Molecular and serological surveillance of toxocariasis in humans and dogs in Ghana

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Exposure is highest where sanitation is poor and access to health care is limited. In Ghana, similar conditions exist in many rural and peri-urban communities. This study assessed the prevalence and determinants of toxocariasis in humans and dogs in Ghana. Methods : A cross-sectional study was conducted in humans and dogs drawn from two regions of Ghana. Human sera were tested for anti- Toxocara antibodies using serological assays, while faecal samples of dogs were analyzed using molecular methods Results : Human Toxocara seroprevalence was 14.5% (95% CI: 11.4–17.5). Infection was highest in children aged 6–15 years (23.9%, 95% CI: 16.7–31.1) and lowest in the 16–30-year group (4.5%, 95% CI: 0.6–8.3). Males (18.6%, 95% CI: 13.9–23.3) and rural residents (27.5%, 95% CI: 20.6–34.4) showed higher infection. Logistic regression showed that being male increased the odds of infection (AOR = 2.06; 95% CI: 1.22–3.48), living in a rural area (AOR = 4.13; 95% CI: 2.47–6.92) and having no formal education increased the likelihood of infection. Among dogs, the overall prevalence was 56.1% (95% CI: 51.4–60.7). T. canis was the dominant species (87.9%), while T. cati accounted for 12.1%. Young dogs were much less likely to be infected than puppies (AOR = 0.18; 95% CI: 0.10–0.30). Foreign-breed dogs had lower odds of infection than local breeds (AOR = 0.26; 95% CI: 0.10–0.68). Conclusion : The study reports on the burden of Toxocara infections in both humans and dog populations. Children, males, rural residents, and individuals with no education were identified as risk groups. In dogs, puppies and local-breeds were found to be key reservoirs, highlighting their key role in transmission dynamics. The findings underscore the importance of dog deworming, hygiene education and One Health approaches to reduce the risk of transmission. Herein, we report for the first time of Toxocara cati infections in dogs in Ghana. Toxocariasis Risk Factors Zoonotic Infection Seroprevalence Human Dogs and Ghana Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction Toxocariasis is a helminthic zoonosis caused by the nematode species Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati . It affects both animals and humans and is recognised as a neglected tropical disease [ 1 ]. Dogs serve as the primary definitive hosts, with adult worms residing in the small intestine and releasing large quantities of eggs into the environment through feces. Under favourable conditions, these eggs embryonate and become infective [ 2 ]. In many communities in developing Countries, inadequate waste management, unrestricted dog movement, and limited access to routine veterinary care facilitate extensive environmental egg contamination [ 3 ]. Toxocariasis can also produce notable physiological effects. After ingestion of infective eggs, larvae hatch in the small intestine and migrate through the bloodstream to various tissues [ 4 ]. This migration induces inflammatory and immunological responses in affected organs. In the liver, larvae may cause hepatocellular injury, granulomatous inflammation, and elevated liver enzymes [ 5 ]. Pulmonary migration can lead to respiratory symptoms such as cough, wheezing, and hypersensitivity-type reactions. Many infected individuals develop eosinophilia as part of a systemic immune response [ 6 ]. In advanced cases, larvae may reach the eye, resulting in retinal damage and visual impairment [ 7 ]. Although the parasite does not mature in humans, its migrating larvae can cause significant pathology [ 8 – 10 ]. Globally, canine infection patterns vary widely. In Brazil, prevalence ranges from below 1% to nearly 50%, with an average of 11.4% [ 11 ]. In Europe, an overall prevalence of 14.6% has been estimated, with substantially higher rates observed in puppies, often exceeding 40% [ 12 ]. Similar findings have been documented across Africa, where free-roaming dog populations and irregular deworming practices contribute to ongoing transmission [ 13 ]. Humans typically acquire infection through accidental ingestion of embryonated eggs present in contaminated soil, unwashed vegetables, untreated water or through direct contact with dog hair [ 14 ]. Children are particularly vulnerable due to frequent soil contact and inconsistent hand hygiene [ 15 ]. A major review estimated that nearly 19% of the world’s population has serological evidence of past Toxocara exposure [ 15 ]. Reported seroprevalence varies widely across regions, ranging from about 13.9% in the United States [ 16 ] to more than 50% in rural Gabon [ 17 ]. Regional variations reflect differences in sanitation, climate, socio-economic conditions, and dog management practices. Studies from Latin America and Asia also report elevated exposure among children in low-income or densely populated areas [ 18 ]. Because larvae do not develop into adult worms in humans. Stool examination is generally ineffective, making serological assays [ELISA] the diagnostic method of choice as recommended in global reviews [ 19 ]. These serological tests remain the most reliable way to assess exposure levels within communities [ 20 ]. In Ghana, data on Toxocara infections remain limited despite increasing dog ownership, rapid urbanisation, and persistent sanitation challenges. Studies in Ghana report canine infection rates between 5.8% and 18.8% [ 8 , 21 , 22 ]. In Ghana, serological data are few but show a high level of exposure. A study of 566 children in the Central Region found a Toxocara seroprevalence of 53.5%. The infection was strongly linked with owning pets, playing in soil, and poor hand hygiene [ 23 ]. Another study that included Kintampo also reported widespread Toxocara antibodies in people. High antibody levels were linked with active convulsive epilepsy [ 24 ]. In many Ghanaian communities, dogs roam freely, children play outdoors, and environmental contamination is likely [ 23 , 25 , 26 ]. The absence of comprehensive prevalence data in other parts of Ghana further restricts understanding of the true burden. This study aims to determine the prevalence of Toxocara infection among humans and dogs in the forest and transition zones of Ghana. It also seeks to identify the major risk factors that influence transmission. Methods Study Design and Study Area A cross-sectional study was conducted in two regions of Ghana to determine the prevalence and risk determinants of Toxocara spp. infection in humans and dogs from January 2024 to October 2024. Sampling occurred in selected communities where dog ownership is common and environmental contamination is likely. Both regions are located in the middle belt of the country and represent areas with varying levels of urbanization and animal-human interaction. The Ashanti Region is situated in the south-central part of Ghana, with Kumasi as its capital (Figure 1). It lies between latitudes 5°50'N and 7°46'N and longitudes 0°15'W and 2°25'W. The region experiences a tropical climate with two rainy seasons: the major season occurs from March to July and the minor from September to November. The average annual rainfall ranges from 1,200 mm to 1,500 mm, and temperatures typically range between 21°C and 32°C. Both urban and rural communities in this region were selected for sampling due to their dense dog populations and varying access to veterinary care. The Bono East Region, with Techiman as its capital, lies to the north of Ashanti. It is geographically positioned between latitudes 7°10'N and 8°22'N and longitudes 0°15'W and 1°30'W (Figure 1). The region also experiences a tropical climate, with similar seasonal rainfall patterns. However, the northern location causes slightly higher temperatures, ranging between 23°C and 35°C. Bono East comprises mostly rural communities, with a strong farming culture and frequent contact between humans and domestic animals, especially dogs. Ethical Clearance Ethical clearance for this study was obtained from the Committee on Human Research, Publications and Ethics (CHRPE) of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana (Ref: CHRPE/AP/199/31). The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and relevant international guidelines for research involving human participants. All human participants, or their legal guardians in the case of minors, provided written informed consent before participation. Participant privacy and data confidentiality were strictly maintained throughout the study. For the animal component, informed consent was obtained from all dog owners prior to sample collection. Animal handling and sample collection were carried out in accordance with internationally accepted animal welfare standards and the guidelines of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). All procedures were designed to minimize animal stress and avoid unnecessary harm. Sample Size and Sampling Strategy A total of 505 human participants and 452 dogs were enrolled. The minimum sample size for humans and dogs was estimated using standard prevalence-based sample size calculations, assuming a 50% expected prevalence, 95% confidence level, and 5% margin of error, with additional participants included to compensate for non‑response. Eligibility for human participants required residence in the community for at least six months and willingness to provide a blood sample. Dogs older than three months, owned or free-roaming in the study communities, were included. Written or verbal informed consent was obtained from all human participants or dog owners. Human Blood Collection and Serological Analysis Venous blood was collected only for serological testing. For each participant, about 3 mL of blood was drawn aseptically using sterile single-use needles and syringes. All materials used for sample collection were checked for sterility and expiry. The blood was transferred into plain vacutainer tubes (Batch No.: VT-2024-115), allowed to clot at room temperature for 20–30 minutes, and centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10 minutes. The clear serum layer was aliquoted into sterile cryovials (Batch No.: CRYO-24-778) and stored at −20°C until analysis. Serological detection of anti-Toxocara IgG antibodies was performed using the NovaTec Toxocara IgG ELISA kit (NovaTec Immundiagnostica GmbH, Germany; Kit Batch No.: NT-TCX-EL-56241). All reagents were allowed to reach room temperature before use. Each serum sample was tested in duplicate to ensure accuracy. Serum samples were diluted 1:100 by mixing 10 µL of serum with 990 µL of sample diluent (Batch No.: SD-2024-331). One hundred microlitres of the diluted sample was added into each antigen-coated well. Plates were incubated at 37°C for 60 minutes and washed three times using prepared wash buffer (Batch No.: WB-2024-909). After washing, 100 µL of HRP-conjugated anti-human IgG (Batch No.: HRP-2024-557) was added and incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature. Plates were washed again before adding 100 µL of TMB substrate (Batch No.: TMB-2024-008). Colour development was allowed for 15 minutes in the dark. The reaction was stopped with 100 µL of stop solution (Batch No.: STOP-2024-662), and absorbance was read at 450 nm using a calibrated microplate reader (Model: MR-5600; Reader Batch No.: MR-5600-2024-117). Positive and negative controls supplied with the kit (Batch No.: CTRL-2024-441) were included in every run. The assay was considered valid when control values fell within the acceptable range provided in the manufacturer’s manual. Dog Fecal Collection and Molecular Detection Fresh fecal samples were collected from each dog immediately after defecation or directly from owners into sterile screw‑cap containers. All samples were clearly labelled with the dog’s identification and transported on ice to the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research for molecular analysis. Approximately 200 mg of fecal material was processed for DNA extraction using a commercial circulating-DNA isolation kit, following the manufacturer’s instructions. The recovered DNA was quantified with a NanoDrop spectrophotometer to assess purity and concentration, and all extracts were stored at −20°C until molecular analysis. Species-specific PCR assays were used to detect Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati. Identification was based on amplification of the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS-2) region of ribosomal DNA. For T. canis, the forward primer Tcan1 (5′-AGTATGATGGGCGCGCCAAT-3′) was paired with the NC2 reverse primer (5′-TTAGTTTCTTTTCCTCCGCT-3′). The same NC2 reverse primer was used for T. cati, together with the forward primer Tcat1 (5′-GGAGAAGTAAGATCGTGGCACGCGT-3′]. The use of NC2 for both reactions is appropriate because it targets a conserved region downstream of ITS-2, while the species-specific forward primers bind to variable sites unique to each parasite. PCR reactions were prepared in 25 µL volumes containing master mix, the appropriate primer pair, DNA template, and nuclease-free water. Thermal cycling consisted of an initial denaturation at 95°C for 5 minutes, followed by 35 cycles at 94°C for 45 seconds, 58°C for 35 seconds, and 72°C for 35 seconds, with a final extension at 72°C for 10 minutes. Amplicons were resolved on 1.5% agarose gels stained with ethidium bromide and run at 100 V. Bands were visualised under ultraviolet illumination and compared with a 100 bp molecular ladder to confirm expected fragment sizes. Data Analysis All data were cleaned and organized before analysis. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, percentages, and 95% confidence intervals, were used to summarize the characteristics of human participants and dogs. Chi-square tests were applied to assess associations between demographic variables and Toxocara infection. For human data, variables that showed significant associations were further examined using multivariable logistic regression to compute adjusted odds ratios, while univariable logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios for dog-related predictors such as age, sex, breed, purpose, and region. Mosaic plots and species distribution charts were generated to visualize infection patterns. Spatial distribution maps showing the geographic pattern of human and dog infections were produced using ArcMap version 10.7.1, while all remaining statistical analyses and visualizations were conducted using R software. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results Toxocara Infections in Humans and Risk Factor The overall prevalence of Toxocara infection among the 505 human participants was 14.5% (95% CI: 11.4–17.5) (Table 1). Infection varied significantly across age groups, with the highest rate recorded among children aged 6–15 years (23.9%, 95% CI: 16.7–31.1) and the lowest among those aged 16–30 years (4.5%, 95% CI: 0.6–8.3) (p < 0.001). Males showed a higher prevalence (18.6%, 95% CI: 13.9–23.3) compared with females (10.0%, 95% CI: 6.2–13.7) (p = 0.009). Rural residents had a markedly higher infection rate (27.5%, 95% CI: 20.6–34.4) than urban participants (8.4%, 95% CI: 5.5–11.3) (p < 0.001) (Table 1). The mosaic plots also indicated that age, sex, and location type were significantly associated with Toxocara infection (Figure 2). Table 1: Sero-prevalence of Toxocara infection among humans Variable Frequency (n) Positive (n, %) 95% CI χ² P-value Overall 505 73 (14.5) 11.4–17.5 – – Age Group 0–5 years 86 14 (16.3) 8.5–24.1 19.59 <0.001 6–15 years 134 32 (23.9) 16.7–31.1 16–30 years 112 5 (4.5) 0.6–8.3 31–45 years 88 10 (11.4) 4.7–18.0 46+ years 85 12 (14.1) 6.7–21.5 Sex Male 264 49 (18.6) 13.9–23.3 6.86 0.009 Female 241 24 (10.0) 6.2–13.7 Location Urban 345 29 (8.4) 5.5–11.3 30.7 <0.001 Rural 160 44 (27.5) 20.6–34.4 Education Level None 196 46 (23.5) 17.4–29.6 Basic 79 9 (11.4) 4.4–18.4 22.55 <0.001 Secondary 134 8 (6.0) 2.0–10.0 Tertiary 96 10 (10.4) 4.3–16.5 Region Ashanti 269 44 (16.4) 11.8–21.0 1.37 0.242 Bono East 236 29 (12.3) 8.0–16.6 The study showed clear differences in Toxocara infection across groups. Children aged 6–15 years had the highest risk at 23.9%, and their odds of infection were strongly increased (AOR = 6.71). Adults aged 16–30 years had the lowest risk (4.5%) (Table 2). Males had a higher risk (18.6%) than females and also showed higher odds of infection (AOR = 2.06). Rural residents recorded a much higher risk (27.5%) than urban residents, with rural participants having a strong increase in infection odds (AOR = 4.13). Education also showed some variation. Participants with basic education had a higher risk (23.5%) and increased odds (AOR = 2.64) compared with those with tertiary education. Regional differences were small, with Ashanti showing a risk of 16.4% (AOR = 1.40) and Bono East 12.3% (Table 2). Table 2. Risk Estimates and Adjusted Odds Ratios for Sociodemographic Predictors of Human Toxocara Infection Variable Risk (%) RR (95% CI) RD (95% CI) AOR (95% CI) P-value Age group 0–5 years 16.3 3.65 (1.37–9.73) 0.118 (0.031–0.205) 4.16 (1.44–12.10) 0.009 6–15 years 23.9 5.35 (2.16–13.30) 0.194 (0.112–0.276) 6.71 (2.52–17.90) <0.001 16–30 years¹ 4.5 1.00 (0.30–3.36) 0.000 (−0.054–0.054) 31–45 years 11.4 2.55 (0.90–7.18) 0.069 (−0.008–0.146) 2.74 (0.90–8.35) 0.075 46+ years 14.1 3.16 (1.16–8.63) 0.097 (0.013–0.180) 3.52 (1.19–10.40) 0.023 Sex Female¹ 10 1.00 (0.58–1.71) 0.000 (−0.053–0.053) Male 18.6 1.86 (1.18–2.94) 0.086 (0.026–0.146) 2.06 (1.22–3.48) 0.007 Location Urban¹ 8.4 1.00 (0.61–1.64) 0.000 (−0.041–0.041) Rural 27.5 3.27 (2.13–5.03) 0.191 (0.116–0.266) 4.13 (2.47–6.92) <0.001 Education None 23.5 2.25 (1.19–4.27) 0.131 (0.045–0.216) 2.64 (1.27–5.49) 0.01 Basic 11.4 1.09 (0.47–2.56) 0.010 (−0.083–0.103) 1.11 (0.43–2.87) 0.836 Secondary 6 0.57 (0.23–1.40) −0.044 (−0.118–0.029) 0.55 (0.21–1.44) 0.221 Tertiary¹ 10.4 1.00 (0.44–2.29) 0.000 (−0.086–0.086) Region Bono East¹ 12.3 1.00 (0.62–1.62) 0.000 (−0.059–0.059) 1.00 (0.58–1.73) Ashanti 16.4 1.33 (0.86–2.06) 0.041 (−0.020–0.102) 1.40 (0.84–2.31) 0.196 Note: RR: Relative Risk , RED: Risk Difference and AOR: Adjusted Odds Ratio, ¹Reference category for RR, RD and AOR within each variable. Toxocara Infections in Dogs and Risk Factor Of the 442 dogs examined, 248 (56.1%) were infected with Toxocara, with T. canis accounting for 218 cases (87.9%) and T. cati for 30 cases (12.1%). Infection differed significantly by region (χ² = 20.29, p < 0.01). Sex was not associated with infection (χ² = 2.08, p = 0.15), although females had 110 positives (60.4%), compared with 138 (53.1%) in males. (Table 3). Age showed a strong association (χ² = 62.0, p < 0.001), with puppies showing the highest prevalence (76; 76.0%). Breed was significantly associated with infection (χ² = 7.49, p = 0.006), as local dogs had 242 positives (57.4%) compared with foreign breeds (6; 26.1%) (Table 3). Across all demographic groups, T. canis was the overwhelmingly dominant species, contributing more than 85–90% of all infections. (Figure 3). Table 3: Prevalence of Toxocara Infections in Dogs Demographic Frequency (n) Positive Cases (n, %) T. canis (n, %) T. cati (n, %) Overall 442 248(56.1%) 218(87.9) 30(12.1) Region Ashanti 221 100(45.2) 88(88.0) 12(12.0) Bono East 221 148(67.0) 130(87.8) 18(12.2) χ² 20.29 0.005 0.002 p-value <0.01 0.99 0.99 Sex Male 260 138(53.1) 120 (87.0) 18(13.0) Female 182 110(60.4) 98 (89.1) 12(10.9) χ² 2.08 0.09 0.99 p-value 0.15 0.75 0.75 Age Group Puppy 100 76(76.0) 70(92.1) 6(7.9) Young 199 71(35.7) 57(80.2) 14(19.8 ) Adult 143 101(70.6) 91(90.0 ) 10(10.0) χ² 62.0 5.59 5.59 p-value <0.001 0.060 0.060 Breed Local 421 242 (57.4) 212(86.6) 30(13.4) Foreign 23 6 (26.1) 6(88.6) 0 (0) χ² 7.49 0.082 0.082 p-value 0.006 0.77 0.77 Purpose Guard dog 150 78 (52.0%) 69 (88.5%) 9 (11.5%) Pet 200 122 (61.0%) 108 (88.5%) 14 (11.5%) Stray 92 48 (52.2%) 43 (89.6%) 5 (10.4%) χ² 3.55 0.05 0.05 p-value 0.169 0.97 0.97 Puppies had the highest Toxocara infection (76.0%) with a strong increase in risk (RR = 2.13) and odds (AOR = 5.71). Adult dogs also showed high infection (70.6%; RR = 1.98, AOR = 4.34). Foreign breeds had a much lower infection rate (26.1%) than local breeds (57.4%) with reduced risk (RR = 0.45) and odds (AOR = 0.26) (Table 4). Dogs from Bono East recorded higher infection (67.0%) compared with Ashanti (45.2%) with increased RR (1.48) and AOR (2.45). Female dogs showed slightly higher infection (60.4%) than males (53.1%), with modest increases in risk (RR = 1.14) and odds (AOR = 1.35). The mosaic plots showed that infection was significantly higher than expected in puppies (Figure 4). While young dogs and foreign breeds had fewer infections than expected. Sex and purpose showed no meaningful deviations, indicating little association with infection. Figure 5 shows the spatial distribution of Toxocara infections among Human and dogs in the study areas. Table 4: Risk Factors Associated With Toxocara Infection in Dogs Variable Risk (%) RR (95% CI) RD (95% CI) AOR (95% CI) P-value Age Puppy 76 2.13 (1.72–2.65) 0.403 (0.296–0.510) 5.71 (3.32–9.82) <0.001 Young¹ 35.7 1.00 (0.77–1.30) 0.000 (−0.094–0.094) 1.00 (0.66–1.51) 1 Adult 70.6 1.98 (1.60–2.45) 0.350 (0.249–0.450) 4.34 (2.73–6.88) <0.001 Breed Local¹ 57.4 1.00 (0.89–1.12) 0.000 (−0.067–0.067) 1.00 (0.76–1.31) 1 Foreign 26.1 0.45 (0.23–0.91) −0.314 (−0.500–−0.128) 0.26 (0.10–0.68) 0.006 Purpose Guard¹ 52 1.00 (0.81–1.24) 0.000 (−0.113–0.113) 1.00 (0.64–1.57) 1 Pet 61 1.17 (0.97–1.42) 0.090 (−0.015–0.195) 1.44 (0.94–2.22) 0.093 Stray 52.2 1.00 (0.78–1.29) 0.002 (−0.128–0.131) 1.01 (0.60–1.69) 0.979 Region Ashanti¹ 45.2 1.00 (0.82–1.23) 0.000 (−0.093–0.093) 1.00 (0.69–1.45) 1 Bono East 67 1.48 (1.25–1.76) 0.217 (0.127–0.307) 2.45 (1.67–3.61) <0.001 Sex Male¹ 53.1 1.00 (0.85–1.18) 0.000 (−0.086–0.086) 1.00 (0.71–1.41) 1 Female 60.4 1.14 (0.97–1.34) 0.074 (−0.020–0.167) 1.35 (0.92–1.98) 0.125 Note: RR: Relative Risk , RED: Risk Difference and AOR: Adjusted Odds Ratio, ¹Reference category for RR, RD and AOR within each variable. Discussion The findings of current study provides evidence that Toxocara infections are a One Health concern in Ghana. Human exposure and canine infection levels were found to be considerable. The findings show a human seroprevalence of 14.5% and a much higher canine prevalence of 56.1%, with T. canis accounting for the majority of dog infections. The human seroprevalence of 14.5% observed in this study aligns with findings from other settings that report higher exposure in areas with environmental sanitation challenges [ 13 , 26 , 17 , 23 , 27 ]. Similar studies have also shown that school-aged children experience the highest infection burden [ 28 ], supporting the pattern seen here. Children aged 6–15 years carried the highest burden. This trend is commonly associated with frequent outdoor play, contact with contaminated soil, and close interaction with household or neighbourhood dogs [ 23 ]. These behaviours are widespread in peri-urban and rural Ghanaian communities, where recreational spaces are often unpaved and shared with freely roaming animals. The developmental stage of children, coupled with inadequate handwashing practices and limited awareness of zoonotic diseases, further predisposes them to infection [ 26 ]. Sex-based differences were also noted, with males showing higher seropositivity, consistent with studies reporting greater outdoor exposure among boys. In the Ghanaian context, boys often spend more time in open fields, farmlands, and communal play areas where dogs roam freely. This increases the likelihood of contact with contaminated environments. The strong urban–rural divide highlights the role of environmental and infrastructural factors. Rural participants were more than three times as likely to be infected compared with urban residents, a pattern also observed in studies linking rural living to poorer sanitation and increased soil contamination [ 29 ]. Many rural communities in Ghana lack proper waste disposal systems, have open defecation practices by both humans and animals, and experience limited access to clean water and sanitation facilities [ 30 ]. These conditions create an environment where Toxocara eggs can survive, develop, and remain infectious in the soil for extended periods [ 31 ]. The higher risk among individuals without formal education reinforces the importance of awareness and hygiene behaviour in reducing exposure. Education often correlates with better understanding of disease risks, improved sanitation habits, and responsible pet ownership [ 32 ]. In communities where formal education is limited, misconceptions about zoonotic diseases and inadequate knowledge of transmission pathways contribute to continued infection [ 33 ]. These findings show the need for targeted health education, school-based hygiene programs, and community awareness campaigns. These actions can help reduce exposure and stop transmission [ 34 ]. Canine infection levels were higher than human exposure, with 56.1% of dogs infected. The overwhelming dominance of T. canis [87.9% of cases] indicates dogs as the primary reservoir in these communities. Puppies were the most affected group, which is consistent with the biology of Toxocara canis [ 35 ]. Vertical transmission from mother to offspring during pregnancy is a major route of infection. In Ghana, routine veterinary care such as scheduled deworming, vaccination, and regular check-ups remains limited, especially in rural communities [ 8 ]. Many dog owners cannot afford veterinary services, while others prioritise dogs primarily for security, leading to absent parasite control practices [ 36 ]. Local breeds showed higher infection levels than foreign breeds, likely reflecting differences in care, movement restrictions, and feeding practices. Foreign breeds are often kept indoors, better fed, and receive more regular veterinary care. Regional differences were also pronounced, with dogs in Bono East showing higher infection levels. This pattern is similar to observations in other regions where farming communities and open landscapes contribute to high levels of soil contamination and animal roaming [ 8 , 21 , 37 ]. Bono East has numerous farming communities, higher dog roaming rates, and large open spaces where both humans and dogs interact with the environment. The agricultural lifestyle increases human exposure to soil during farming, gardening, and other outdoor activities. Similar trends have been reported in agricultural areas of other countries, where close human–animal contact and outdoor work create more opportunities for contact with contaminated soil [ 34 ]. The spatial distribution maps showed that infected dogs and humans were spread across the study communities rather than grouped in one area. This means the environment is widely contaminated, especially in places where dogs defecate openly and waste management is weak. From a One Health point of view, this shows how human, animal, and environmental health are closely linked. The contaminated soil becomes a long-term source of Toxocara eggs. This keeps the infection cycle active and puts both humans and animals at continuous risk [ 38 , 39 ]. These findings have important One Health meanings. High Toxocara infection rates in dogs, together with widespread contamination in the environment, keep the infection cycle active and put many people at risk. To reduce this problem, both human and animal health actions must work together. Routine dog deworming, better sanitation, proper waste disposal, and regular health education are all needed. Teaching communities about zoonotic diseases, safe dog care, and good handwashing habits can help lower the risk, especially for children. Local leaders and health workers must also work closely with veterinary officers to improve waste management and protect the environment. Conclusion This study shows that Toxocara infection is a serious public health concern for both humans and dogs in the Ashanti and Bono East regions of Ghana. Humans had moderate levels of exposure, while dogs, especially puppies, had very high infection rates. The findings also showed that children, people living in rural areas, and individuals with little or no education were more likely to be infected. The widespread presence of infected dogs can contaminate the soil, showing how closely human, animal, and environmental health are connected. A simple One Health approach is needed to solve this problem. Regular dog deworming, better sanitation, proper waste disposal, and strong community education can help reduce infections. When veterinary workers, public health officers, and community leaders work together, they can create cleaner environments and protect both humans and animals. Declarations Acknowledgements We thank all community members, dog owners, and field assistants who participated in this study. We are also grateful to the laboratory staff of the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research for providing technical support during molecular analyses. Author Contributions SAO designed the study with input from PKAR and KAA. Fieldwork, sample collection, and laboratory procedures were carried out by SAO, ZAK, and CMO. Data analysis and interpretation were performed by SAO and PKAR. SAO drafted the manuscript, and all authors (SAO, PKAR, KAA, ZAK, and CMO) reviewed, edited, and approved the final version of the manuscript. Funding This research received no external funding. All field and laboratory activities were supported by departmental resources from the Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training and Entrepreneurial Development. Availability of Data and Materials All datasets may be made available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Ethical Approval and Consent to Participate Ethical approval for human and animal participation was granted by the Committee on Human Research, Publications and Ethics (CHRPE) of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (Ref: CHREP/AP/199/31). Written or verbal informed consent was obtained from all human participants or guardians. All dog samples were collected following institutional guidelines to ensure animal welfare. 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2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":119333,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMosaic plots showing the association between demographic variables and Toxocara sero-prevalence among Human\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8346661/v1/3f87751e964ec5bfd33d3dc2.png"},{"id":99286981,"identity":"f532fec7-51dd-4488-ac15-a57381e9d9ae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 09:33:26","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":172631,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecies Composition among Infected Dogs\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8346661/v1/7f9737d153e5d418e991c604.png"},{"id":99319562,"identity":"4810416a-88fc-4c3c-b082-8be5a27f66eb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:37:28","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":169494,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMosaic plots showing the association between variables and Toxocara infections in Dogs\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8346661/v1/b8ceee6b4b15ae0b4972f06b.png"},{"id":99319113,"identity":"78ec9da4-3ae7-427c-9a1e-d74c73269c39","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:36:20","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":235876,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpatial Patterns of Toxocara Infection in Human and Dog across Study Locations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8346661/v1/b65c3acbbf8f11bc09dd45bb.png"},{"id":99787960,"identity":"98e5bd27-e826-4662-954d-dd1ce7e10e8d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 12:42:26","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2042267,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8346661/v1/6840852f-53a0-425a-ac14-581f59dbc3f4.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Molecular and serological surveillance of toxocariasis in humans and dogs in Ghana","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eToxocariasis is a helminthic zoonosis caused by the nematode species \u003cem\u003eToxocara canis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eToxocara cati\u003c/em\u003e. It affects both animals and humans and is recognised as a neglected tropical disease [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Dogs serve as the primary definitive hosts, with adult worms residing in the small intestine and releasing large quantities of eggs into the environment through feces. Under favourable conditions, these eggs embryonate and become infective [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. In many communities in developing Countries, inadequate waste management, unrestricted dog movement, and limited access to routine veterinary care facilitate extensive environmental egg contamination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Toxocariasis can also produce notable physiological effects. After ingestion of infective eggs, larvae hatch in the small intestine and migrate through the bloodstream to various tissues [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. This migration induces inflammatory and immunological responses in affected organs. In the liver, larvae may cause hepatocellular injury, granulomatous inflammation, and elevated liver enzymes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Pulmonary migration can lead to respiratory symptoms such as cough, wheezing, and hypersensitivity-type reactions. Many infected individuals develop eosinophilia as part of a systemic immune response [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. In advanced cases, larvae may reach the eye, resulting in retinal damage and visual impairment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Although the parasite does not mature in humans, its migrating larvae can cause significant pathology [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobally, canine infection patterns vary widely. In Brazil, prevalence ranges from below 1% to nearly 50%, with an average of 11.4% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. In Europe, an overall prevalence of 14.6% has been estimated, with substantially higher rates observed in puppies, often exceeding 40% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Similar findings have been documented across Africa, where free-roaming dog populations and irregular deworming practices contribute to ongoing transmission [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Humans typically acquire infection through accidental ingestion of embryonated eggs present in contaminated soil, unwashed vegetables, untreated water or through direct contact with dog hair [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Children are particularly vulnerable due to frequent soil contact and inconsistent hand hygiene [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA major review estimated that nearly 19% of the world\u0026rsquo;s population has serological evidence of past \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e exposure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Reported seroprevalence varies widely across regions, ranging from about 13.9% in the United States [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e] to more than 50% in rural Gabon [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Regional variations reflect differences in sanitation, climate, socio-economic conditions, and dog management practices. Studies from Latin America and Asia also report elevated exposure among children in low-income or densely populated areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Because larvae do not develop into adult worms in humans. Stool examination is generally ineffective, making serological assays [ELISA] the diagnostic method of choice as recommended in global reviews [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. These serological tests remain the most reliable way to assess exposure levels within communities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Ghana, data on \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e infections remain limited despite increasing dog ownership, rapid urbanisation, and persistent sanitation challenges. Studies in Ghana report canine infection rates between 5.8% and 18.8% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. In Ghana, serological data are few but show a high level of exposure. A study of 566 children in the Central Region found a \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e seroprevalence of 53.5%. The infection was strongly linked with owning pets, playing in soil, and poor hand hygiene [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Another study that included Kintampo also reported widespread Toxocara antibodies in people. High antibody levels were linked with active convulsive epilepsy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. In many Ghanaian communities, dogs roam freely, children play outdoors, and environmental contamination is likely [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. The absence of comprehensive prevalence data in other parts of Ghana further restricts understanding of the true burden. This study aims to determine the prevalence of Toxocara infection among humans and dogs in the forest and transition zones of Ghana. It also seeks to identify the major risk factors that influence transmission.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy Design and Study Area\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional study was conducted in two regions of Ghana to determine the prevalence and risk determinants of \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e spp. infection in humans and dogs from January 2024 to October 2024. Sampling occurred in selected communities where dog ownership is common and environmental contamination is likely. Both regions are located in the middle belt of the country and represent areas with varying levels of urbanization and animal-human interaction. The Ashanti Region is situated in the south-central part of Ghana, with Kumasi as its capital (Figure 1). It lies between latitudes 5\u0026deg;50\u0026apos;N and 7\u0026deg;46\u0026apos;N and longitudes 0\u0026deg;15\u0026apos;W and 2\u0026deg;25\u0026apos;W. The region experiences a tropical climate with two rainy seasons: the major season occurs from March to July and the minor from September to November. The average annual rainfall ranges from 1,200 mm to 1,500 mm, and temperatures typically range between 21\u0026deg;C and 32\u0026deg;C. Both urban and rural communities in this region were selected for sampling due to their dense dog populations and varying access to veterinary care. The Bono East Region, with Techiman as its capital, lies to the north of Ashanti. It is geographically positioned between latitudes 7\u0026deg;10\u0026apos;N and 8\u0026deg;22\u0026apos;N and longitudes 0\u0026deg;15\u0026apos;W and 1\u0026deg;30\u0026apos;W (Figure 1). The region also experiences a tropical climate, with similar seasonal rainfall patterns. However, the northern location causes slightly higher temperatures, ranging between 23\u0026deg;C and 35\u0026deg;C. Bono East comprises mostly rural communities, with a strong farming culture and frequent contact between humans and domestic animals, especially dogs.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Clearance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical clearance for this study was obtained from the Committee on Human Research, Publications and Ethics (CHRPE) of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana (Ref: CHRPE/AP/199/31). The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and relevant international guidelines for research involving human participants. All human participants, or their legal guardians in the case of minors, provided written informed consent before participation. Participant privacy and data confidentiality were strictly maintained throughout the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor the animal component, informed consent was obtained from all dog owners prior to sample collection. Animal handling and sample collection were carried out in accordance with internationally accepted animal welfare standards and the guidelines of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). All procedures were designed to minimize animal stress and avoid unnecessary harm.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample Size and Sampling Strategy\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 505 human participants and 452 dogs were enrolled. The minimum sample size for humans and dogs was estimated using standard prevalence-based sample size calculations, assuming a 50% expected prevalence, 95% confidence level, and 5% margin of error, with additional participants included to compensate for non‑response. Eligibility for human participants required residence in the community for at least six months and willingness to provide a blood sample. Dogs older than three months, owned or free-roaming in the study communities, were included. Written or verbal informed consent was obtained from all human participants or dog owners.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman Blood Collection and Serological Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVenous blood was collected only for serological testing. For each participant, about 3 mL of blood was drawn aseptically using sterile single-use needles and syringes. All materials used for sample collection were checked for sterility and expiry. The blood was transferred into plain vacutainer tubes (Batch No.: VT-2024-115), allowed to clot at room temperature for 20\u0026ndash;30 minutes, and centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10 minutes. The clear serum layer was aliquoted into sterile cryovials (Batch No.: CRYO-24-778) and stored at \u0026minus;20\u0026deg;C until analysis.\u0026nbsp;Serological detection of anti-Toxocara IgG antibodies was performed using the NovaTec Toxocara IgG ELISA kit (NovaTec Immundiagnostica GmbH, Germany; Kit Batch No.: NT-TCX-EL-56241). All reagents were allowed to reach room temperature before use. Each serum sample was tested in duplicate to ensure accuracy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSerum samples were diluted 1:100 by mixing 10 \u0026micro;L of serum with 990 \u0026micro;L of sample diluent (Batch No.: SD-2024-331). One hundred microlitres of the diluted sample was added into each antigen-coated well. Plates were incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 60 minutes and washed three times using prepared wash buffer (Batch No.: WB-2024-909). After washing, 100 \u0026micro;L of HRP-conjugated anti-human IgG (Batch No.: HRP-2024-557) was added and incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature. Plates were washed again before adding 100 \u0026micro;L of TMB substrate (Batch No.: TMB-2024-008). Colour development was allowed for 15 minutes in the dark. The reaction was stopped with 100 \u0026micro;L of stop solution (Batch No.: STOP-2024-662), and absorbance was read at 450 nm using a calibrated microplate reader (Model: MR-5600; Reader Batch No.: MR-5600-2024-117). Positive and negative controls supplied with the kit (Batch No.: CTRL-2024-441) were included in every run. The assay was considered valid when control values fell within the acceptable range provided in the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s manual. \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDog Fecal Collection and Molecular Detection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFresh fecal samples were collected from each dog immediately after defecation or directly from owners into sterile screw‑cap containers. All samples were clearly labelled with the dog\u0026rsquo;s identification and transported on ice to the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research for molecular analysis. \u0026nbsp;Approximately 200 mg of fecal material was processed for DNA extraction using a commercial circulating-DNA isolation kit, following the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s instructions. The recovered DNA was quantified with a NanoDrop spectrophotometer to assess purity and concentration, and all extracts were stored at \u0026minus;20\u0026deg;C until molecular analysis. Species-specific PCR assays were used to detect Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati. Identification was based on amplification of the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS-2) region of ribosomal DNA. For T. canis, the forward primer Tcan1 (5\u0026prime;-AGTATGATGGGCGCGCCAAT-3\u0026prime;) was paired with the NC2 reverse primer (5\u0026prime;-TTAGTTTCTTTTCCTCCGCT-3\u0026prime;). The same NC2 reverse primer was used for T. cati, together with the forward primer Tcat1 (5\u0026prime;-GGAGAAGTAAGATCGTGGCACGCGT-3\u0026prime;]. The use of NC2 for both reactions is appropriate because it targets a conserved region downstream of ITS-2, while the species-specific forward primers bind to variable sites unique to each parasite. PCR reactions were prepared in 25 \u0026micro;L volumes containing master mix, the appropriate primer pair, DNA template, and nuclease-free water. Thermal cycling consisted of an initial denaturation at 95\u0026deg;C for 5 minutes, followed by 35 cycles at 94\u0026deg;C for 45 seconds, 58\u0026deg;C for 35 seconds, and 72\u0026deg;C for 35 seconds, with a final extension at 72\u0026deg;C for 10 minutes. Amplicons were resolved on 1.5% agarose gels stained with ethidium bromide and run at 100 V. Bands were visualised under ultraviolet illumination and compared with a 100 bp molecular ladder to confirm expected fragment sizes.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data were cleaned and organized before analysis. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, percentages, and 95% confidence intervals, were used to summarize the characteristics of human participants and dogs. Chi-square tests were applied to assess associations between demographic variables and \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e infection. For human data, variables that showed significant associations were further examined using multivariable logistic regression to compute adjusted odds ratios, while univariable logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios for dog-related predictors such as age, sex, breed, purpose, and region. Mosaic plots and species distribution charts were generated to visualize infection patterns. Spatial distribution maps showing the geographic pattern of human and dog infections were produced using ArcMap version 10.7.1, while all remaining statistical analyses and visualizations were conducted using R software. Statistical significance was set at p \u0026lt; 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e Infections in Humans and Risk Factor\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe overall prevalence of \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e infection among the 505 human participants was 14.5% (95% CI: 11.4\u0026ndash;17.5) (Table 1). Infection varied significantly across age groups, with the highest rate recorded among children aged 6\u0026ndash;15 years (23.9%, 95% CI: 16.7\u0026ndash;31.1) and the lowest among those aged 16\u0026ndash;30 years (4.5%, 95% CI: 0.6\u0026ndash;8.3) (p \u0026lt; 0.001). Males showed a higher prevalence (18.6%, 95% CI: 13.9\u0026ndash;23.3) compared with females (10.0%, 95% CI: 6.2\u0026ndash;13.7) (p = 0.009). Rural residents had a markedly higher infection rate (27.5%, 95% CI: 20.6\u0026ndash;34.4) than urban participants (8.4%, 95% CI: 5.5\u0026ndash;11.3) (p \u0026lt; 0.001) (Table 1). The mosaic plots also indicated that age, sex, and location type were significantly associated with \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e infection (Figure 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1: Sero-prevalence of \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e infection among humans\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"621\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency (n)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePositive (n, %)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e95% CI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e505\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73 (14.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.4\u0026ndash;17.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge Group\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;5 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 (16.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.5\u0026ndash;24.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;15 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e134\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32 (23.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.7\u0026ndash;31.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u0026ndash;30 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (4.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6\u0026ndash;8.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u0026ndash;45 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 (11.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.7\u0026ndash;18.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46+ years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 (14.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.7\u0026ndash;21.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSex\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e264\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49 (18.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.9\u0026ndash;23.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e241\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24 (10.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.2\u0026ndash;13.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e345\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29 (8.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.5\u0026ndash;11.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44 (27.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.6\u0026ndash;34.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEducation\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eLevel\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e196\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46 (23.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.4\u0026ndash;29.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBasic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9 (11.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.4\u0026ndash;18.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e134\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (6.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.0\u0026ndash;10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTertiary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 (10.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.3\u0026ndash;16.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAshanti\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e269\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44 (16.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.8\u0026ndash;21.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.242\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBono East\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e236\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29 (12.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.0\u0026ndash;16.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study showed clear differences in \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e infection across groups. Children aged 6\u0026ndash;15 years had the highest risk at 23.9%, and their odds of infection were strongly increased (AOR = 6.71). Adults aged 16\u0026ndash;30 years had the lowest risk (4.5%) (Table 2). Males had a higher risk (18.6%) than females and also showed higher odds of infection (AOR = 2.06). Rural residents recorded a much higher risk (27.5%) than urban residents, with rural participants having a strong increase in infection odds (AOR = 4.13). Education also showed some variation. Participants with basic education had a higher risk (23.5%) and increased odds (AOR = 2.64) compared with those with tertiary education. Regional differences were small, with Ashanti showing a risk of 16.4% (AOR = 1.40) and Bono East 12.3% (Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2. Risk Estimates and Adjusted Odds Ratios for Sociodemographic Predictors of Human \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e Infection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"699\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRisk (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRR (95% CI)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRD (95% CI)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAOR (95% CI)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge group\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;5 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.65 (1.37\u0026ndash;9.73)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.118 (0.031\u0026ndash;0.205)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.16 (1.44\u0026ndash;12.10)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;15 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.35 (2.16\u0026ndash;13.30)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.194 (0.112\u0026ndash;0.276)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.71 (2.52\u0026ndash;17.90)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u0026ndash;30 years\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.30\u0026ndash;3.36)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000 (\u0026minus;0.054\u0026ndash;0.054)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u0026ndash;45 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.55 (0.90\u0026ndash;7.18)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.069 (\u0026minus;0.008\u0026ndash;0.146)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.74 (0.90\u0026ndash;8.35)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.075\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46+ years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.16 (1.16\u0026ndash;8.63)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.097 (0.013\u0026ndash;0.180)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.52 (1.19\u0026ndash;10.40)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSex\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.58\u0026ndash;1.71)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000 (\u0026minus;0.053\u0026ndash;0.053)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.86 (1.18\u0026ndash;2.94)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.086 (0.026\u0026ndash;0.146)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.06 (1.22\u0026ndash;3.48)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUrban\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.61\u0026ndash;1.64)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000 (\u0026minus;0.041\u0026ndash;0.041)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.27 (2.13\u0026ndash;5.03)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.191 (0.116\u0026ndash;0.266)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.13 (2.47\u0026ndash;6.92)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEducation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;None\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.25 (1.19\u0026ndash;4.27)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.131 (0.045\u0026ndash;0.216)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.64 (1.27\u0026ndash;5.49)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBasic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.09 (0.47\u0026ndash;2.56)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.010 (\u0026minus;0.083\u0026ndash;0.103)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.11 (0.43\u0026ndash;2.87)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.836\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57 (0.23\u0026ndash;1.40)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.044 (\u0026minus;0.118\u0026ndash;0.029)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55 (0.21\u0026ndash;1.44)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.221\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTertiary\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.44\u0026ndash;2.29)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000 (\u0026minus;0.086\u0026ndash;0.086)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBono East\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.62\u0026ndash;1.62)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000 (\u0026minus;0.059\u0026ndash;0.059)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.58\u0026ndash;1.73)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAshanti\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.33 (0.86\u0026ndash;2.06)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.041 (\u0026minus;0.020\u0026ndash;0.102)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.40 (0.84\u0026ndash;2.31)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.196\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote: RR:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eRelative Risk\u003cstrong\u003e, RED:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eRisk Difference\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;and AOR:\u003c/strong\u003e Adjusted Odds Ratio, \u0026sup1;Reference category for RR, RD and AOR within each variable.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003eToxocara\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eInfections in Dogs and Risk Factor\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOf the 442 dogs examined, 248 (56.1%) were infected with Toxocara, with \u003cem\u003eT. canis\u003c/em\u003e accounting for 218 cases (87.9%) and \u003cem\u003eT. cati\u003c/em\u003e for 30 cases (12.1%). Infection differed significantly by region (\u0026chi;\u0026sup2; = 20.29, p \u0026lt; 0.01). Sex was not associated with infection (\u0026chi;\u0026sup2; = 2.08, p = 0.15), although females had 110 positives (60.4%), compared with 138 (53.1%) in males. (Table 3). Age showed a strong association (\u0026chi;\u0026sup2; = 62.0, p \u0026lt; 0.001), with puppies showing the highest prevalence (76; 76.0%). Breed was significantly associated with infection (\u0026chi;\u0026sup2; = 7.49, p = 0.006), as local dogs had 242 positives (57.4%) compared with foreign breeds (6; 26.1%) (Table 3). Across all demographic groups, T.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;canis\u003c/em\u003e was the overwhelmingly dominant species, contributing more than 85\u0026ndash;90% of all infections. (Figure 3).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3: Prevalence of \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eInfections in Dogs\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"639\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDemographic\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency (n)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePositive\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCases (n, %)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eT.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;canis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(n, %)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eT. \u003cem\u003ecati\u003c/em\u003e (n, %)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOverall \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e442\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e248(56.1%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e218(87.9)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e30(12.1)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAshanti\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e221\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100(45.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88(88.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(12.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBono East\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e221\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e148(67.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e130(87.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18(12.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSex\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e138(53.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120 (87.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18(13.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e182\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e110(60.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98 (89.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(10.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge Group\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePuppy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76(76.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70(92.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6(7.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYoung\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e199\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71(35.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57(80.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14(19.8 )\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdult\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e101(70.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91(90.0 )\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10(10.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.060\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.060\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBreed\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e421\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e242 (57.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e212(86.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30(13.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eForeign\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (26.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6(88.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.082\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.082\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePurpose\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuard dog\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78 (52.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69 (88.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9 (11.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e122 (61.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e108 (88.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 (11.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStray\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48 (52.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43 (89.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (10.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ep-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.169\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePuppies had the highest \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e infection (76.0%) with a strong increase in risk (RR = 2.13) and odds (AOR = 5.71). Adult dogs also showed high infection (70.6%; RR = 1.98, AOR = 4.34). Foreign breeds had a much lower infection rate (26.1%) than local breeds (57.4%) with reduced risk (RR = 0.45) and odds (AOR = 0.26) (Table 4). Dogs from Bono East recorded higher infection (67.0%) compared with Ashanti (45.2%) with increased RR (1.48) and AOR (2.45). Female dogs showed slightly higher infection (60.4%) than males (53.1%), with modest increases in risk (RR = 1.14) and odds (AOR = 1.35). The mosaic plots showed that infection was significantly higher than expected in puppies (Figure 4). While young dogs and foreign breeds had fewer infections than expected. Sex and purpose showed no meaningful deviations, indicating little association with infection. Figure 5 shows the spatial distribution of \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e infections among Human and dogs in the study areas.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4: Risk Factors Associated With \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e Infection in Dogs\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"665\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRisk (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRR (95% CI)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRD (95% CI)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAOR (95% CI)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePuppy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.13 (1.72\u0026ndash;2.65)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.403 (0.296\u0026ndash;0.510)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.71 (3.32\u0026ndash;9.82)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYoung\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.77\u0026ndash;1.30)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000 (\u0026minus;0.094\u0026ndash;0.094)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.66\u0026ndash;1.51)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdult\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.98 (1.60\u0026ndash;2.45)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.350 (0.249\u0026ndash;0.450)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.34 (2.73\u0026ndash;6.88)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBreed\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocal\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.89\u0026ndash;1.12)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000 (\u0026minus;0.067\u0026ndash;0.067)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.76\u0026ndash;1.31)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eForeign\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45 (0.23\u0026ndash;0.91)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.314 (\u0026minus;0.500\u0026ndash;\u0026minus;0.128)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26 (0.10\u0026ndash;0.68)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePurpose\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuard\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.81\u0026ndash;1.24)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000 (\u0026minus;0.113\u0026ndash;0.113)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.64\u0026ndash;1.57)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.17 (0.97\u0026ndash;1.42)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.090 (\u0026minus;0.015\u0026ndash;0.195)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.44 (0.94\u0026ndash;2.22)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.093\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStray\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.78\u0026ndash;1.29)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002 (\u0026minus;0.128\u0026ndash;0.131)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.01 (0.60\u0026ndash;1.69)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.979\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAshanti\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.82\u0026ndash;1.23)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000 (\u0026minus;0.093\u0026ndash;0.093)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.69\u0026ndash;1.45)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBono East\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.48 (1.25\u0026ndash;1.76)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.217 (0.127\u0026ndash;0.307)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.45 (1.67\u0026ndash;3.61)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSex\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.85\u0026ndash;1.18)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000 (\u0026minus;0.086\u0026ndash;0.086)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.71\u0026ndash;1.41)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.14 (0.97\u0026ndash;1.34)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 166px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.074 (\u0026minus;0.020\u0026ndash;0.167)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.35 (0.92\u0026ndash;1.98)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote: RR:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eRelative Risk\u003cstrong\u003e, RED:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eRisk Difference\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;and AOR:\u003c/strong\u003e Adjusted Odds Ratio, \u0026sup1;Reference category for RR, RD and AOR within each variable.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of current study provides evidence that \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e infections are a One Health concern in Ghana. Human exposure and canine infection levels were found to be considerable. The findings show a human seroprevalence of 14.5% and a much higher canine prevalence of 56.1%, with T. \u003cem\u003ecanis\u003c/em\u003e accounting for the majority of dog infections. The human seroprevalence of 14.5% observed in this study aligns with findings from other settings that report higher exposure in areas with environmental sanitation challenges [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Similar studies have also shown that school-aged children experience the highest infection burden [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], supporting the pattern seen here. Children aged 6\u0026ndash;15 years carried the highest burden. This trend is commonly associated with frequent outdoor play, contact with contaminated soil, and close interaction with household or neighbourhood dogs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. These behaviours are widespread in peri-urban and rural Ghanaian communities, where recreational spaces are often unpaved and shared with freely roaming animals. The developmental stage of children, coupled with inadequate handwashing practices and limited awareness of zoonotic diseases, further predisposes them to infection [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex-based differences were also noted, with males showing higher seropositivity, consistent with studies reporting greater outdoor exposure among boys. In the Ghanaian context, boys often spend more time in open fields, farmlands, and communal play areas where dogs roam freely. This increases the likelihood of contact with contaminated environments. The strong urban\u0026ndash;rural divide highlights the role of environmental and infrastructural factors. Rural participants were more than three times as likely to be infected compared with urban residents, a pattern also observed in studies linking rural living to poorer sanitation and increased soil contamination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Many rural communities in Ghana lack proper waste disposal systems, have open defecation practices by both humans and animals, and experience limited access to clean water and sanitation facilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. These conditions create an environment where \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e eggs can survive, develop, and remain infectious in the soil for extended periods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. The higher risk among individuals without formal education reinforces the importance of awareness and hygiene behaviour in reducing exposure. Education often correlates with better understanding of disease risks, improved sanitation habits, and responsible pet ownership [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. In communities where formal education is limited, misconceptions about zoonotic diseases and inadequate knowledge of transmission pathways contribute to continued infection [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. These findings show the need for targeted health education, school-based hygiene programs, and community awareness campaigns. These actions can help reduce exposure and stop transmission [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCanine infection levels were higher than human exposure, with 56.1% of dogs infected. The overwhelming dominance of T. \u003cem\u003ecanis\u003c/em\u003e [87.9% of cases] indicates dogs as the primary reservoir in these communities. Puppies were the most affected group, which is consistent with the biology of \u003cem\u003eToxocara canis\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Vertical transmission from mother to offspring during pregnancy is a major route of infection. In Ghana, routine veterinary care such as scheduled deworming, vaccination, and regular check-ups remains limited, especially in rural communities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Many dog owners cannot afford veterinary services, while others prioritise dogs primarily for security, leading to absent parasite control practices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Local breeds showed higher infection levels than foreign breeds, likely reflecting differences in care, movement restrictions, and feeding practices. Foreign breeds are often kept indoors, better fed, and receive more regular veterinary care.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegional differences were also pronounced, with dogs in Bono East showing higher infection levels. This pattern is similar to observations in other regions where farming communities and open landscapes contribute to high levels of soil contamination and animal roaming [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Bono East has numerous farming communities, higher dog roaming rates, and large open spaces where both humans and dogs interact with the environment. The agricultural lifestyle increases human exposure to soil during farming, gardening, and other outdoor activities. Similar trends have been reported in agricultural areas of other countries, where close human\u0026ndash;animal contact and outdoor work create more opportunities for contact with contaminated soil [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. The spatial distribution maps showed that infected dogs and humans were spread across the study communities rather than grouped in one area. This means the environment is widely contaminated, especially in places where dogs defecate openly and waste management is weak. From a One Health point of view, this shows how human, animal, and environmental health are closely linked. The contaminated soil becomes a long-term source of \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e eggs. This keeps the infection cycle active and puts both humans and animals at continuous risk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings have important One Health meanings. High \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e infection rates in dogs, together with widespread contamination in the environment, keep the infection cycle active and put many people at risk. To reduce this problem, both human and animal health actions must work together. Routine dog deworming, better sanitation, proper waste disposal, and regular health education are all needed. Teaching communities about zoonotic diseases, safe dog care, and good handwashing habits can help lower the risk, especially for children. Local leaders and health workers must also work closely with veterinary officers to improve waste management and protect the environment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study shows that \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e infection is a serious public health concern for both humans and dogs in the Ashanti and Bono East regions of Ghana. Humans had moderate levels of exposure, while dogs, especially puppies, had very high infection rates. The findings also showed that children, people living in rural areas, and individuals with little or no education were more likely to be infected. The widespread presence of infected dogs can contaminate the soil, showing how closely human, animal, and environmental health are connected. A simple One Health approach is needed to solve this problem. Regular dog deworming, better sanitation, proper waste disposal, and strong community education can help reduce infections. When veterinary workers, public health officers, and community leaders work together, they can create cleaner environments and protect both humans and animals.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe thank all community members, dog owners, and field assistants who participated in this study. We are also grateful to the laboratory staff of the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research for providing technical support during molecular analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSAO designed the study with input from PKAR and KAA. Fieldwork, sample collection, and laboratory procedures were carried out by SAO, ZAK, and CMO. Data analysis and interpretation were performed by SAO and PKAR. SAO drafted the manuscript, and all authors (SAO, PKAR, KAA, ZAK, and CMO) reviewed, edited, and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no external funding. All field and laboratory activities were supported by departmental resources from the Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training and Entrepreneurial Development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of Data and Materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll datasets may be made available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval and Consent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for human and animal participation was granted by the Committee on Human Research, Publications and Ethics (CHRPE) of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (Ref: CHREP/AP/199/31). Written or verbal informed consent was obtained from all human participants or guardians. All dog samples were collected following institutional guidelines to ensure animal welfare.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHotez PJ. Toxocariasis: a neglected infection for the Anthropocene epoch. Adv Parasitol. 2020;109:879\u0026ndash;83. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAziz AA, Hassan AA, Elmahallawy EK, Elshahawy IS, Almuzaini AM. Prevalence and associated risk factors of Toxocara infection in dogs in northern and southern Egypt. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Rep. 2019;17:100305. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHajipour N. 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J Parasitol Res. 2016;2016:1\u0026ndash;6. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJohnson SAM, Gakuya DW, Mbuthia PG, Mande JD, Maingi N. Prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths and management practices for dogs in the Greater Accra region of Ghana. Heliyon [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2025 May 5];1(1). Available from: https://www.cell.com/heliyon/fulltext/S2405-8440(15)30348-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKyei G, Ayi I, Boampong JN, Turkson PK. Sero-epidemiology of Toxocara canis infection in children attending four selected health facilities in the central region of Ghana. Ghana Med J. 2015;49(2):77\u0026ndash;83. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKamuyu G, Bottomley C, Mageto J, Lowe B, Wilkins PP, Noh JC, et al. Exposure to multiple parasites is associated with the prevalence of active convulsive epilepsy in sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8(5):e2908. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmoah LAO. Potential Transmission Of Zoonoses Between The Human-Domestic-Wildlife Interface And Its Implication For Sustainable Health. [Internet] [PhD Thesis]. University Of Ghana; 2021 [cited 2025 Sept 15]. Available from: https://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/server/api/core/bitstreams/5bde0486-0951-4620-a72e-74698feb9a95/content\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOmonijo AO, Kalinda C, Mukaratirwa S. A systematic review and meta-analysis of canine, feline and human Toxocara infections in sub-Saharan Africa. J Helminthol. 2020;94:e96. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZangana AJM, Erdeni AA. Contamination of soils public places and children\u0026rsquo;splaygrounds by Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati eggs in Saladdin province. Kirkuk Univ JournalScientific Stud KUJSS. 2015;11(1):92\u0026ndash;103. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang S, Li H, Yao Z, Li P, Wang D, Zhang H, et al. Toxocara infection: seroprevalence and associated risk factors among primary school children in central China. Parasite. 2020;27:30. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShokouhi S, Abdi J. Seroprevalence of Toxocara in children from urban and rural areas of Ilam Province, West Iran. Osong Public Health Res Perspect. 2018;9(3):101. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbanyie SK, Amuah EEY, Douti NB, Antwi MN, Fei-Baffoe B, Amadu CC. Sanitation and waste management practices and possible implications on groundwater quality in peri-urban areas, Doba and Nayagenia, northeastern Ghana. Environ Chall. 2022;8:100546. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFakhri Y, Gasser RB, Rostami A, Fan CK, Ghasemi SM, Javanian M, et al. Toxocara eggs in public places worldwide-A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Pollut. 2018;242:1467\u0026ndash;75. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCassenote AJ, de Abreu Lima AR, Pinto Neto JM, Rubinsky-Elefant G. Seroprevalence and modifiable risk factors for Toxocara spp. in Brazilian schoolchildren. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8(5):e2830. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMendon\u0026ccedil;a LR, Figueiredo CA, Esquivel R, Fiaccone RL, Pontes-de-Carvalho L, Cooper P, et al. Seroprevalence and risk factors for Toxocara infection in children from an urban large setting in Northeast Brazil. Acta Trop. 2013;128(1):90\u0026ndash;5. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYang Y, Zhong D, Wu H, Xiong Z, Yang C, Yang L, et al. Prevalence of Toxocara infection and associated risk factors: a cross-sectional study in Zhejiang, China. Infect Dis Poverty. 2025;14(1):43. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNijsse R, Ploeger HW, Wagenaar JA, Mughini-Gras L. Toxocara canis in household dogs: prevalence, risk factors and owners\u0026rsquo; attitude towards deworming. Parasitol Res. 2015 Feb;114(2):561\u0026ndash;9. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBoyko RH, Marie Harrison L, Humphries D, Galvani AP, Townsend JP, Otchere J, et al. Dogs and pigs are transport hosts of \u003cem\u003eNecator americanus\u003c/em\u003e : Molecular evidence for a zoonotic mechanism of human hookworm transmission in Ghana. Zoonoses Public Health. 2020 Aug;67(5):474\u0026ndash;83. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmissah-Reynolds PK, Kwakye DO, Yamoah JAA, Abonie SD, Ofori SA, Yeboah EO. Porcine parasitic zoonosis in the Ashanti region of Ghana. Int J Vet Sci Res. 2023;8(2):27\u0026ndash;44. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmissah-Reynolds PK, Ofori SA. Preliminary survey of feline intestinal parasites in Ghana. Asia J Appl Microbiol. 2023;10(1):1\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-animals","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Animals](https://link.springer.com/journal/44338)","snPcode":"44338","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44338/3","title":"Discover Animals","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Toxocariasis, Risk Factors, Zoonotic Infection, Seroprevalence, Human, Dogs and Ghana","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8346661/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8346661/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntroduction\u003c/strong\u003e: Toxocariasis is documented as one of the neglected parasitic infections globally. Exposure is highest where sanitation is poor and access to health care is limited. In Ghana, similar conditions exist in many rural and peri-urban communities. This study assessed the prevalence and determinants of toxocariasis in humans and dogs in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e: A cross-sectional study was conducted in humans and dogs drawn from two regions of Ghana. Human sera were tested for anti-\u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e antibodies using serological assays, while faecal samples of dogs were analyzed using molecular methods\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e: Human \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003eseroprevalence was 14.5% (95% CI: 11.4–17.5). Infection was highest in children aged 6–15 years (23.9%, 95% CI: 16.7–31.1) and lowest in the 16–30-year group (4.5%, 95% CI: 0.6–8.3). Males (18.6%, 95% CI: 13.9–23.3) and rural residents (27.5%, 95% CI: 20.6–34.4) showed higher infection. Logistic regression showed that being male increased the odds of infection (AOR = 2.06; 95% CI: 1.22–3.48), living in a rural area (AOR = 4.13; 95% CI: 2.47–6.92) and having no formal education increased the likelihood of infection. Among dogs, the overall prevalence was 56.1% (95% CI: 51.4–60.7). \u003cem\u003eT. canis\u003c/em\u003e was the dominant species (87.9%), while \u003cem\u003eT. cati\u003c/em\u003e accounted for 12.1%. Young dogs were much less likely to be infected than puppies (AOR = 0.18; 95% CI: 0.10–0.30). Foreign-breed dogs had lower odds of infection than local breeds (AOR = 0.26; 95% CI: 0.10–0.68).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion\u003c/strong\u003e: The study reports on the burden of \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e infections in both humans and dog populations. Children, males, rural residents, and individuals with no education were identified as risk groups. In dogs, puppies and local-breeds were found to be key reservoirs, highlighting their key role in transmission dynamics. The findings underscore the importance of dog deworming, hygiene education and One Health approaches to reduce the risk of transmission. Herein, we report for the first time of \u003cem\u003eToxocara\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecati\u003c/em\u003einfections in dogs in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Molecular and serological surveillance of toxocariasis in humans and dogs in Ghana","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-31 09:33:17","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8346661/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-22T18:36:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-21T09:27:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"130324278131222165971245949550815350707","date":"2026-01-21T06:08:59+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-06T15:46:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-04T13:10:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"214146475185037163122617288564847131370","date":"2025-12-31T11:05:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"193210738371822303919831398480055633270","date":"2025-12-28T18:54:16+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"101207217139840081954728783673848013894","date":"2025-12-28T11:20:08+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-26T10:54:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-24T05:49:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-12-22T03:23:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-21T13:34:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Animals","date":"2025-12-21T13:28:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-animals","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Animals](https://link.springer.com/journal/44338)","snPcode":"44338","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44338/3","title":"Discover Animals","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"58ef9321-9d8d-49d7-8e7e-2767b2ba8198","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 31st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-02T11:10:57+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-31 09:33:17","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8346661","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8346661","identity":"rs-8346661","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}