions To date, little specific attention has been focused on the interactivity of LGBTQ + sexual and gender identity development and the use of mass media product to enhance or replace interpersonal and small group communication. Additionally, little attention has been paid to the intersectionality of gender, race, and sexual identities. This project, recognizing this gap, now puts forth the following research questions. RQ1: How do LGBTQ + individuals describe their use of media featuring LGBTQ + characters? RQ2: How do LGBTQ + individuals describe the relationship between LGBTQ + media characters and their own sexual and/or gender identity formation? RQ3: How do LGBTQ + individuals describe their parasocial interactions with LGBTQ + media characters? Method Data Collection Individual, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 44 members of the LGBTQ + community recruited via social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. Gender and sexual identities defined by Human Rights Campaign and described by the participants included: Lesbian–A woman who is emotionally, romantically or sexually attracted to other women; Gay–A person who is emotionally, romantically or sexually attracted to members of the same gender; Bisexual–A person emotionally, romantically or sexually attracted to more than one sex, gender or gender identity though not necessarily simultaneously, in the same way or to the same degree; Pansexual–Describes someone who has the potential for emotional, romantic or sexual attraction to people of any gender though not necessarily simultaneously, in the same way or to the same degree; Queer—A term people often use to express a spectrum of identities and orientations that are counter to the mainstream; Cisgender—A term used to describe a person whose gender identity aligns with those typically associated with the sex assigned to them at birth; Transgender—An umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or expression is different from cultural expectations based on the sex they were assigned at birth. Being transgender does not imply any specific sexual orientation; Gender Non-Conforming—A broad term referring to people who do not behave in a way that conforms to the traditional expectations of their gender, or whose gender expression does not fit neatly into a category; Non-binary—An adjective describing a person who does not identify exclusively as a man or a woman; Agender—A term denoting or relating to a person who does not identify themselves as having a particular gender; and Gender Fluid–Denoting or relating to a person who does not identify themselves as having a fixed gender. The participants identified their sexual and gender identities as Lesbian = 12; Gay = 12; Bisexual = 8; Pansexual = 7; and Queer = 5. They also identified gender as Cisgender Female = 19; Cisgender Male = 16; Transgender Male = 2; Gender Non-Conforming = 1; Non-binary = 5; and Agender = 1. The race or ethnic background of the participants was reported as White = 32; African American = 5; Asian = 5; and Mixed Race = 2. As for religiosity, participants reported Protestant = 16; Nothing in particular = 5; Unknown = 3; Roman Catholic = 1; Jewish = 1; Muslim = 1; and Atheist = 1. Ages of participants were reported as 18–24 = 17; 25–30 = 13; 31–40 = 10; 41–50 = 2; 51–60 = 2. Participants reported media usage daily ranging from as little as two hours per day up to more than 10 + hours per day, with the average being four hours per day. Media usage cited included most forms of mass communication including novels, comic books, magazines, cable and broadcast television programs, films, radio programs and podcasts, video games, streaming services for music and videos, internet websites, and social media applications. Semi-structured interviews conducted by the researcher followed the construction of a standard interview guide that was approved by the sponsoring university’s institutional review board (IRB), and prior to the interview, informed consent was obtained from the participants. The interview guide was divided into two general segments: demographics and basic interview questions. Participants completed one in-depth interview that lasted between 45–90 minutes. Initial interviews were conducted face-to-face in private spaces on the campus of a large public university. All interviews following the outbreak of COVID-19 and the limitations placed on socialization that followed, took place via Zoom, Skype, or on the phone on a day and time convenient for the participants during summer and fall 2020. All interviews were audio recorded. Questions were divided into sections including demographics, media usage, identification with media characters, and identity development. For example, questions such as, “Are you more interested in watching LGBTQ + characters or heterosexual characters?”; “Can you recall who the first LGBTQ + person or character you remember seeing in media was whether it be on television, film, or the internet?”; “How did you feel seeing LGBTQ + characters/personalities in media? Why?”; “Did these early interactions play a role in how you viewed your own sexual identity? If yes, how? If no, why not?” were included.The average interview time was 68 minutes which was equivalent to 664 single spaced pages of transcription. A professional transcription company, Rev.com, transcribed the interviews. The PI then reviewed the transcribed interviews and checked the audio files for accuracy. The participants were compensated with a $ 20 Amazon gift card for their time. Data Analysis Once the interviews were transcribed, each full transcript was printed, and this resulted in 664 single spaced total pages of data to be examined. The author engaged in thematic data analysis by reading the entire data set (all interviews) and engaging in open coding (Lindlof & Taylor, 2011) of the data. Then, second level coding was employed as codes were divided, rearranged, and collapsed until a final set of codes was determined (Tracy, 2020). Once the coding scheme was finalized, the author coded the remaining data. After all data was coded, a check for theoretical saturation was conducted to make sure that no new information emerged from the data that did not fit within the established coding scheme (Lindlof & Taylor, 2011). When no new findings were in the data, the author stopped data collection due to theoretical saturation having been reached. Table 1.1 Results Media Usage for Identification and Affiliation Feelings of fear generated by the stigma associated with an LGBTQ + sexual and/or gender identity are quite common (Russell & Fish, 2016). Internalized homophobia and transphobia were cited by this study’s participants as well as negative evaluations of other LGBTQ + community members. Faced with conflict, again the participants turned to media to help work through these feelings. For example, Abby, a white, cisgender, lesbian individual said: I can admit, I was not very accepting of the entire trans community when I was younger and dumber. And I think that (the media) definitely helped me educate myself and because I was seeking acceptance for myself, I wanted to see it for other people. I think I definitely learned the whole spectrum of gender identity and sexual identity from social media and YouTube . Abby’s statement refers to the paradox faced by many LGBTQ + individuals—prejudiced views of others on the LGBTQ + spectrum (Russell & Fish, 2016). So, in addition to clarifying one’s own identity through media usage, participants in this study, like Abby, used media to clarify other LGBTQ + identities for themselves. Participants also continually spoke of other LGBTQ + sexual and gender identities. They found themselves consuming mass media products with portrayals of LGBTQ + sexual and gender identities other than their own. They consistently reported that they were misinformed about varying identities along the LGBTQ + spectrum and that their investigations and processing of their own sexual and gender identities led to a heightened awareness and ultimate acceptance of other identities. “She (Callie Torres on Grey’s Anatomy) came out as bisexual, and it was like a huge thing and that was probably my first exposure (to a bisexual portrayal). I was like that’s it. That’s cool. That’s different. That’s interesting. That’s me,” said Johnny, a white, cisgender, bisexual, male individual. “I think especially since when I first was like coming out to myself, I was, I had a lot of internalized homophobia, and so I definitely think it helped educate me and also (helped me to) have a more positive view (of myself)” said Abby, a white, cisgender, lesbian individual. First exposures and coming out to oneself were often mentioned by the participants—as is evident in the comments by Johnny and Abby. The concept of identification (putting oneself in the place of a media persona) greatly assisted the participants in self-acceptance. “The normalization, the subversion of the (negative) messages that I’d been getting all throughout my childhood and adolescence was the main thing. It was just the right little kick for me to like start the acceptance journey,” said Cirice, a white, agender, queer individual. Johnny, Cirice, and Abby, as well as other study participants, repeatedly pointed to the media portrayals as enlightening and empowering because of the positive images conveyed and how those ran counter to negative images more often displayed in society. The examples from the study participants, illustrate the gap in mass media portrayals of LGBTQ + individuals. To date, most LGBTQ + media portrayals have been one-dimensional and stereotypical in nature. Most portrayals of LGBTQ + individuals have been produced and performed by cisgender, heterosexual producers, actors, and actresses. While great strides have been made in this area of late to correct this issue, much more work is needed (GLAAD, 2020). “It was so cool to see him (Trevor on Showtime’s Shameless played by transgender actor Elliot Fletcher) a trans-man playing a trans-man” said Buster, a white, transgender male, pansexual individual. “I felt like he forced the writers to write him in an authentic way. So, I’m pretty interested in seeing what other work he does.” These examples are the exception, rather than the rule when it comes to LGBTQ + and media portrayals. However, frequently out of necessity, participants spoke of processing their sexual identities by contrasting themselves to media characters/personalities that were on the LGBTQ + spectrum but not the same as themselves. Media Usage for Identity Affirmation Participants rejected the notion of any type of relationship with media characters or personalities and fully left the experiences with the understanding that their interactions were not interpersonal in nature. “We’re so smart now. It’s all media savvy now. I don’t think Ross and Rachel ( Friends, NBC) are my friends anymore. Yeah, I really know that they’re actors and it’s just a role they are playing” said Johnny, a white, cisgender, bisexual, male individual. Instead, the participants cited affirmation of their own sexual identities through experiences with LGBTQ + characters in media. “I love Rosa (Diaz on Brooklyn 99 , FOX and NBC) to bits and the fact that regardless of her demeanor, she is the biggest softie of the group. My demeanor says I’m the biggest softie regardless. So, it just makes me feel more validated that it wasn’t like the very first thing that you saw (about her) on the show. It was just like Rosa is a badass that wears a leather jacket and stuff like that” said Lulu, a white, cisgender, bisexual individual. This indicates a common view among the study participants. Participants agreed that portrayals are more effective if the sexual identity of the character/personality are not at the forefront of the narrative. Inclusion of LGBTQ + sexual identity in narratives is essential but should not be the central theme of the narrative. “Okay so I was almost relieved to see it (LGBTQ portrayals on TV) like now I know there are more people like me. And not seeing it as this big, amazing thing but instead just here’s my son’s same sex significant other and it was just normalized” said Leigh, a white, cisgender, lesbian individual. “I love how on Brooklyn 99 (FOX and NBC), the captain (Raymond Holt played by Andre Braugher) is gay and it’s just accepted, and it’s never debated. It just is” said Collin, an African American, cisgender, gay, male individual. These portrayals of LGBTQ + status being “matter of fact” and not central to storylines were cited as affirming by this study’s participants. In essence, the absence of homophobia and transphobia allow for stronger identification and therefore, affirmation of an LGBTQ + status. Participants also pointed to the completed and fully accepted sexual and gender identities of the media characters they enjoyed.. “I like the shows that do a good job of showing things like resiliency or showing authenticity in the experience, especially now that I have gone through it and solidified my sexual identity” said Johnny, a white, cisgender, bisexual, male individual. “It ( Trans Parent ) depicted familial conflict and people navigating loving relationships that are changing and I really liked the concept of families working together to accept one another” said Ann, a white, cisgender, lesbian individual. These participants praised how these portrayals allowed them to visualize a time when they too could be comfortable with their own sexual and gender identities. Many participants spoke of the “normalizing” aspect of positive LGBTQ + portrayals. “So, seeing people like him (Brendon Urie lead singer for Panic at the Disco) that were doing all this amazing stuff but like, and not really talking about their gender or sexual identity really at all. It just made it like seem more normal” said Steve, a white, cisgender, pansexual, male individual. “It’s wildly important (LGBTQ + portrayal in media). Wanting to see and hear my own voice in the media I am consuming for my own experience, it’s absolutely necessary” said Geoffrey, a mixed-race, non-binary, queer individual. “I think The L Word played a big role in my own acceptance of my identity. It helped me feel like there was some sort of future for me with holding this identity” said Flora, a white, cisgender, lesbian individual. While most participants referred to fictionalized portrayals, others cited the importance of seeing LGBTQ + community members being out in non-fiction programming. “It’s definitely a positive thing to see that people can succeed and be respected individuals in their field (radio, TV news anchors). They even kind of use their (sexual) identity as an advantage to give more context to the way they see the world” said Billy, a white, cisgender, gay male. Johnny, Ann, Geoffrey, and Billy all referred to the affirmations they received when viewing LGBTQ + portrayals and personalities that exhibited pride of LGBTQ + status. This reflects an emerging new area of LGBTQ + portrayals in that the sexual identity status is not only not portrayed negatively but is now seen as an advantage. Observing LGBTQ + individuals who are already at a positive place of self-acceptance allowed the participants to begin to envision themselves as someday being as comfortable as the media portrayals with which they engaged. This study’s findings describe how LGBTQ + individuals seek out and interact with differing mass media product. Lacking in information and support from social institutions that overwhelmingly support their heterosexual counterparts, LGBTQ + individuals work through sexual and gender identity development issues in solitary ways. Participants in this study reported choosing non-threatening mass media products to gain insights they could not find elsewhere. They reported steady consumption of media products. This consumption followed a non-linear process that included: (1) realizations of LGBTQ + status, their othering and need for explanations and defenses, (2) media usage for information seeking, (3) media usage for emotional processing, (4) media usage for identification and affiliation, and (5) media usage for identity affirmation all of which culminated in participants (6) self-acceptance and subsequent (7) coming out interpersonally. Discussion Theoretical Implications Derived from this study’s data and the participants’ responses, a model depicting a parasocial identity affirmation process was created. The five-stage model follows the consumption of media products through the process of sexual and gender identity development until LGBTQ + community members begin coming out to others. Participants in this study engaged in a process that included: (1) realizations of LGBTQ + statuses, (2) media usage for information seeking, (3) media usage for emotional processing, (4) media usage for identification and affiliation, and (5) media usage for identity affirmation. The model is not linear, nor is it cyclical in nature. Instead, the process of how individuals work their way from realizing the existence of LGBTQ + statuses to accepting and ultimately revealing their own LGBTQ + status to others is quite complex and occurs repeatedly throughout the individual’s lifespan. Therefore, some LGBTQ + community members will take more time at a particular stage of development than their counterparts and vice versa. The model depicts directional movement and is indicated by double arrows to show participants’ movement among and between stages. Some participants in this study spoke of nearly 10 years passing between initial recognition of LGBTQ + status and any examination of this recognition. Therefore, while the model depicts the basic pattern of sexual and gender identity development via media usage, it is not meant to be taken as a uniform representation but instead a guide for understanding the similar but very different processes the participants of this study experienced. Grounded soundly in uses and gratifications, this model expands upon the germinal 1956 parasocial relationship theory proposed by Horton and Wohl who noted that the media present opportunities for interaction that are not available in the everyday lives of most people (i.e., with your favorite singer, author, baseball player). This model identifies how LGBTQ + individuals use mass media product to satiate unmet identity development engagement needs usually met interpersonally (for cisgender and heterosexual individuals there seems to be an endless supply of information, models to emulate, and emotional support for their identity development needs). Therefore, this model asserts LGBTQ + individuals use mass media product to fulfill identity development needs for both gender and sexual identities. Further, parasocial interactions resemble interpersonal relationships in that uncertainty is reduced over time which allows for increased attraction and eventual relationship growth (R. Rubin & McHugh, 1987). A. Rubin (2009) referred to parasocial interactions as both real and perceived relationships with audience members. Like R. Rubin and McHugh’s (1987) reference to the parallels of parasocial interaction to uncertainty reduction theory, A. Rubin (2009) states that parasocial interaction “reinforces” the relevance of interpersonal concepts such as attraction, similarity, homophily, impression management, and empathy (p. 169). Other aspects of parasocial interaction include effects on media attitudes, through self-improvement (Gibbons & Buunk, 1999) and can lend to assimilative effects (i.e., the comparer wanting to become more like the better off comparison target). Most of the the participants’ responses in this study aligned directly with this concept—the idea of seeking out and finding similar “targets” in mass media—and as a result, they experienced affirmations of their own sexual and gender identities. The participants did not discuss these affirmations in interpersonal or group settings. The studies of this phenomenon have led scholars to address parasocial interactions as the mediated equivalent of interpersonal communication (Schiappa et al., 2006). Therefore, this study revealed a process not previously identified in the parasocial interaction theory of audience and mass media product. This study defines a new term that I am calling parasocial identity affirmation . One of the most important findings of this study is that, instead of parasocial interactions or parasocial relationships, participants reported their experiences with mass media product as parasocial affirmations. Parasocial affirmations are defined as usage experiences of media characters/personalities that allow for visualization of self-acceptance. However, one simple viewing or interaction is not enough to affirm one’s sexual and/or gender identity. These affirming associations create greater need for information and the process starts again. The affirmations are information about successful negotiation of sexual and gender identity and therefore, affirming to one’s own sexual and gender identity. For the participants in this study, the parasocial affirmation process ranged from as little as a few days to many years until the individual was secure enough to engage interpersonally with others about their sexual and gender identity. This study’s findings also support the basic tenets of sexual and gender identity development research findings. Milton and MacDonald (1984) synthesized the bulk of this literature and reported that what the models have in common is a three-stage process of realizing LGBTQ + feelings, adoption of the negative assumptions made about LGBTQ + lifestyles, and finally, overcoming the negative assumptions by accepting a positive LGBTQ + identity. This study extends those findings by discovering new ways in which LGBTQ + community members utilize mass media products to process their own sexual and gender identities. Participants described media usage that replaced interpersonal communication. Searching for terminology and explanations of various aspects of LGBTQ + lifestyles on websites, seeking positive interpretations of LGBTQ + lifestyles in music, television, and film as well as reading comics, novels, and self-help books for LGBTQ + community members were among the many uses cited by this study’s participants. Within the model discovered in this study’s findings, there are a set of common, although not identical, practices that participants engaged in during process (see Table 1.1). Table 1.2 Practices associated with Parasocial Identity Affirmation Model Realizations Media use for information seeking Media use for emotional processing Media use for identification and affiliation Media use for identity affirmation LGBTQ + exists Terms Internalized homophobia Seeing like others with same LGBTQ + status(es) Interacting with like others with same LGBTQ + status(es) LGBTQ + status is stigmatized Information Internalized transphobia Seeing similar others on LGBTQ + spectrum Interacting with similar others on LGBTQ + spectrum Own status is LGBTQ+ Explanations Gender dysphoria Understanding LGBTQ + identity as not abnormal Seeing like and similar others successfully navigating coming out issues Need for explanations/defenses Evidence to support identity Loneliness and fear Gaining sense they too can live LGBTQ + lives successfully Seeing like and similar others living LGBTQ + sexual and gendered lives successfully Decision whether or not to reveal Strategies to explain identity to self and eventually others Coping and overcoming feelings Envisioning own LGBTQ + successful life Navigating coming out to self and others This table illustrates the most common set of practices revealed during the data analysis conducted for this study. Generally, participants reported a steady pattern of realizations followed by media usage for information seeking, for emotional processing, for identification and affiliation, and finally, for affirmation. When discussing realizations, participants spoke of two basic realizations: 1) that of LGBTQ + existence and 2) their own LGBTQ + identity status. Included in these realizations were the stigmatization of LGBTQ + status and the need to explain and defend LGBTQ + statuses and a decision whether to reveal one’s status. Most of the participants reported a “closeted” period in which they utilized mass media product to obtain terminology and other information that would assist in their explanations. Equally important was the ascertainment of evidence to support their identities as well as strategies to understand and explain their identities to themselves and eventually others. Using media for emotional processing helped participants deal with internalized homophobia, internalized transphobia, gender dysphoria, and feelings of isolation, including loneliness and fear, through discovering similar experiences and coping techniques found in media product. These experiences and coping techniques offered identification and affiliation. Participants accomplished these goals by interacting with media product that contained depictions of like others with the same LGBTQ + statuses and similar others on the LGBTQ + spectrum. Participants also interacted with media product that portrayed LGBTQ + individuals as not abnormal and capable of obtaining and sustaining successful and happy lives. Ultimately, participants sought media product that allowed for envisioning their own successful and happy LGBTQ + lives. Finally, the table lists the media usage for affirmations discovered in this study’s research. Participants spoke of the interaction with depictions of like and similar others as affirming to their LGBTQ + statuses. They also specifically pointed to depictions of successful coming out narratives as affirming to their future with the event of coming out to others. The interactions with depictions of successful and happy LGBTQ + individuals living positively with their true sexual and gender identities were seen as highly affirming and motivating for the participants. The participants spoke of coming out to themselves and others as being affirmed in interactions with media depictions of others successfully navigating these milestones. This study’s model demonstrates the process of using media product to satiate unmet needs. The participants in this study reported a variety of realizations about LGBTQ + identities. Realization of LGBTQ + identities’ existence and the stigmatization of those identities usually occurred prior to the participants’ realization of their own LGBTQ + status. Upon their own realizations (many experienced denial periods with some lasting for years) came the understanding of a need for explanations and defenses of their identity. Most often, these realizations led to a decision not to reveal LGBTQ + status as a protective measure for physical, sociological, and psychological safety reasons. This step in the process meant that participants were no longer discussing their LGTBQ + statuses with anyone on an interpersonal level and mass media products became the surrogate for interpersonal interactions. Once the participants realized any or all their needs: the need for more information, the need for emotional support, the need for role models or like others for identification, and the need for affirmation, their engagement with mass media products began. Participants described the process as occurring in a variety of sequences. As mentioned earlier, this model is neither linear nor cyclical in that all elements can occur sequentially or simultaneously over brief or extended time periods. Participants reported searching for terminology, information, and explanations to assist in understanding themselves and eventually explaining themselves to others. This discovery adds to parasocial interaction in a new way by revealing participants’ use of mass media for the gratification of learning about themselves, their community, and methods of rhetorical defense of their identity. Thus, parasocial information seeking is identified as a new term and the next stage of this model. When sufficient information had been gathered, participants moved onto the difficult work of emotionally processing their internalized homophobia, transphobia, and/or gender dysphoria and their feelings of loneliness and fear associated with both their LGBTQ + status and their newly found isolation. Participants used mass media to cope with and overcome negative emotions commonly associated with LGBTQ + statuses. This discovery adds to parasocial interaction research in a new way be revealing participants use of mass media for the gratification of learning skills to cope with negative emotions associated with LGBTQ + statuses. Thus, parasocial emotional processing is identified as a new term and the next stage in this model. Participants spoke of experiencing relief upon finding like and similar others in media products. Seeing and “interacting” with others with the same LGBTQ + status or seeing and “interacting” with others with similar LGBTQ + status in media products allowed participants a much-needed affiliation (they were not finding in interpersonal or social settings). Many participants pointed to the fact that their “exact” LGBTQ + status was not necessary for identification and affiliation and that the presence of “any” LGBTQ + status could be utilized at this stage. Participants used mass media products to redefine LGBTQ + statuses as no longer being viewed as abnormal. Furthermore, they used media to gain a sense that they too (like the object of identification) can live successful lives as LGBTQ + community members. The participants also used these identifiers to envision their own happy and successful lives as LGBTQ + community members. These findings add to parasocial interaction research by revealing how participants use mass media for the gratification of understanding and clarifying LGBTQ + statuses through affiliation, Thus, parasocial affiliation is identified as new term and the next stage in this model. Finally, the participants spoke of affirmations. These affirmations came through interaction with similar and like members of the LGBTQ + community. Participants referenced seeing these similar and like others successfully navigating issues associated with coming out and seeing these similar and like others living healthy, happy, and successful lives as members of the LGBTQ + community as affirming for their own future identities. Participants used all the knowledge gathered throughout the stages to negotiate coming out to both them and others. This discovery adds to parasocial interaction in a new way by revealing participants use of mass media for the gratification of obtaining skills implemented by like and similar other LGBTQ + community members who have and are successfully navigating LGBTQ + lives for use in their own lives. Thus, parasocial identify affirmation is a process that describes a part of LGBTQ + sexual and gender identity development as interaction between LGBTQ + media consumers and mass media product that positively portrays LGBTQ + community members and through the positive portrayals allows LGBTQ + media consumers to affirm their own sexual and gender identities as credible and viable. Parasocial identify affirmation, then, is the end result of the realizations of LGBTQ + statuses and their associated variables understood through the processing of information seeking—words, explanations, defensive strategies—emotional processing (i.e., homophobia, transphobia, gender dysphoria, loneliness, and fear), understanding one’s self and others by interacting and identifying with like and similar LGBTQ + others—affiliation (i.e., normalize LGBTQ + statuses, understanding possibility of own successful LGBTQ + life, and envision successful LGBTQ + life), and combining all these elements to create usage experiences of media characters/personalities that allow for visualization of self-acceptance. Practical Implications The findings of this study can be utilized by mass media producers across the media industry and various other groups who interact with LGBTQ + individuals. All participants resoundingly spoke of their preference for seeing LGBTQ + media characters and personalities over heterosexual ones. All participants also agreed there are far too few LGBTQ + media characters and personalities. Additionally, the current portrayals were troublesome for most in the that they are mainly stereotypical, one-dimensional representations of a community that is far more diverse than the one currently depicted. The overwhelming prominence of affluent, gay white males who are effeminate, serves as further marginalization of women, people of color, and those of middle or lower economic status. Participants consistently pointed their discissons to the need for more varied and nuanced representations of LGBTQ + community members in all media formats. GLAAD (202) agrees and has challenged media producers to actively seekout LGTBQ + actors, writer, and directors ( as well as all profession associated with media product creation) to engage in the process of presenting a more realistic, diverse set of narratives. With more realistic narratives in media products, health care professionals, such as social workers, clinical psychologists, school counselors, and others who see LGBTQ + community members during the key developmental years could use these depictions and this study’s findings to develop therapeutic measures. Many participants in this study referred to the lack of information and guidance they received during their formative years and pointed to the importance and value associated with such measures. These new measures could include therapies in psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, self-directed, strategic, experiential, and systemic frameworks and incorporate mass media products with positive LGBTQ + portrayals and representations. On the individual level, LGBTQ + community members can use mass media products as affirming agents for both sexual and gender identity development. Through mass media consumption, individuals—both LGBTQ + community members and allies alike—learn the language, definitions, and examples necessary to make effective arguments for defense of LGBTQ + statuses to those in opposition to their very existence. These defense strategies can assist in the tumultuous and arduous coming out process. It is important to note that while our society has grown in significantly positive ways in recent years toward the acceptance of LGBTQ + sexual and gender identities, it is not better yet. Educational systems are still allowing or overlooking shocking events taking place in their ranks. Two participants in this study, less than five years removed from high school attendance, spoke of direct experiences with teachers and principals in which they were formally chastised for their LGBTQ + identities. Assignments in religious educational systems cited by still other participants in this study point to the open nature of abuse of LGBTQ + individuals. One participant recalled being forced to write an essay on why gay people will burn in hell. While in recent years the formation of Gay Straight Alliances in high schools across the country has increased significantly, these clubs often create spaces for additional abuse and ridicule. Several of the participants in this study discussed this phenomenon. The participants said GSAs were most often a source that called attention to LGBTQ + status and therefore increased physical bullying and verbal abuse. One participant said the attempt at a GSA formation created such controversy at his school that local media covered “the scandal.” Yet another recalled going to great lengths to avoid not only the GSA meetings but anyone who attended the meetings as well. The existence of these events reminds us we still need much more investigation into the practices occurring in our education system. Educational systems, religious institutions and family units could all utilize the findings of this to facilitate communication and ultimately create safer and stronger environments for their LGBTQ + members. Programs could be created to foster open and non-threatening communication in safe spaces. Limitations While this study has many positive findings that advance theory and provide guidance for practical situations, it also has limitations. The sample of the study is limited in scope with the lack of inclusion of a significant number of older LGBTQ + people. Only four participants were over the age of 40. Another limitation of this study sample was the lack of racial diversity. While several participants identified as African American, Asian American, and mixed race (African American N = 5; Asian American N = 5; mixed race N = 2), none identified as Latina/o. Since the Williams Institute (2020) reports that 21% of LGBTQ + Americans are Latino with African Americans making up 12% of LGBTQ + Americans, it is important to include Latina/o LGBTQ + participants in future research in this area. Lack of racial diversity in study participants may miss relevant findings that are unique to that group due to cultural, environmental, or physiologic factors (Diaz, 2012). Finally, while the sample included participants who identified as non-binary ( N = 6) and transgender male ( N = 2), no participants identified as transgender female. Future research As mentioned in the limitations section of this study, future studies should include participants from a larger variety of demographic backgrounds including other LGBTQ + identities such intersexed and asexual individuals. Participants from all ages would bring the perspectives of people who experienced sexual identity development in the pre-internet age. Questions such as “Are their generational differences in media utilization and processes for sexual identity development?” could be answered. This inclusion could result in findings of a different process of information and affirmation and utilization of different media than reported in this study. In addition to age, more inclusion of racial and ethnic backgrounds than the present study would provide more nuanced results across the LGBTQ + spectrum. Considerations of intersectionality were mentioned by several participants in the current study. Examining sexual and gender identity development can be more accurately accessed when intersecting variables such as race, gender, sexual identity, age, religion, among others, are treated equally (Nadal et al., 2015). Future studies should examine this specific intersectionality especially how transgender, gender fluid, and non-binary gender identities impact sexual identity development. Most participants in this study reported familial impact on sexual and gender identity development. No further probing of family structure was utilized. Family structure could play a role in sexual identity development as well. A study including questions designed to compare different familial structures such as divorced parents, single parents, LGBTQ + parents, etc. could reveal more effective practices for parenting LGBTQ + children. Conclusion Sexual identity development of LGBTQ + community members, while like that of their cisgender, heterosexual counterparts, occurs differently. Most often during adolescence and early adulthood, sexual identity development occurs alongside other aspects of identity development such as gender, race or ethnicity, class status, nationality, religious affiliation, age, physical and/or cognitive abilities, and political beliefs. Faced with affirming an identity wrought with stigma and emotional pitfalls, LGBTQ + community members often opt to stay in the proverbial closet and work through the identity development process alone. Whether real or imagined, LGBTQ + community members fear ridicule, rejection, and even physical violence upon revelation of their sexual identities. Therefore, they opt for more impersonal means for information seeking, emotional processing, affiliation, and affirmation. This study interviewed 44 LGBTQ + community members and revealed parasocial identity affirmation as a novel facet of parasocial interaction. The participants essentially described a trajectory of sexual identity development that included: (1) realizing they were LGBTQ+; (2) using media to get information; (3) using media to process emotions; (4) using media to identify and affiliate; and (5) using media to affirm their identities. All of these steps culminated in the participants accepting who they were and coming out to others. The most significant finding, arguably, is that participants reported parasocial affirmations rather than parasocial interactions or connections. This project defines parasocial affirmations as media characters' or personalities' usage experiences that facilitate the visualization of self-acceptance. Declarations Funding “The author declares that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.” Competing Interests “The author has no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.” Author Contributions “The author created the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by the author. The first draft of the manuscript was written by the author. The author read and approved the final manuscript.” Ethics approval “This study was performed in line with the approval from the University of Kentucky Institutional Research Board in April, 2020.” Consent to participate “Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.” Consent to publish “The authors affirms that human research participants provided informed consent for publication.” References Adolescent development - the promise of adolescence - NCBI Bookshelf. 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Parasocial interaction with liked, neutral, and disliked characters on a popular TV series. Mass communication and society , 13 (3), 250-269. Tod, A., & Hirst, J. (Eds.). (2014). Health and inequality . Routledge. Trotta, D. (2019, March 5). Some 4.5 percent of U.S. adults identify as LGBT: Study . Reuters. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-lgbt/some-4-5-percent-of-u-s-adults-identify-as-lgbt-study-idUSKCN1QM2L6 Tables Table 1.1 is not available with this version. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4208366","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":286776793,"identity":"f2d48aee-b960-42b0-9781-7691850d3bbc","order_by":0,"name":"Dr. Don Lowe","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAArklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCC4yCiwoZBAkTzEKXlMIg4k0aqFsa2wyRo4TvMfEziA9v5xJkzEhgfvG0jQovkYbY0yRk8txNnSyQwG84lRovBYR6z2zwStxPnSSSwSfMSreWPwTmQFvbfxGthSDgAchgbM1FagH5J/9lzINl4Zs/DZsk554jQwne8+bDBz392sjOOJx/88KaMCC0IIJDYQJJ6IOA/QKqOUTAKRsEoGCkAAK8OOERirtCiAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kentucky","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"Dr.","firstName":"Don","middleName":"","lastName":"Lowe","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-04-02 18:14:45","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4208366/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4208366/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":54044135,"identity":"5a907746-ae4a-4277-a102-d25d75223fc5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-03 18:38:05","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23137,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure 1.1 Model of the parasocial identity affirmation process\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4208366/v1/31ee66f3b3627a3b1041c394.png"},{"id":54044522,"identity":"552189dd-f186-4865-b82d-03fdd80240e4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-03 18:46:06","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":389117,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4208366/v1/8952b0e6-cfe7-47f0-bbd0-552fa5da590d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eI need to see me on TV: Parasocial affirmations of sexual and gender identity development of LGBTQ+ mass media consumers\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSexual and gender identity development of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members, while similar to that of their cisgender, heterosexual counterparts, occurs differently. Most often during adolescence and early adulthood, sexual and gender identity development occur alongside other aspects of identity development such as race or ethnicity, class status, nationality, religious affiliation, age, physical and/or cognitive abilities, and political beliefs. Faced with affirming an identity wrought with stigma and emotional pitfalls, LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members often opt to stay in the proverbial closet and work through the identity development process alone. Whether real or imagined, LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members fear ridicule, rejection, and even physical violence upon revelation of their sexual and gender identities. Therefore, they opt for more impersonal means for information seeking, emotional processing, affiliation and affirmation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith these concepts in mind, this study asked members of the LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community to describe their interactions with mass media product in relationship to their sexual and/or gender identity development. Key to the study was identifying, when faced with lack of interpersonal communication/interaction for identity development, how participants utilized mass media product to ascertain much needed information and support. This study discovered a previously unnamed aspect of parasocial interaction/parasocial relationship theory\u0026mdash;parasocial affirmations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review/Theory","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParasocial Interaction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParasocial interaction has been defined in a variety of ways by a variety of scholars. Parasocial interaction can be described as the phenomenon by which viewers form beliefs and attitudes about people they know only through media, regardless of whether those people are real or fictional (Paluck, 2009; Schiappa et al., 2006).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe studies of this phenomenon have led scholars to address parasocial interactions as the mediated equivalent of interpersonal communication (Schiappa et al., 2006). Many believe these parasocial interactions occur because the human brain tends to process media experiences in much the same way as it processes \u0026ldquo;direct\u0026rdquo; experiences with actual people (Kanazawa, 2002).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst theorized by Horton and Wohl (1956), parasocial interaction is defined as a \u0026ldquo;seeming(ly) face-to-face relationship between spectator and performer\u0026rdquo; (p. 215). Horton and Wohl (1956) proposed that television and radio personalities \u0026ldquo;foster an illusory parasocial relationship\u0026rdquo; with listeners and viewers (p. 218). They also included emotional attachment on the part of the audience member who was seeking advice from the media personalities, seeing the media personalities as friends, imagining being part of a favorite program\u0026rsquo;s social world, and, of course, a desire to meet the media personality (A. Rubin et al., 1985, p. 157). A. Rubin and Stepp (2000) wrote that media formats and techniques encourage and promote the development of parasocial relationships to build and maintain audiences. Most scholars agree, parasocial interaction is best explained through the uses and gratifications lens (Harris \u0026amp; Sanborn, 2014).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLike R. Rubin and McHugh\u0026rsquo;s (1987) reference to the parallels of parasocial interaction to uncertainty reduction theory, A. Rubin (2009) states that parasocial interaction \u0026ldquo;reinforces\u0026rdquo; the relevance of interpersonal concepts such as attraction, similarity, homophily, impression management, and empathy (p. 169). Other aspects of parasocial interaction include effects on media attitudes, through self-improvement (Gibbons \u0026amp; Buunk, 1999) and can lead to assimilative effects (i.e., the comparer wanting to become more like the better off comparison target). These types of feelings are associated with increased enjoyment of entertainment content\u0026rdquo; (Lewis \u0026amp; Weaver, 2016; Lewis et al., 2019, p. 18).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParasocial Relationships\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParasocial relationships tend to occur in distinct stages, although to date, the actual stages are not agreed upon. Brown (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) offered four processes of audience involvement with media personae: (1) transportation (i.e., immersion in a narrative enough to forget surroundings), (2) parasocial interaction (i.e., an imaginary interaction between media consumer and media figure), (3) identification (i.e., putting one\u0026rsquo;s self in the place of a media persona), and (4) worship (i.e., idolization of a media figure to degree of emulating worship). Ultimately, parasocial relationships take interactions to a more emotional level than interactions and identifications which take place usually during viewing. Parasocial relationships are more enduring and require more attention while not viewing the medium (source).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe parasocial relationship literature is replete with studies focusing on heterosexual consumers of media in a multitude of contexts (Hoffner \u0026amp; Cantor, 1991; Maccoby \u0026amp; Wilson, 1957; Paluck, 2009; Schiappa et al., 2006) and contains a few studies focusing on LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;\u003cb\u003e+\u003c/b\u003e\u0026thinsp;media consumers (Gomillion \u0026amp; Giuliano, 2011; Savin-Williams \u0026amp; Diamond, 2000). Gomillion and Giuliano (2011) discovered that lesbian, gay, and bisexual respondents used media models to process their self-realizations, coming out stories, and overall identities. Their respondents said that media models served as a source of pride, inspiration, and comfort. McKee (2000) found that gay men recalled media images as the most important source of information about gay identity from their youth. Most of the participants reported strong impacts from the limited number of available images.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen adolescents seek role models, they tend to focus on the attitudes and behaviors they see depicted by characters in the media, and therefore, may believe the world these individuals create and inhabit is an accurate representation of the world in which they themselves live (Gillig \u0026amp; Murphy, 2016). Essentially, adolescents utilize media product to satiate real and perceived needs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParasocial relationships have been documented in every type of mass media from novels to radio and in a large variety of contexts including entertainment education, reality TV, home shopping channels, news, sports, and religious programming. For example, Tian and Hoffner (2009) studied parasocial interaction with liked, neutral, and disliked characters in the tv show \u003cem\u003eLost\u003c/em\u003e. The authors discovered, \u0026ldquo;Perceived similarity played an important role both in the process of identifying with a character during media consumption and in the development of a parasocial bond\u0026rdquo; (Tian \u0026amp; Hoffner, 2010, p. 263). The authors went on (1) to break down identification and parasocial interaction as two different processes (according to Cohen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e); (2) to point out that once a viewing experience ends audience members are aware that characters are distinct entities from themselves; (3) to describe how efforts are made by viewers to become more like media characters; (4) to refer to Bandura\u0026rsquo;s claim of more influence associated with people audiences perceive to be similar to themselves; (5) to point out that identification was less likely than parasocial interaction to predict efforts of change in audience members to become more like media characters; and (6) to point out that identification is considered more temporary than parasocial interaction. Other variables cited as attraction to and involvement in parasocial interaction/relationship include liking, homophily, loneliness, and age of subjects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eBringing LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Audiences to Parasocial Relationship Studies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistorically, social scientists\u0026rsquo; focus has been on media\u0026rsquo;s role in the formation of gender identity (Brickell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Hird, 2001), sexual behaviors (Bleakley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Brown, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), and identity negotiation on the interpersonal level (Gilchrist \u0026amp; Sullivan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). There is a dearth of research that examines parasocial relationships and transgender representation or audiences. Studies focusing on both LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;media representations and LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;audiences include Bond, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Gomillion and Giuliano, 2011; Meyer and Wood, 2013; and Bond and Compton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, with only Bond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and Bond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) using the term parasocial relationships instead of interactions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGomillion and Giuliano (2011) found that media influences LBGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;audience members\u0026rsquo; self-realization, coming out, and current identities by providing role models and inspiration (Gomillion \u0026amp; Giuliano, 2011). Bond et al.\u0026rsquo;s, (2015), research on the effect of representation of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;portrayals on heterosexual audiences described a \u0026ldquo;positive relationship existed between exposure to on-screen gay characters and gay equality endorsement\u0026rdquo; (Bond et al., 2015, p. 727). Additionally, Bond\u0026rsquo;s research reported that racial minority participants experienced far greater impact from media portrayals of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;characters than did the study\u0026rsquo;s white participants. This finding points to the general state of mass media portrayals of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals focusing primarily on affluent, white, gay males (Bond \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In other words, research repeatedly shows less support for LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals from racial minority groups (Demby, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Exact reasons for this phenomenon are yet to be determined but is often attributed to historically strong religious affiliations of racial minority groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research most directly linked to the study proposed in this text comes from Bond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Bond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) examined the importance and the differences of parasocial relationships among heterosexual, lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adolescents. Bond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) found that LGB adolescents are more likely than their heterosexual counterparts to develop parasocial relationships (PSRs) based on factors other than gender. Bond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) also wrote LGB adolescents were more likely to establish \u0026ldquo;stronger PSRs if they did not have real-life social relationships\u0026rdquo; (p. 472). In other words, \u0026ldquo;if LGB adolescents are not experiencing sexual identity formation with the assistance of face-to-face communication among peers, they may look elsewhere for support and information. A possible alternative may include turning to television as a major source of information\u0026rdquo;(Bond \u0026amp; Drogos, 2009, p. 33).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eUses and Gratifications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUses and gratifications theory originally sought to switch the focus of mass media effects research from the powerful assumptions of direct influence theories (magic bullet, etc.) to more indirect effects, particularly a more audience-centered approach. Uses and gratifications proposed that audiences were much more active in their use of mass media. Katz, et al., (1974) proposed uses and gratifications theory to be concerned with the \u0026ldquo;social and psychological origins of needs, which generate expectations from mass media or other sources, which lead to differential patterns of media exposure (or engagement in other activities), resulting in need gratifications and other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended one\u0026rdquo; (p. 20).\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHaridakis (2012) writes, \u0026ldquo; U\u0026amp;G emphasizes the centrality of the individual in the audience\u0026ndash;media use\u0026ndash;effects relationship. Research guided by this audience-centered perspective has suggested that understanding media effects requires consideration of audience members\u0026rsquo; individual differences, expectations, goals, level of purposiveness and activity when using media to satisfy their needs and desires [\u0026hellip;.] much U\u0026amp;G research has focused on how and why people use media\u0026rdquo; (p. 378). Therefore, arguments have been made that parasocial interaction/relationships can be considered psychological antecedents of the uses and gratifications approach (Cortese \u0026amp; Rubin, 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch Questions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo date, little specific attention has been focused on the interactivity of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;sexual and gender identity development and the use of mass media product to enhance or replace interpersonal and small group communication. Additionally, little attention has been paid to the intersectionality of gender, race, and sexual identities. This project, recognizing this gap, now puts forth the following research questions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRQ1: How do LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals describe their use of media featuring LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;characters?\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRQ2: How do LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals describe the relationship between LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;media characters and their own sexual and/or gender identity formation?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRQ3: How do LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals describe their parasocial interactions with LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;media characters?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndividual, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 44 members of the LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community recruited via social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. Gender and sexual identities defined by Human Rights Campaign and described by the participants included: Lesbian\u0026ndash;A woman who is emotionally, romantically or sexually attracted to other women; Gay\u0026ndash;A person who is emotionally, romantically or sexually attracted to members of the same gender; Bisexual\u0026ndash;A person emotionally, romantically or sexually attracted to more than one sex, gender or gender identity though not necessarily simultaneously, in the same way or to the same degree; Pansexual\u0026ndash;Describes someone who has the potential for emotional, romantic or sexual attraction to people of any gender though not necessarily simultaneously, in the same way or to the same degree; Queer\u0026mdash;A term people often use to express a spectrum of identities and orientations that are counter to the mainstream; Cisgender\u0026mdash;A term used to describe a person whose gender identity aligns with those typically associated with the sex assigned to them at birth; Transgender\u0026mdash;An umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or expression is different from cultural expectations based on the sex they were assigned at birth. Being transgender does not imply any specific sexual orientation; Gender Non-Conforming\u0026mdash;A broad term referring to people who do not behave in a way that conforms to the traditional expectations of their gender, or whose gender expression does not fit neatly into a category; Non-binary\u0026mdash;An adjective describing a person who does not identify exclusively as a man or a woman; Agender\u0026mdash;A term denoting or relating to a person who does not identify themselves as having a particular gender; and Gender Fluid\u0026ndash;Denoting or relating to a person who does not identify themselves as having a fixed gender.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe participants identified their sexual and gender identities as Lesbian\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12; Gay\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12; Bisexual\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8; Pansexual\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7; and Queer\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5. They also identified gender as Cisgender Female\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19; Cisgender Male\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16; Transgender Male\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2; Gender Non-Conforming\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1; Non-binary\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5; and Agender\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1. The race or ethnic background of the participants was reported as White\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32; African American\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5; Asian\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5; and Mixed Race\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2. As for religiosity, participants reported Protestant\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16; Nothing in particular\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5; Unknown\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3; Roman Catholic\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1; Jewish\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1; Muslim\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1; and Atheist\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1. Ages of participants were reported as 18\u0026ndash;24\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;17; 25\u0026ndash;30\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13; 31\u0026ndash;40\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10; 41\u0026ndash;50\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2; 51\u0026ndash;60\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants reported media usage daily ranging from as little as two hours per day up to more than 10\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;hours per day, with the average being four hours per day. Media usage cited included most forms of mass communication including novels, comic books, magazines, cable and broadcast television programs, films, radio programs and podcasts, video games, streaming services for music and videos, internet websites, and social media applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSemi-structured interviews conducted by the researcher followed the construction of a standard interview guide that was approved by the sponsoring university\u0026rsquo;s institutional review board (IRB), and prior to the interview, informed consent was obtained from the participants. The interview guide was divided into two general segments: demographics and basic interview questions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Participants completed one in-depth interview that lasted between 45\u0026ndash;90 minutes. Initial interviews were conducted face-to-face in private spaces on the campus of a large public university. All interviews following the outbreak of COVID-19 and the limitations placed on socialization that followed, took place via Zoom, Skype, or on the phone on a day and time convenient for the participants during summer and fall 2020. All interviews were audio recorded. Questions were divided into sections including demographics, media usage, identification with media characters, and identity development. For example, questions such as, \u0026ldquo;Are you more interested in watching LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;characters or heterosexual characters?\u0026rdquo;; \u0026ldquo;Can you recall who the first LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;person or character you remember seeing in media was whether it be on television, film, or the internet?\u0026rdquo;; \u0026ldquo;How did you feel seeing LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;characters/personalities in media? Why?\u0026rdquo;; \u0026ldquo;Did these early interactions play a role in how you viewed your own sexual identity? If yes, how? If no, why not?\u0026rdquo; were included.The average interview time was 68 minutes which was equivalent to 664 single spaced pages of transcription. A professional transcription company, Rev.com, transcribed the interviews. The PI then reviewed the transcribed interviews and checked the audio files for accuracy. The participants were compensated with a \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e20 Amazon gift card for their time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce the interviews were transcribed, each full transcript was printed, and this resulted in 664 single spaced total pages of data to be examined. The author engaged in thematic data analysis by reading the entire data set (all interviews) and engaging in open coding (Lindlof \u0026amp; Taylor, 2011) of the data. Then, second level coding was employed as codes were divided, rearranged, and collapsed until a final set of codes was determined (Tracy, 2020). Once the coding scheme was finalized, the author coded the remaining data. After all data was coded, a check for theoretical saturation was conducted to make sure that no new information emerged from the data that did not fit within the established coding scheme (Lindlof \u0026amp; Taylor, 2011). When no new findings were in the data, the author stopped data collection due to theoretical saturation having been reached.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMedia Usage for Identification and Affiliation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeelings of fear generated by the stigma associated with an LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;sexual and/or gender identity are quite common (Russell \u0026amp; Fish, 2016). Internalized homophobia and transphobia were cited by this study\u0026rsquo;s participants as well as negative evaluations of other LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members. Faced with conflict, again the participants turned to media to help work through these feelings. For example, Abby, a white, cisgender, lesbian individual said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI can admit, I was not very accepting of the entire trans community when I was younger and dumber. And I think that (the media) definitely helped me educate myself and because I was seeking acceptance for myself, I wanted to see it for other people. I think I definitely learned the whole spectrum of gender identity and sexual identity from social media and \u003cem\u003eYouTube\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbby\u0026rsquo;s statement refers to the paradox faced by many LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals\u0026mdash;prejudiced views of others on the LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;spectrum (Russell \u0026amp; Fish, 2016). So, in addition to clarifying one\u0026rsquo;s own identity through media usage, participants in this study, like Abby, used media to clarify other LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;identities for themselves.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants also continually spoke of other LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;sexual and gender identities. They found themselves consuming mass media products with portrayals of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;sexual and gender identities other than their own. They consistently reported that they were misinformed about varying identities along the LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;spectrum and that their investigations and processing of their own sexual and gender identities led to a heightened awareness and ultimate acceptance of other identities. \u0026ldquo;She (Callie Torres on \u003cem\u003eGrey\u0026rsquo;s Anatomy)\u003c/em\u003e came out as bisexual, and it was like a huge thing and that was probably my first exposure (to a bisexual portrayal). I was like that\u0026rsquo;s it. That\u0026rsquo;s cool. That\u0026rsquo;s different. That\u0026rsquo;s interesting. That\u0026rsquo;s me,\u0026rdquo; said Johnny, a white, cisgender, bisexual, male individual. \u0026ldquo;I think especially since when I first was like coming out to myself, I was, I had a lot of internalized homophobia, and so I definitely think it helped educate me and also (helped me to) have a more positive view (of myself)\u0026rdquo; said Abby, a white, cisgender, lesbian individual.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst exposures and coming out to oneself were often mentioned by the participants\u0026mdash;as is evident in the comments by Johnny and Abby. The concept of identification (putting oneself in the place of a media persona) greatly assisted the participants in self-acceptance. \u0026ldquo;The normalization, the subversion of the (negative) messages that I\u0026rsquo;d been getting all throughout my childhood and adolescence was the main thing. It was just the right little kick for me to like start the acceptance journey,\u0026rdquo; said Cirice, a white, agender, queer individual. Johnny, Cirice, and Abby, as well as other study participants, repeatedly pointed to the media portrayals as enlightening and empowering because of the positive images conveyed and how those ran counter to negative images more often displayed in society.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe examples from the study participants, illustrate the gap in mass media portrayals of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals. To date, most LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;media portrayals have been one-dimensional and stereotypical in nature. Most portrayals of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals have been produced and performed by cisgender, heterosexual producers, actors, and actresses. While great strides have been made in this area of late to correct this issue, much more work is needed (GLAAD, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;It was so cool to see him (Trevor on Showtime\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003eShameless\u003c/em\u003e played by transgender actor Elliot Fletcher) a trans-man playing a trans-man\u0026rdquo; said Buster, a white, transgender male, pansexual individual. \u0026ldquo;I felt like he forced the writers to write him in an authentic way. So, I\u0026rsquo;m pretty interested in seeing what other work he does.\u0026rdquo; These examples are the exception, rather than the rule when it comes to LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;and media portrayals. However, frequently out of necessity, participants spoke of processing their sexual identities by contrasting themselves to media characters/personalities that were on the LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;spectrum but not the same as themselves.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMedia Usage for Identity Affirmation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants rejected the notion of any type of relationship with media characters or personalities and fully left the experiences with the understanding that their interactions were not interpersonal in nature. \u0026ldquo;We\u0026rsquo;re so smart now. It\u0026rsquo;s all media savvy now. I don\u0026rsquo;t think Ross and Rachel (\u003cem\u003eFriends, NBC)\u003c/em\u003e are my friends anymore. Yeah, I really know that they\u0026rsquo;re actors and it\u0026rsquo;s just a role they are playing\u0026rdquo; said Johnny, a white, cisgender, bisexual, male individual. Instead, the participants cited affirmation of their own sexual identities through experiences with LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;characters in media. \u0026ldquo;I love Rosa (Diaz on \u003cem\u003eBrooklyn 99\u003c/em\u003e, FOX and NBC) to bits and the fact that regardless of her demeanor, she is the biggest softie of the group. My demeanor says I\u0026rsquo;m the biggest softie regardless. So, it just makes me feel more validated that it wasn\u0026rsquo;t like the very first thing that you saw (about her) on the show. It was just like Rosa is a badass that wears a leather jacket and stuff like that\u0026rdquo; said Lulu, a white, cisgender, bisexual individual. This indicates a common view among the study participants. Participants agreed that portrayals are more effective if the sexual identity of the character/personality are not at the forefront of the narrative. Inclusion of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;sexual identity in narratives is essential but should not be the central theme of the narrative.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Okay so I was almost relieved to see it (LGBTQ portrayals on TV) like now I know there are more people like me. And not seeing it as this big, amazing thing but instead just here\u0026rsquo;s my son\u0026rsquo;s same sex significant other and it was just normalized\u0026rdquo; said Leigh, a white, cisgender, lesbian individual. \u0026ldquo;I love how on \u003cem\u003eBrooklyn 99\u003c/em\u003e (FOX and NBC), the captain (Raymond Holt played by Andre Braugher) is gay and it\u0026rsquo;s just accepted, and it\u0026rsquo;s never debated. It just is\u0026rdquo; said Collin, an African American, cisgender, gay, male individual. These portrayals of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status being \u0026ldquo;matter of fact\u0026rdquo; and not central to storylines were cited as affirming by this study\u0026rsquo;s participants. In essence, the absence of homophobia and transphobia allow for stronger identification and therefore, affirmation of an LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants also pointed to the completed and fully accepted sexual and gender identities of the media characters they enjoyed.. \u0026ldquo;I like the shows that do a good job of showing things like resiliency or showing authenticity in the experience, especially now that I have gone through it and solidified my sexual identity\u0026rdquo; said Johnny, a white, cisgender, bisexual, male individual. \u0026ldquo;It (\u003cem\u003eTrans Parent\u003c/em\u003e) depicted familial conflict and people navigating loving relationships that are changing and I really liked the concept of families working together to accept one another\u0026rdquo; said Ann, a white, cisgender, lesbian individual. These participants praised how these portrayals allowed them to visualize a time when they too could be comfortable with their own sexual and gender identities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany participants spoke of the \u0026ldquo;normalizing\u0026rdquo; aspect of positive LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;portrayals. \u0026ldquo;So, seeing people like him (Brendon Urie lead singer for Panic at the Disco) that were doing all this amazing stuff but like, and not really talking about their gender or sexual identity really at all. It just made it like seem more normal\u0026rdquo; said Steve, a white, cisgender, pansexual, male individual. \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s wildly important (LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;portrayal in media). Wanting to see and hear my own voice in the media I am consuming for my own experience, it\u0026rsquo;s absolutely necessary\u0026rdquo; said Geoffrey, a mixed-race, non-binary, queer individual. \u0026ldquo;I think \u003cem\u003eThe L Word\u003c/em\u003e played a big role in my own acceptance of my identity. It helped me feel like there was some sort of future for me with holding this identity\u0026rdquo; said Flora, a white, cisgender, lesbian individual.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile most participants referred to fictionalized portrayals, others cited the importance of seeing LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members being out in non-fiction programming. \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s definitely a positive thing to see that people can succeed and be respected individuals in their field (radio, TV news anchors). They even kind of use their (sexual) identity as an advantage to give more context to the way they see the world\u0026rdquo; said Billy, a white, cisgender, gay male.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJohnny, Ann, Geoffrey, and Billy all referred to the affirmations they received when viewing LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;portrayals and personalities that exhibited pride of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status. This reflects an emerging new area of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;portrayals in that the sexual identity status is not only not portrayed negatively but is now seen as an advantage. Observing LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals who are already at a positive place of self-acceptance allowed the participants to begin to envision themselves as someday being as comfortable as the media portrayals with which they engaged.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study\u0026rsquo;s findings describe how LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals seek out and interact with differing mass media product. Lacking in information and support from social institutions that overwhelmingly support their heterosexual counterparts, LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals work through sexual and gender identity development issues in solitary ways. Participants in this study reported choosing non-threatening mass media products to gain insights they could not find elsewhere. They reported steady consumption of media products. This consumption followed a non-linear process that included: (1) realizations of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status, their othering and need for explanations and defenses, (2) media usage for information seeking, (3) media usage for emotional processing, (4) media usage for identification and affiliation, and (5) media usage for identity affirmation all of which culminated in participants (6) self-acceptance and subsequent (7) coming out interpersonally.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTheoretical Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDerived from this study\u0026rsquo;s data and the participants\u0026rsquo; responses, a model depicting a parasocial identity affirmation process was created. The five-stage model follows the consumption of media products through the process of sexual and gender identity development until LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members begin coming out to others. Participants in this study engaged in a process that included: (1) realizations of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses, (2) media usage for information seeking, (3) media usage for emotional processing, (4) media usage for identification and affiliation, and (5) media usage for identity affirmation. The model is not linear, nor is it cyclical in nature. Instead, the process of how individuals work their way from realizing the existence of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses to accepting and ultimately revealing their own LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status to others is quite complex and occurs repeatedly throughout the individual\u0026rsquo;s lifespan. Therefore, some LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members will take more time at a particular stage of development than their counterparts and vice versa. The model depicts directional movement and is indicated by double arrows to show participants\u0026rsquo; movement among and between stages. Some participants in this study spoke of nearly 10 years passing between initial recognition of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status and any examination of this recognition. Therefore, while the model depicts the basic pattern of sexual and gender identity development via media usage, it is not meant to be taken as a uniform representation but instead a guide for understanding the similar but very different processes the participants of this study experienced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrounded soundly in uses and gratifications, this model expands upon the germinal 1956 parasocial relationship theory proposed by Horton and Wohl who noted that the media present opportunities for interaction that are not available in the everyday lives of most people (i.e., with your favorite singer, author, baseball player). This model identifies how LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals use mass media product to satiate unmet identity development engagement needs usually met interpersonally (for cisgender and heterosexual individuals there seems to be an endless supply of information, models to emulate, and emotional support for their identity development needs). Therefore, this model asserts LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals use mass media product to fulfill identity development needs for both gender and sexual identities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther, parasocial interactions resemble interpersonal relationships in that uncertainty is reduced over time which allows for increased attraction and eventual relationship growth (R. Rubin \u0026amp; McHugh, 1987). A. Rubin (2009) referred to parasocial interactions as both real and perceived relationships with audience members. Like R. Rubin and McHugh\u0026rsquo;s (1987) reference to the parallels of parasocial interaction to uncertainty reduction theory, A. Rubin (2009) states that parasocial interaction \u0026ldquo;reinforces\u0026rdquo; the relevance of interpersonal concepts such as attraction, similarity, homophily, impression management, and empathy (p. 169). Other aspects of parasocial interaction include effects on media attitudes, through self-improvement (Gibbons \u0026amp; Buunk, 1999) and can lend to assimilative effects (i.e., the comparer wanting to become more like the better off comparison target). Most of the the participants\u0026rsquo; responses in this study aligned directly with this concept\u0026mdash;the idea of seeking out and finding similar \u0026ldquo;targets\u0026rdquo; in mass media\u0026mdash;and as a result, they experienced affirmations of their own sexual and gender identities. The participants did not discuss these affirmations in interpersonal or group settings. The studies of this phenomenon have led scholars to address parasocial interactions as the mediated equivalent of interpersonal communication (Schiappa et al., 2006). Therefore, this study revealed a process not previously identified in the parasocial interaction theory of audience and mass media product.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study defines a new term that I am calling \u003cem\u003eparasocial identity affirmation\u003c/em\u003e. One of the most important findings of this study is that, instead of parasocial interactions or parasocial relationships, participants reported their experiences with mass media product as parasocial affirmations. Parasocial affirmations are defined as usage experiences of media characters/personalities that allow for visualization of self-acceptance. However, one simple viewing or interaction is not enough to affirm one\u0026rsquo;s sexual and/or gender identity. These affirming associations create greater need for information and the process starts again. The affirmations are information about successful negotiation of sexual and gender identity and therefore, affirming to one\u0026rsquo;s own sexual and gender identity. For the participants in this study, the parasocial affirmation process ranged from as little as a few days to many years until the individual was secure enough to engage interpersonally with others about their sexual and gender identity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study\u0026rsquo;s findings also support the basic tenets of sexual and gender identity development research findings. Milton and MacDonald (1984) synthesized the bulk of this literature and reported that what the models have in common is a three-stage process of realizing LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;feelings, adoption of the negative assumptions made about LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;lifestyles, and finally, overcoming the negative assumptions by accepting a positive LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;identity. This study extends those findings by discovering new ways in which LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members utilize mass media products to process their own sexual and gender identities. Participants described media usage that replaced interpersonal communication. Searching for terminology and explanations of various aspects of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;lifestyles on websites,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eseeking positive interpretations of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;lifestyles in music, television, and film as well as reading comics, novels, and self-help books for LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members were among the many uses cited by this study\u0026rsquo;s participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the model discovered in this study\u0026rsquo;s findings, there are a set of common, although not identical, practices that participants engaged in during process (see Table\u0026nbsp;1.1).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1.2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePractices associated with Parasocial Identity Affirmation Model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRealizations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedia use for information seeking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedia use for\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eemotional processing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedia use for identification and affiliation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedia use for identity affirmation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;exists\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTerms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternalized homophobia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeing like others with same LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status(es)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteracting with like others with same LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status(es)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status is stigmatized\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternalized transphobia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeing similar others on LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;spectrum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteracting with similar others on LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;spectrum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOwn status is LGBTQ+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExplanations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender dysphoria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstanding LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;identity as not abnormal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeing like and similar others successfully navigating coming out issues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeed for explanations/defenses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvidence to support identity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoneliness and fear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGaining sense they too can live LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;lives successfully\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeing like and similar others living LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;sexual and gendered lives successfully\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecision whether or not to reveal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrategies to explain identity to self and eventually others\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoping and overcoming feelings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvisioning own LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;successful life\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNavigating coming out to self and others\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis table illustrates the most common set of practices revealed during the data analysis conducted for this study. Generally, participants reported a steady pattern of realizations followed by media usage for information seeking, for emotional processing, for identification and affiliation, and finally, for affirmation. When discussing realizations, participants spoke of two basic realizations: 1) that of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;existence and 2) their own LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;identity status. Included in these realizations were the stigmatization of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status and the need to explain and defend LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses and a decision whether to reveal one\u0026rsquo;s status. Most of the participants reported a \u0026ldquo;closeted\u0026rdquo; period in which they utilized mass media product to obtain terminology and other information that would assist in their explanations. Equally important was the ascertainment of evidence to support their identities as well as strategies to understand and explain their identities to themselves and eventually others.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing media for emotional processing helped participants deal with internalized homophobia, internalized transphobia, gender dysphoria, and feelings of isolation, including loneliness and fear, through discovering similar experiences and coping techniques found in media product. These experiences and coping techniques offered identification and affiliation. Participants accomplished these goals by interacting with media product that contained depictions of like others with the same LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses and similar others on the LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;spectrum. Participants also interacted with media product that portrayed LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals as not abnormal and capable of obtaining and sustaining successful and happy lives. Ultimately, participants sought media product that allowed for envisioning their own successful and happy LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;lives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the table lists the media usage for affirmations discovered in this study\u0026rsquo;s research. Participants spoke of the interaction with depictions of like and similar others as affirming to their LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses. They also specifically pointed to depictions of successful coming out narratives as affirming to their future with the event of coming out to others. The interactions with depictions of successful and happy LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals living positively with their true sexual and gender identities were seen as highly affirming and motivating for the participants. The participants spoke of coming out to themselves and others as being affirmed in interactions with media depictions of others successfully navigating these milestones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study\u0026rsquo;s model demonstrates the process of using media product to satiate unmet needs. The participants in this study reported a variety of realizations about LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;identities. Realization of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;identities\u0026rsquo; existence and the stigmatization of those identities usually occurred prior to the participants\u0026rsquo; realization of their own LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status. Upon their own realizations (many experienced denial periods with some lasting for years) came the understanding of a need for explanations and defenses of their identity. Most often, these realizations led to a decision not to reveal LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status as a protective measure for physical, sociological, and psychological safety reasons. This step in the process meant that participants were no longer discussing their LGTBQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses with anyone on an interpersonal level and mass media products became the surrogate for interpersonal interactions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce the participants realized any or all their needs: the need for more information, the need for emotional support, the need for role models or like others for identification, and the need for affirmation, their engagement with mass media products began. Participants described the process as occurring in a variety of sequences. As mentioned earlier, this model is neither linear nor cyclical in that all elements can occur sequentially or simultaneously over brief or extended time periods. Participants reported searching for terminology, information, and explanations to assist in understanding themselves and eventually explaining themselves to others. This discovery adds to parasocial interaction in a new way by revealing participants\u0026rsquo; use of mass media for the gratification of learning about themselves, their community, and methods of rhetorical defense of their identity. Thus, \u003cem\u003eparasocial information seeking\u003c/em\u003e is identified as a new term and the next stage of this model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen sufficient information had been gathered, participants moved onto the difficult work of emotionally processing their internalized homophobia, transphobia, and/or gender dysphoria and their feelings of loneliness and fear associated with both their LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status and their newly found isolation. Participants used mass media to cope with and overcome negative emotions commonly associated with LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses. This discovery adds to parasocial interaction research in a new way be revealing participants use of mass media for the gratification of learning skills to cope with negative emotions associated with LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses. Thus, \u003cem\u003eparasocial emotional processing\u003c/em\u003e is identified as a new term and the next stage in this model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants spoke of experiencing relief upon finding like and similar others in media products. Seeing and \u0026ldquo;interacting\u0026rdquo; with others with the same LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status or seeing and \u0026ldquo;interacting\u0026rdquo; with others with similar LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status in media products allowed participants a much-needed affiliation (they were not finding in interpersonal or social settings). Many participants pointed to the fact that their \u0026ldquo;exact\u0026rdquo; LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status was not necessary for identification and affiliation and that the presence of \u0026ldquo;any\u0026rdquo; LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status could be utilized at this stage. Participants used mass media products to redefine LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses as no longer being viewed as abnormal. Furthermore, they used media to gain a sense that they too (like the object of identification) can live successful lives as LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members. The participants also used these identifiers to envision their own happy and successful lives as LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members. These findings add to parasocial interaction research by revealing how participants use mass media for the gratification of understanding and clarifying LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses through affiliation, Thus, \u003cem\u003eparasocial affiliation\u003c/em\u003e is identified as new term and the next stage in this model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Finally, the participants spoke of affirmations. These affirmations came through interaction with similar and like members of the LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community. Participants referenced seeing these similar and like others successfully navigating issues associated with coming out and seeing these similar and like others living healthy, happy, and successful lives as members of the LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community as affirming for their own future identities. Participants used all the knowledge gathered throughout the stages to negotiate coming out to both them and others. This discovery adds to parasocial interaction in a new way by revealing participants use of mass media for the gratification of obtaining skills implemented by like and similar other LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members who have and are successfully navigating LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;lives for use in their own lives. Thus, \u003cem\u003eparasocial identify affirmation\u003c/em\u003e is a process that describes a part of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;sexual and gender identity development as interaction between LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;media consumers and mass media product that positively portrays LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members and through the positive portrayals allows LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;media consumers to affirm their own sexual and gender identities as credible and viable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParasocial identify affirmation, then, is the end result of the realizations of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses and their associated variables understood through the processing of information seeking\u0026mdash;words, explanations, defensive strategies\u0026mdash;emotional processing (i.e., homophobia, transphobia, gender dysphoria, loneliness, and fear), understanding one\u0026rsquo;s self and others by interacting and identifying with like and similar LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;others\u0026mdash;affiliation (i.e., normalize LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses, understanding possibility of own successful LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;life, and envision successful LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;life), and combining all these elements to create usage experiences of media characters/personalities that allow for visualization of self-acceptance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePractical Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study can be utilized by mass media producers across the media industry and various other groups who interact with LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals. All participants resoundingly spoke of their preference for seeing LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;media characters and personalities over heterosexual ones. All participants also agreed there are far too few LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;media characters and personalities. Additionally, the current portrayals were troublesome for most in the that they are mainly stereotypical, one-dimensional representations of a community that is far more diverse than the one currently depicted. The overwhelming prominence of affluent, gay white males who are effeminate, serves as further marginalization of women, people of color, and those of middle or lower economic status. Participants consistently pointed their discissons to the need for more varied and nuanced representations of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members in all media formats. GLAAD (202) agrees and has challenged media producers to actively seekout LGTBQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;actors, writer, and directors ( as well as all profession associated with media product creation) to engage in the process of presenting a more realistic, diverse set of narratives.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith more realistic narratives in media products, health care professionals, such as social workers, clinical psychologists, school counselors, and others who see LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members during the key developmental years could use these depictions and this study\u0026rsquo;s findings to develop therapeutic measures. Many participants in this study referred to the lack of information and guidance they received during their formative years and pointed to the importance and value associated with such measures. These new measures could include therapies in psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, self-directed, strategic, experiential, and systemic frameworks and incorporate mass media products with positive LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;portrayals and representations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn the individual level, LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members can use mass media products as affirming agents for both sexual and gender identity development. Through mass media consumption, individuals\u0026mdash;both LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members and allies alike\u0026mdash;learn the language, definitions, and examples necessary to make effective arguments for defense of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;statuses to those in opposition to their very existence. These defense strategies can assist in the tumultuous and arduous coming out process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is important to note that while our society has grown in significantly positive ways in recent years toward the acceptance of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;sexual and gender identities, it is not better yet. Educational systems are still allowing or overlooking shocking events taking place in their ranks. Two participants in this study, less than five years removed from high school attendance, spoke of direct experiences with teachers and principals in which they were formally chastised for their LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;identities. Assignments in religious educational systems cited by still other participants in this study point to the open nature of abuse of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;individuals. One participant recalled being forced to write an essay on why gay people will burn in hell. While in recent years the formation of Gay Straight Alliances in high schools across the country has increased significantly, these clubs often create spaces for additional abuse and ridicule. Several of the participants in this study discussed this phenomenon. The participants said GSAs were most often a source that called attention to LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;status and therefore increased physical bullying and verbal abuse. One participant said the attempt at a GSA formation created such controversy at his school that local media covered \u0026ldquo;the scandal.\u0026rdquo; Yet another recalled going to great lengths to avoid not only the GSA meetings but anyone who attended the meetings as well. The existence of these events reminds us we still need much more investigation into the practices occurring in our education system. Educational systems, religious institutions and family units could all utilize the findings of this to facilitate communication and ultimately create safer and stronger environments for their LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;members. Programs could be created to foster open and non-threatening communication in safe spaces.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile this study has many positive findings that advance theory and provide guidance for practical situations, it also has limitations. The sample of the study is limited in scope with the lack of inclusion of a significant number of older LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;people. Only four participants were over the age of 40. Another limitation of this study sample was the lack of racial diversity. While several participants identified as African American, Asian American, and mixed race (African American \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5; Asian American \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5; mixed race \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2), none identified as Latina/o. Since the Williams Institute (2020) reports that 21% of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Americans are Latino with African Americans making up 12% of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Americans, it is important to include Latina/o LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;participants in future research in this area. Lack of racial diversity in study participants may miss relevant findings that are unique to that group due to cultural, environmental, or physiologic factors (Diaz, 2012). Finally, while the sample included participants who identified as non-binary (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6) and transgender male (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2), no participants identified as transgender female.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFuture research\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs mentioned in the \u003cspan refid=\"Sec17\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003elimitations\u003c/span\u003e section of this study, future studies should include participants from a larger variety of demographic backgrounds including other LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;identities such intersexed and asexual individuals. Participants from all ages would bring the perspectives of people who experienced sexual identity development in the pre-internet age. Questions such as \u0026ldquo;Are their generational differences in media utilization and processes for sexual identity development?\u0026rdquo; could be answered. This inclusion could result in findings of a different process of information and affirmation and utilization of different media than reported in this study. In addition to age, more inclusion of racial and ethnic backgrounds than the present study would provide more nuanced results across the LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;spectrum.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsiderations of intersectionality were mentioned by several participants in the current study. Examining sexual and gender identity development can be more accurately accessed when intersecting variables such as race, gender, sexual identity, age, religion, among others, are treated equally (Nadal et al., 2015). Future studies should examine this specific intersectionality especially how transgender, gender fluid, and non-binary gender identities impact sexual identity development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost participants in this study reported familial impact on sexual and gender identity development. No further probing of family structure was utilized. Family structure could play a role in sexual identity development as well. A study including questions designed to compare different familial structures such as divorced parents, single parents, LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;parents, etc. could reveal more effective practices for parenting LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eSexual identity development of LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members, while like that of their cisgender, heterosexual counterparts, occurs differently. Most often during adolescence and early adulthood, sexual identity development occurs alongside other aspects of identity development such as gender, race or ethnicity, class status, nationality, religious affiliation, age, physical and/or cognitive abilities, and political beliefs. Faced with affirming an identity wrought with stigma and emotional pitfalls, LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members often opt to stay in the proverbial closet and work through the identity development process alone. Whether real or imagined, LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members fear ridicule, rejection, and even physical violence upon revelation of their sexual identities. Therefore, they opt for more impersonal means for information seeking, emotional processing, affiliation, and affirmation. This study interviewed 44 LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;community members and revealed parasocial identity affirmation as a novel facet of parasocial interaction. The participants essentially described a trajectory of sexual identity development that included: (1) realizing they were LGBTQ+; (2) using media to get information; (3) using media to process emotions; (4) using media to identify and affiliate; and (5) using media to affirm their identities. All of these steps culminated in the participants accepting who they were and coming out to others. The most significant finding, arguably, is that participants reported parasocial affirmations rather than parasocial interactions or connections. This project defines parasocial affirmations as media characters' or personalities' usage experiences that facilitate the visualization of self-acceptance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The author declares that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The author has no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The author created the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by the author. The first draft of the manuscript was written by the author. The author read and approved the final manuscript.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;This study was performed in line with the approval from the University of Kentucky Institutional Research Board in April, 2020.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The authors affirms that human research participants provided informed consent for publication.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAdolescent development - the promise of adolescence - NCBI Bookshelf. 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The uses and gratifications perspective of media effects. In Bryant, J. and Oliver, M.B. (Eds.) \u003cem\u003eMedia effects: Advances in theory and research\u003c/em\u003e, (3\u003csup\u003erd\u003c/sup\u003e ed.) (pp. 165- 184). Routledge.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRussell, S. T., \u0026amp; Fish, J. N. (2016). Mental health in Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) youth. \u003cem\u003eAnnual Review of Clinical Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e, 465\u0026ndash;487. https://doi.org/10/1146/annurey-clinpsy-021815-093153\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSavin-Williams, R. C, \u0026amp; Diamond, L. M. (2000). Sexual identity trajectories among sexual minority youths: Gender comparisons. \u003cem\u003eArchives of Sexual Behavior\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;29(6),\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e607-627. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1002058505138\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSchiappa, E., Gregg, P. B., \u0026amp; Hewes, D. E. (2006). 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Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-lgbt/some-4-5-percent-of-u-s-adults-identify-as-lgbt-study-idUSKCN1QM2L6\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1.1 is not available with this version.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"University of Kentucky","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Parasocial affirmation, Parasocial identification, Sexuality, LGBTQ+, Transgende, Mass Media","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4208366/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4208366/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis project presents a new cycle model of media usage by LGBTQ+ community members in the United States that reveals a purpose previously unnamed and undefined. While parasocial contact, parasocial interaction, and parasocial relationships have been present in the academic literature for quite some time (as early as 1956 when Horton and Wohl first wrote of the phenomenon), use of media to parasocially affirm one’s LGBTQ+ status is unique to this study. This study used qualitative methods to examine a specific mass media audience, LGBTQ+ individuals, and asked them, in one-on-one interviews, how they utilize mass media to assist with their sexual and gender identity development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eArguably, the most important finding is that: instead of parasocial interactions or parasocial relationships participants reported parasocial affirmations. Parasocial affirmations are defined by this project as usage experiences of media characters/personalities that allow for visualization of self-acceptance. These affirming associations in turn create a need for additional experiences and the process starts again. The affirmations include information about successful negotiation of sexual and/or gender identity and therefore, affirming their own sexual and gender identity. Theoretical implications of this study include an extension of the parasocial interaction/relationship theory with the addition of parasocial\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"I need to see me on TV: Parasocial affirmations of sexual and gender identity development of LGBTQ+ mass media consumers","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-04-03 18:38:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4208366/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1ca5fbe9-e9a2-4517-842b-1102b8e59555","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 3rd, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":30201276,"name":"Publishing/Media"},{"id":30201277,"name":"Cultural Studies"},{"id":30201278,"name":"Gender Studies"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-04-03T18:38:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-04-03 18:38:00","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4208366","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4208366","identity":"rs-4208366","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}