Family Conflicts, Parent-Child Relationships and Subjective Well-being in Parent–Adolescents: An APIMeM analysis

Family Conflicts, Parent-Child Relationships and Subjective Well-being in Parent–Adolescents: An APIMeM analysis | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Family Conflicts, Parent-Child Relationships and Subjective Well-being in Parent–Adolescents: An APIMeM analysis Ju Huang, Weiwei Jiang, Ke Huang, Xin Liao, Jialin Xiao, Xinli Chi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7238644/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Family dynamics play a crucial role in promoting the psychological well-being of both adolescents and their parents, yet little is known about how these influences operate within family dyads. This study utilizes the Actor-Partner Interdependence Mediation Model to explore the relationship between family conflicts, parent-child relationships (PCRs) and subjective well-being (SWB) among adolescents and parents. A sample of 5,199 parent-adolescent dyads (adolescents: M age = 13.11, SD = 0.91; parents: M age = 41.63, SD = 4.39) from China, was recruited. At the individual level, higher perceived family conflicts and lower quality of PCRs were associated with lower SWB in both adolescents and their parents. At the dyadic level, adolescents’ perceived family conflicts was associated with their own subjective well-being through the partial mediating role of the parental perceived quality of PCRs ( β = − 0.007 * , 95% CI = − 0.013, − 0.002). Further, although parental and adolescents' perceived family conflicts did not directly affect each other’s SWB, it influenced each other’s SWB indirectly through the perceived quality of PCRs. Specifically, parental perceived family conflicts indirectly influenced adolescents’ SWB through both parental and adolescents' perceived quality of PCRs (for adolescents' perceived PCRs: β = −0.036 * , 95% CI = − 0.067, − 0.007; for parental perceived PCRs: β = −0.039 *** , 95% CI = − 0.064, − 0.016). Moreover, adolescents' perceived family conflicts were found to indirectly affect parental SWB via parental perceived quality of PCRs ( β = −0.041 *** , 95% CI = − 0.062, − 0.021). The current study highlights the value of targeting quality of PCRs in family-based interventions aimed at enhancing SWB. family conflicts parent-child relationships subjective well-being adolescents actor-partner interdependence mediation model Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction In 2015, the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development established 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), with the third goal explicitly aiming to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages (United Nations, 2020 ). Hogan et al. ( 2015 ) have suggested that the importance of well-being may be comparable to that of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Against this backdrop, increasing attention has been directed toward understanding subjective well-being, a core component of overall well-being (Okrasa, 2013 ). Subjective well-being refers to individuals’ positive judgments about their lives and feeling good about their life experiences (Diener et al., 1997 ). Subjective well-being plays a crucial role in individuals' overall quality of life, influencing physical health (e.g., risk of disease), mental health (e.g., depression) and even longevity (Martín-María et al., 2023 ; Whyne et al., 2023 ; Zaninotto & Steptoe, 2019 ). Given the potential impact of subjective well-being on both physical and mental health, investigating its determinants and exploring ways to enhance it is of substantial importance. Emotional Security Theory (Davies & Cummings, 1994 ) provides valuable perspectives for exploring the factors influencing subjective well-being. This theory suggests that emotional security, which develops in the context of low family conflict and supportive parent-child relationships (PCRs), is fundamental to psychological functioning and life satisfaction (Davies & Cummings, 1994 ). When individuals feel emotionally secure, they are better able to manage stress, maintain positive social interactions, and experience a greater sense of life meaning and contentment (Ryff & Singer, 2013 ). Family conflict is a key source of emotional insecurity, as it disrupts the emotional climate and relational stability within the family, thereby undermining individuals’ subjective well-being (Cummings & Davies, 2011 ; Morelli et al., 2023 ). In contrast, high-quality PCRs provide consistent emotional support and a secure relational base, which fulfill fundamental psychological needs for belonging and attachment, thereby enhancing subjective well-being (Okeoma, 2018 ; Rothwell & Davoodi, 2024 ). Drawing on this theory perspectives, prior research suggests that family conflicts and the quality of PCRs may jointly contribute to individual well-being (Athira Aneesh et al., 2023 ; 2024; Cho & Han, 2021 ; Smith-Etxeberria & Eceiza, 2021 ). Furthermore, the Emotional Security Theory posits that prolonged exposure to family conflicts may undermine individuals’ sense of emotional safety, making it more difficult to maintain sensitive and supportive parent-child interactions, which may ultimately diminish the subjective well-being of family members (anders & Bell, 2011; van Eickels et al., 2022 ). Thus, family conflicts may impact subjective well-being through the perceived quality of the PCRs. Family Systems Theory posits that the family subsystem functions as an integrated system in which interactions (e.g., family conflicts) and relationships (e.g., the PCRs) shape each member’s psychological well-being and behavior (Priest, 2021 ). It emphasizes that families consist of interconnected subsystems that exert mutual influence (Ao et al., 2024 ; Cox & Paley, 2003 ). With the increasing prevalence of nuclear families in China (Zhang & Ding, 2023 ), family dynamics have become more simplified, making it essential for research to consider how parents and children may perceive the same family environment differently (Yin et al., 2020 ). Therefore, this study is crucial for distinguishing the family conflicts perceived by both adolescents and parents and examining whether these conflicts affect each other's subjective well-being through the perceived quality of PCRs. Family Conflicts, PCRs and Subjective Well-being Family conflicts refer to disagreements and opposition among family members due to differing opinions (Marta & Alfieri, 2014 ). Previous empirical studies have provided evidence to support the negative association between family conflicts and subjective well-being at individual level. For instance, a survey of Spanish youth indicated that interparental conflict was more strongly associated with lower mother-child and father-child relationship quality (Smith-Etxeberria & Eceiza, 2021 ). Similarly, a study based on maternal reports found a significant negative correlation between maternal perceived family conflicts and their own subjective well-being (Herawati & Endah, 2016 ). At the dyadic level, however, findings are more nuanced. One dyadic analysis reported that both maternal and adolescent perceptions of family conflict negatively predicted each other’s subjective well-being (Cho & Han, 2021 ). In contrast, another study incorporating both parent and adolescent perspectives found no significant association between parent-reported family conflict and adolescents’ well-being (Fosco & Lydon-Staley, 2020 ). PCRs is defined as a kind of unique and influential relationship established in the process of interaction between adolescents and their parents (Zeigler-Hill & Shackelford, 2020). Prior research indicates that family conflicts is associated with lower quality of PCRs from the individual level. For instance, a study of Chinese parents found that marital conflict negatively affected their perceived quality of PCRs (Li & Liu, 2020 ). Similarly, a survey of Chinese adolescents reported a significant negative association between perceived family conflicts and quality of PCRs (Ren et al., 2023 ). A review further emphasized that parent–adolescent conflict significantly impairs relationship quality, with marital conflict particularly detrimental to father–daughter relationships (Branje, 2018 ; Grych & Fincham, 2001 ). Despite this growing body of evidence, few studies have explored how adolescents’ and parents’ respective perceptions of family conflict influence each other’s perceived quality of PCRs at the dyadic level. Building on this line of inquiry, a second stream of research suggests that PCRs quality may in turn predict subjective well-being, particularly at the individual level. For instance, studies of adolescents in Kerala and broader regions of India found a significant positive correlation between adolescents' perceived PCRs quality and their psychological or subjective well-being (Athira Aneesh et al., 2023 ; 2024). Similarly, a study conducted in the Netherlands reported that parental perceptions of relationship quality—including co-parenting and PCRs—were positively associated with their own subjective well-being (De Rooij & Gravesteijn, 2018 ). These findings imply that PCRs may function as a crucial mediating mechanism linking family conflict and well-being. However, when examined from a dyadic perspective, findings are less consistent. A dyadic analysis revealed no significant cross-predictive effects between adolescents' and parents' perceived quality of PCRs and each other's subjective well-being (Budiarto et al., 2020 ). This highlights the need for further research to clarify how perceptions of relationship quality jointly influence subjective well-being within parent–adolescent dyads. Overall, despite extensive research on the relationships among family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being, two limitations have been identified in the existing literature. First, prior studies have reported mixed findings. Specifically, while some dyadic research suggests that parent-reported family conflict negatively affects adolescents’ well-being, others have found weak or non-significant associations (Cho & Han, 2021 ; Fosco & Lydon-Staley, 2020 ). Additionally, findings on the association between the PCRs and subjective well-being have varied between individual-level and dyadic-level analyses (Athira Aneesh et al., 2023 ; Athira Aneesh et al., 2024; Budiarto et al., 2020 ; De Rooij & Gravesteijn, 2018 ). Second, limited studies have investigated whether adolescents' and parental perceived family conflicts affect each other's perceived quality of PCRs at the dyadic level. Therefore, one of the main objectives of this study is to explore the associations among family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being from both individual-level and dyadic-level perspectives. The Mediating Role of PCR PCRs may underlie the association between family conflicts and subjective well-being. That is, family conflicts might exert an indirect effect on subjective well-being via PCRs. According to Emotional Security Theory (Davies & Cummings, 1994 ), individuals’ sense of emotional security within the family system plays a central role in their adjustment and development. Repeated exposure to family conflict can threaten this emotional security, leading to heightened emotional distress and reducing individuals’ ability to maintain warm, trusting relationships with other family members. Such disruptions in PCRs may, in turn, weaken the emotional support essential for sustaining subjective well-being. Therefore, PCRs may serve as a key mediating pathway through which perceived family conflict influences subjective well-being. Empirical evidence indirectly supports the mediating effect of PCRs. For example, a previous study showed that PCRs mediates the effect of family environment variables (e.g., perceived parental warmth) on adolescents’ subjective well-being. Specifically, a better family environment is associated with higher quality PCRs, which in turn leads to stronger subjective well-being (Yuan et al., 2023). Another study found that parent-reported quality of PCRs (e.g., parent-child connection) mediates the impact of marital conflict on negative outcomes (e.g., internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems) in adolescents. Specifically, when marital conflict between parents intensifies and the quality of PCRs deteriorates, adolescents are more likely to exhibit behavioral issues (Braithwaite et al., 2015 ). In summary, despite indirect evidence suggesting that the PCRs may mediate the association between family conflicts and subjective well-being, these studies still have limitations. First, at the individual level, few studies have examined the mediating effect of the PCRs in the association between family conflicts and adolescents' subjective well-being. Second, there is a lack of research at the dyadic level investigating whether the PCRs mediate the influence of parental and adolescents' perceived family conflicts on each other's subjective well-being. Clarifying the mediating role of PCRs both at the individual and dyadic level is essential for understanding the mechanisms by which family conflict affects well-being in both adolescents and parents. Therefore, the current study aims to explore whether PCRs mediate the associations between perceived family conflict and subjective well-being from both individual-level and dyadic-level perspectives. Actor–Partner Independence Model Framework Given the interdependent nature of parent–child data, which contrasts with the assumption of data independence in traditional regression models, the Actor–Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) offers an effective framework for analyzing dyadic data in family (Cook & Kenny, 2005 ; Qiu et al., 2021 ). These approaches assess the extent to which an individual’s outcomes are influenced by their own characteristics as well as those of their partner (Kenny & Ledermann, 2010 ). The effect of an individual's independent variable on their own dependent variable is referred to as the actor effect, while its influence on their partner's dependent variable is termed the partner effect (Cook & Kenny, 2005 ). To further explore the underlying mechanisms, we extend the APIM by incorporating mediator variables, thereby constructing the Actor–Partner Interdependence Mediation Model (APIMeM) to identify potential mediators of the perceived quality of the PCRs (Ledermann et al., 2011 ). This approach allow for a comprehensive analysis that can more vividly reconstruct the psychological mechanisms affecting each other within the parent–adolescent dyads. The Current Study Building on established theoretical frameworks, this study employs the APIMeM to explore the associations among family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being. Based on the Emotional Security Theory, Family Systems Theory and previous studies, we hypothesize that (1) at the individual level, adolescents' and parental perceived family conflicts and quality of PCRs influence their own subjective well-being; (2) at the dyadic level, parental and adolescents' perceived family conflicts and quality of PCRs influence each other's subjective well-being; and (3) PCRs mediate the association between perceived family conflicts and subjective well-being. See Fig. 1 for an illustration of the proposed model. Methods Participants and Procedure The study was conducted in Shenzhen, China, in 2021, where we recruited adolescents and their parents to participate in our study. Shenzhen was chosen as the research site because its diverse population structure enhances the sample’s potential to be representative. According to the Seventh National Population Census (Shenzhen Municipal Government, 2021), the city’s permanent population reached 17.56 million, comprising 5.12 million registered residents and approximately 12.44 million migrant residents (over 70% of the total). This demographic composition supports the generalizability of the findings beyond a single local context. Our sample comprised N = 5199 parent-adolescent dyads, most parent-adolescent dyads (92.79%) lived together during this investigation. The separation of some parents and adolescents during the study period may have been due to COVID-19 lockdowns. The average age of the participants was M adolescent = 13.11 years ( SD = 0.91) and M parent = 41.63 years ( SD = 4.39). Approximately half of the adolescents are boys (54.11%), mostly the adolescent's mothers (76.55%) participated in the study. Moreover, most families are multi-child families (72.46%). Approximately half of the parents (54.78%) obtained a university or more than university diploma. The distribution of parental occupations and household annual income is relatively balanced. Table 1 presents the sociodemographic characteristics for parents and adolescents. Table 1 Demographic Information of the Participants Variables Samples (N = 5199) Attrition (N = 826) p N(M) %(SD) N(M) %(SD) Adolescents’ gender 0.92 Boys 2813 54.11 449 54.36 Girls 2386 45.89 377 45.64 Adolescents’ age 13.11 0.92 13.12 0.90 0.80 Siblings 0.40 One-child 1432 27.54 216 26.15 None-one child 3767 72.46 610 73.85 Parental role 0.99 Father 1211 23.29 191 23.12 Mother 3980 76.55 635 76.88 Others 8 0.15 0 0 Parental age 41.65 4.27 41.47 4.76 0.13 Parental education 0.63 Less than or middle school 994 19.12 168 20.34 Less than or high school 1357 26.10 205 24.82 Less than or University 2691 51.76 424 51.33 More than university 157 3.02 29 3.51 Parental occupation 0.29 Freelance or unemployed 1896 36.47 290 35.11 Blue-collar worker 1193 22.95 261 31.60 White-collar worker 1986 38.20 260 31.48 Senior executives 124 2.38 15 1.82 Household annual income (RMB; in ten thousand yuan) 0.93 Income < 5 540 10.39 88 10.65 5 ≤ Income < 10 1139 21.91 177 21.43 10 ≤ Income < 30 1844 35.47 289 34.99 30 ≤ Income < 50 985 18.94 169 20.46 50 ≤ Income < 100 545 10.48 75 9.08 100 ≤ Income 146 2.81 28 3.39 FCs adolescents 8.68 3.17 8.56 3.21 0.29 FCs parents 8.43 2.62 8.31 2.65 0.24 PCR adolescents 23.48 4.93 23.30 5.25 0.33 PCR parents 27.94 4.46 28.00 4.42 0.75 WB adolescents 21.64 5.99 21.78 6.06 0.53 WB parents 21.40 5.88 21.19 5.99 0.36 Note. FCs, family conflict; PCRs, parent-adolescent relationships; WB, wellbeing. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the corresponding author’s institution (Project Number: 2020005), as well as by the participating schools. Prior to data collection, informed consent was obtained from both adolescents and their parents or legal guardians. Researchers provided detailed information about the study’s objectives, procedures, potential risks, and confidentiality measures through formal letters distributed via the schools. Both parents and adolescents were informed that participation was entirely voluntary and that they could withdraw at any point without any negative consequences. Only adolescents and parents who jointly provided written informed consent participated in the study. Adolescents completed a 20-minute paper-and-pencil questionnaire in classroom settings under the supervision of trained graduate students and school counselors, while their parents completed a separate online questionnaire at home. All responses were anonymous and treated with strict confidentiality. No monetary or material compensation was provided for participation. Measures Family conflicts Family conflicts, as perceived by both adolescents and their parents, were assessed using the Family conflicts subscale of the Family Functioning Scale (Bloom, 1985 ). The Family Functioning Scale has been widely used across many cultures, including in China, due to its demonstrated reliability and validity in assessing family dynamics (Bloom, 1985 ; Li et al., 2009 ; McKinney et al., 2022 ). The Family conflicts subscale includes 5 items (e.g., 'We fought a lot in our family', 'Family members sometimes hit each other'), each rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Higher scores indicate higher levels of perceived family conflicts. In this study, the internal consistency coefficients are 0.83, ensure the reliability of the family conflicts assessment. We conducted CFA to further ensure the existence of a single-factor structure in this measure. The CFA results indicated an acceptable fit to the data (see Table 2 ). Table 2 Model Fit Statistics for the Measures (N = 5199) Items χ 2 (df) CFI TLI SRMR RMSEA (90% CI) CFA of Measures FCs 112.068 (3) 0.995 0.982 0.010 0.059 (0.050, 0.069) PCRs (adolescent report) 67.451 (8) 0.997 0.994 0.008 0.038 (0.030, 0.046) PCRs (parent report) 64.349 (7) 0.996 0.992 0.012 0.040 (0.031, 0.049) WB 228.045 (4) 0.995 0.988 0.008 0.073 (0.065, 0.082) Note. χ 2 , Chi-square; df , degrees of freedom; SRMR, standardized root mean residual; CFI, comparative fit index; TLI, Tucker and Lewis Index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation; CFA, Confirmatory Factor Analysis; FCs, Family Conflicts; PCRs, Parent-Adolescent Relationships; WB, Well-Being. PCRs by Adolescent-Reported The quality of PCRs was assessed by the adolescent-reported Parent-Adolescent Relationship Scale (Lippman et al., 2014 ). The questionnaire consists of 6 items (e.g., 'My father/mother shows me he/she is proud of me', 'My father/mother takes an interest in my activities'), each rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (none of the time) to 5 (all of the time). This scale demonstrates good reliability and validity (Lippman et al., 2014 ), making it an effective tool for assessing parent-adolescent relationship in China (Peng et al., 2024 ). A higher score reflects a greater perceived quality of PCRs among adolescents. In this study, the internal consistency coefficients are 0.92, indicating the reliability of the parent–adolescent relationship assessment. We conducted CFA to further ensure the existence of a single-factor structure in this measure. The CFA results indicated an acceptable fit to the data (see Table 2 ). PCRs by Parent-Reported The quality of PCRs was assessed by the parent-reported Parent-Adolescent Relationship Scale (Lippman et al., 2014 ). The questionnaire consists of 7 items (e.g., 'I show my child that I am proud of him/her', ' I take an interest in my child’s activities'), each rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (none of the time) to 5 (all of the time). A higher score reflects a greater perceived quality of the PCRs among parents. In this study, the internal consistency coefficients are 0.90, indicating the reliability of the parent–adolescent relationship assessment. We conducted CFA to further ensure the existence of a single-factor structure in this measure. The CFA results indicated an acceptable fit to the data (see Table 2 ). Subjective Well-being Adolescents' and parental perceived well-being were assessed using the WHO-Five Well-Being Index (Allgaier et al., 2012 ). This scale includes 5 items (e.g., 'I have felt cheerful and in good spirits', ' I have felt calm and relaxed'). Participants are asked to report the presence of these positive feelings in the last 2 weeks on a 6-point scale ranging from all of the time (5 points) to at no time (0 point). This subscale demonstrates good reliability and validity, making it an effective tool for assessing well-being in Chinese (Fung et al., 2022 ; Du et al., 2023 ). Higher scores indicate higher levels of perceived subjective well-being. In this study, the internal consistency coefficients are 0.94, ensure the reliability of the subjective well-being assessment. We conducted CFA to further ensure the existence of a single-factor structure in this measure. The CFA results indicated an acceptable fit to the data (see Table 2 ). Analytic Strategy SPSS 29.0 was employed to investigate the descriptive statistics and correlations among family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being. Moreover, Harman single-factor test was used to test the common method biases. When the maximum common factor interpretation rate is below the critical value of 40%, it indicates that there are no significant common method biases (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ). Then, we used Mplus 8.3 to estimate the structural equation model. We considered that differences in individuals’ experiences of subjective well-being may be due to factors such as age, gender, number of siblings, educational level, occupation and socioeconomic status (SES; Cheng & Yan, 2021 ; Wang & VanderWeele, 2010). Thus, the APIM was conducted to test the effect of parental and adolescent’ perceived family conflicts and quality of PCRs on subjective well-being, after controlling for adolescent s’ age, gender, siblings and parental education level, profession and SES. We followed Kenny and Ledermann’s ( 2010 ) recommendations in which the data analysis procedure has three steps. We first estimated the saturation model and tested all the effects. Second, we simultaneously fixed the actor and partner effects in model as equal (the actor effects, the influence of the adolescent/parent on oneself; and the partner effects, the influence of the adolescent/parent on the partner). A liberal alpha of 0.2 was set for testing the significance of the adjusted χ 2 value to ensure that the dyad members were distinguishable or not (Ledermann et al., 2011 ). If a nonsignificant difference exists (i.e. p > 0.2), we treated the dyad members as indistinguishable (i.e. the influence of adolescent and parent is similar), otherwise not. Thirdly, we specify a simpler model that constrains all actor effects to be equal and all partner effects to be equal. Moreover, the partial path of the simplified model is released, and only the actor effect is equal. Furthermore, only partner effects are defined to be equal. By comparing the simplified model with the saturated model, the optimal model is selected (Jiang et al., 2020 ; Wang et al., 2023 ). Analyses employed a bootstrapping approach with 5000 resamples and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) to test the significance of the indirect effects. The mediating effect was significant if the confidence interval did not include zero. A chi-square test, comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker Lewis index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean residual (SRMR) were reported to examine the model fit. According to recommendations (Hu & Bentler, 1999 ), we accepted the model with CFI and TLI values > 0.90, respectively; and RMSEA (Confidence Intervals, CI) and SRMR values < 0.08, respectively. Results Common Method Biases The Harman single-factor test was used to detect common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ). After simultaneously including the measurement items of family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being for both adolescents and parents in the model, seven factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 were extracted, with the first factor explaining 29.47% of the variance. The maximum common factor interpretation rate is less than the critical value of 40%, which proves that there are no significant common method biases. Descriptive Statistics and correlations Correlation analyses for adolescents’ and parental perceived family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being are presented in Table 3 . The findings indicate that all variables were significantly correlated with each other ( p < 0.001): 1) perceived family conflicts in both adolescents and parents were significantly negatively correlated with their respective perceived quality of PCRs (for adolescents: r = − 0.47,; for parents: r = − 0.34) and subjective well-being (for adolescents: r = − 0.37; for parents: r = − 0.32); 2) adolescent perceived family conflicts showed significant correlation with parent perceived quality of PCR ( r = − 0.18) and subjective well-being ( r = − 0.16); 3) parent perceived family conflicts showed significant correlation with adolescent perceived quality of PCRs ( r = − 0.21) and subjective well-being ( r = − 0.17); 4) perceived quality of PCRs in both adolescents and parents were significantly positively correlated with their respective perceived subjective well-being (for adolescents: r = 0.50; for parents: r = 0.41); 5) adolescent perceived quality of PCRs showed significant correlation with parent perceived subjective well-being ( r = 0.19); 6) parent perceived quality of PCRs showed significant correlation with adolescent perceived subjective well-being ( r = 0.25). These results satisfy the prerequisite for further APIM analysis. Table 3 Correlations of Family conflicts, Parent-Adolescent Relationships, and Wellbeing (N = 5199) Items 1 2 3 4 5 6 Family conflicts - 1. Adolescent report 2. Parent report 0.36 *** - Parent-adolescent relationship 3. Adolescent report -0.47 *** -0.21 *** - 4. Parent report -0.18 *** -0.34 *** 0.40 *** - Subjective well-being 5. Adolescent report -0.37 *** -0.17 *** 0.50 *** 0.25 *** - 6. Parent report -0.16 *** -0.32 *** 0.19 *** 0.41 *** 0.25 *** - M 8.68 8.42 23.48 27.94 21.64 21.40 SD 3.17 2.62 4.93 4.46 5.99 5.88 Note. *** p < .001 (2-tailed). Actor Effect and Partner Effect The distinguishability of the data was tested by qualifying the actor and the partner effects in the saturated model to correspond equally, respectively. The results (see Table 4 ) indicated that the dyadic relationships between adolescents and their parents regarding family conflicts, PCRs and well-being were statistically distinguishable (Δχ 2 (6) = 65.241, p < 0.001). Table 4 Fit Statistics for Actor-Partner Interdependence Mediation model (N = 5199) Items χ 2 (df) CFI TLI SRMR RMSEA (90% CI) The saturation model Free model 38.905 (16) 0.995 0.986 0.013 0.019 (0.011, 0.027) The simple models Constrains AE and PE 98.889 (22) 0.985 0.968 0.026 0.029 (0.023, 0.035) Constrains AE 73.362 (19) 0.989 0.973 0.021 0.027 (0.021, 0.033) Constrains PE 44.391 (19) 0.995 0.987 0.013 0.018 (0.011, 0.025) Note. χ 2 , Chi-square; df , degrees of freedom; SRMR, standardized root mean residual; CFI, comparative fit index; TLI, Tucker and Lewis Index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation; AE, Actor Effects; PE, Partner Effects. After controlling for adolescent s’ age, gender, siblings and parental education level, profession and SES, APIM was constructed for family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being of both adolescents and their parents. By comparing the simplified model with the saturated model (see Table 4 ), the saturated model demonstrated a better fit: χ 2 /df = 2.43, p < 0.01, CFI = 0.995, TLI = 0.986, RMSEA = 0.019 (90% CI = [0.011, 0.027]), SRMR = 0.013. Therefore, we selected the saturated model as the final model for analyzing the actor-partner effects of family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being. Figure 2 displays the direct effects of adolescents' and parental perceived family conflicts on PCRs and subjective well-being, along with the direct effects of PCRs on subjective well-being. There was a significant actor effect at the individual level: 1) both adolescents' and parental perceived family conflicts were negatively associated with their own subjective well-being (for adolescents: β = − 0.16, p < 0.001; for parents: β = − 0.21, p < 0.001); 2) both adolescents' and parental perceived family conflicts were negatively associated with their own perceived quality of PCRs (for adolescents: β = − 0.46, p < 0.001; for parents: β = − 0.32, p < 0.001); 3) both adolescents' and parental perceived quality of PCRs were positively associated with their own subjective well-being (for adolescents: β = − 0.41, p < 0.001; for parents: β = − 0.33, p 0.05), nor did parental perceived family conflicts significantly predict their adolescents' well-being (β = − 0.02, p > 0.05); 2) both adolescents' ( β = − 0.07, p < 0.001) and parental ( β = − 0.04, p < 0.01) perceived family conflicts negatively influenced each other's perceived quality of the PCRs; 3) parental perceived quality of the PCRs negatively predicted their adolescents' subjective well-being ( β = 0.05 p 0.05). The Mediating Effect of PCRs After incorporating PCRs of both adolescents and parents as a mediator, the mediating effect of PCRs was tested using Bootstrap (5000 resamples). Table 5 displays that the indirect effects of family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being. At the individual level, adolescents' and parental perceived quality of PCRs significantly mediated the actor effect between their own perceived family conflicts and subjective well-being (for adolescents: β = − 0.357, p < 0.001, 95% CI = − 0.397, − 0.318; for parents: β = − 0.231, p < 0.001, 95% CI = − 0.268, − 0.197). At the dyadic level, adolescents' perceived family conflicts was associated with their own subjective well-being through the partial mediating role of the parental perceived quality of PCRs ( β = − 0.007, p < 0.05, 95% CI = − 0.013, − 0.002). Adolescents' and parental perceived quality of PCRs played a complete mediating role between parental perceived family conflicts and adolescent' subjective well-being (for adolescents' perceived PCRs: β = −0.036, p < 0.05, 95% CI = − 0.067, − 0.007; for parents’ perceived PCRs: β = −0.039, p < 0.001, 95% CI = − 0.064, − 0.016). In the relationship between adolescent' perceived family conflicts and parental subjective well-being, parental perceived quality of PCRs played a complete mediating role ( β = −0.041, p < 0.001, 95% CI = − 0.062, − 0.021). Table 5 The indirect effects of Family conflicts, Parent-Adolescent Relationships, and Well-being (N = 5199) Effects β CI (95%) Adolescents' perceived FC → Adolescents' WB Total effect -0.664 *** -0.729, -0.597 Total IE -0.364 *** -0.403, -0.324 Direct effects -0.300 *** -0.364, -0.234 Actor–actor simple IE: FCs (a) – PCRs (a) – WB (a) -0.357 *** -0.397, -0.318 Partner–partner simple IE: FCs (a) – PCRs (p) – WB (a) -0.007 * -0.013, -0.002 Parents' perceived FCs → Parents' WB Total effect -0.689 *** -0.783, -0.597 Total IE -0.232 *** -0.268, -0.198 Direct effects -0.457 *** -0.545, -0.375 Actor–actor simple IE: FCs (p) – PCRs (p) – WB (p) -0.231 *** -0.268, -0.197 Partner–partner simple IE: FCs (p) – PCRs (a) – WB (p) 0.000 -0.004, 0.003 Parents' perceived FCs → Adolescents' WB Total effect -0.114 ** -0.193, -0.040 Total IE -0.075 *** -0.114, -0.036 Direct effects -0.039 -0.114, 0.032 Actor–partner simple IE: FCs (p) – PCRs (a) – WB (a) -0.036 * -0.067, -0.007 Partner–actor simple IE: FCs (p) – PCRs (p) – WB (a) -0.039 ** -0.064, -0.016 Adolescent' perceived FCs → Parent' WB Total effect -0.106 ** -0.172, -0.042 Total IE -0.045 ** -0.078, -0.011 Direct effects -0.061 -0.127, 0.004 Actor–partner simple IE: FCs (a) – PCRs (p) – WB (p) -0.041 *** -0.062, -0.021 Partner–actor simple IE: FCs (a) – PCRs (a) – WB (p) -0.004 -0.035, 0.026 Note. IE, Indirect Effect; CI, Confidence Intervals; FCs, Family conflicts; PCRs, Parent-Adolescent Relationships; WB, Well-Being; a, adolescents; p, parents. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001. Figure 1 Discussion Research in family domain has extensively explored how family conflicts impact individual mental health outcomes, but most studies have adopted a unidirectional perspective. The combined interactions among perceived family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being, and how they influence each other within parent–child dyads remains unclear. The current study utilized the APIMeM to explore these associations and found the potential dyadic mediating role of PCRs between family conflicts and subjective well-being, which generated comprehensive and fresh insights. Several findings are noteworthy. Actor Effect and Mediating Role of PCRs at Individual Level Results supported the hypothesis that perceived family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being are significantly related at the individual level for both adolescents and parents, which was consistent with previous findings (Athira Aneesh et al., 2023 ; De Rooij & Gravesteijn, 2018 ; Herawati & Endah, 2016 ; Li & Liu, 2020 ; Ren et al., 2023 ; Smith-Etxeberria & Eceiza, 2021 ). Moreover, the study further found that PCRs served as a mediator between perceived family conflicts and subjective well-being at the individual level. These findings partially support Emotional Security Theory (Davies & Cummings, 1994 ), suggesting that individuals who perceive higher levels of family conflicts tend to report poorer PCRs, and ultimately show lower subjective well-being. According to these theories, frequent or intense conflict may foster a negative emotional atmosphere, diminishing feelings of closeness, trust, and mutual support between family members (Cummings & Davies, 2011 ). As emotional distance increases, the development of secure attachments may be compromised, and opportunities for open communication, emotional validation, and shared positive experiences become more limited (Li et al., 2024 ). Consequently, a strained PCRs may reflect a diminished sense of emotional support, which is essential for maintaining subjective well-being (Rothwell & Davoodi, 2024 ). Given the cultural emphasis on family harmony and close parent-child bonds in China (Hochwälder, 2013 ), disruptions in PCRs due to conflict may have particularly strong implications for individuals’ subjective well-being. Therefore, the quality of PCRs appears to be a key mechanism through which perceived family conflicts impacts individual subjective well-being. Partner Effect and the Dyadic Mediation of PCRs The present study partially supported the hypothesized of partner effects among adolescents’ and parental perceived family conflicts, quality of PCRs and subjective well-being. Specifically, the results indicated that both adolescents’ and parental perceived family conflicts negatively influenced each other’s perceived quality of PCRs. Moreover, parental perceived quality of the PCRs negatively predicted adolescents’ subjective well-being, which contrasts with the findings of Budiarto et al. ( 2020 ). It is worth noting that the adolescents in Budiarto et al.’s study were older (M age = 19.07; SD = 3.21) than those in the present study (M age = 13.11; SD = 0.91). At this developmental stage, older adolescents may have developed stronger personal beliefs, greater autonomy, and more stable social support outside the family (Ruiz & Yabut, 2024 ), which could buffer the impact of parental perceived quality of PCRs on adolescents' own subjective well-being. In contrast, adolescents in the present study being in early adolescence may be more sensitive to family dynamics and the emotional atmosphere at home, making their subjective well-being more susceptible to perceived changes in the PCRs (Gettler et al., 2022 ). Furthermore, our findings show that when adolescents experience high levels of family conflicts, it may shape how parents perceive the quality of PCRs, which subsequently affects adolescents’ own subjective well-being. This result provides support for the Family Systems Theory (Priest, 2021 ), which emphasizes the reciprocal and dynamic nature of family interactions, suggesting that adolescents’ emotional experiences and behaviors in the context of family conflicts can influence parental perceptions of PCRs, thereby indirectly impacting adolescents’ own subjective well-being. Additionally, adolescents' perceived quality of PCRs did not significantly predict parental subjective well-being. One possible explanation is that parental subjective well-being is influenced by a broader range of factors, such as work-life balance, financial stress, social support, and physical health (Nomaguchi & Milkie, 2020 ). Moreover, their parenting role may enable them to regulate their emotions and cognitions when confronted with their children’s negative perceptions of PCRs. This adaptive perspective may help parents approach their children’s low perceived quality of PCRs with a more constructive mindset, thereby mitigating its potential impact on their own well-being (Barros et al., 2015 ; Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2021 ). Further, contrary to our hypothesis, neither adolescents’ nor parental perceived family conflicts had a significant direct effect on each other’s subjective well-being. However, parental perceived family conflicts indirectly influenced adolescents’ subjective well-being through both adolescents’ and parental perceived quality of PCRs. Similarly, adolescents' perceived family conflicts were found to indirectly affect parental subjective well-being via parental perceived quality of PCRs. This suggests that the impact of either adolescents’ or parental perceived family conflicts on each other’s subjective well-being operates primarily through changes in the perceived quality of PCRs. That is, rather than having a direct effect, perceived family conflicts appear to influence how each other’s experiences the relational bond, which in turn shapes each other’s subjective well-being. These results can be understood from the perspective of Emotional Security Theory (Davies & Cummings, 1994 ). According to Emotional Security Theory, conflict disrupts the emotional climate within the family, affecting individuals' sense of connection, support, and security within the relationship, which further influences their subjective well-being (Cummings & Davies, 2011 ). These results may reflect a relational, rather than adversarial, interpretation of conflict within close family relationships. In parent-child dynamics, we do not always interpret the other person’s perception of conflict as a sign of hostility or rejection, but rather as a temporary misunderstanding or a normal aspect of development (Mastrotheodoros et al., 2019 ). Such interpretations may buffer the direct impact of perceived family conflicts on each other’s subjective well-being in the PCRs, as long as a sense of trust and emotional connection within the relationship is maintained. This indirect pathway may reflect the influence of Chinese cultural values that emphasize family cohesion and emotional restraint. In this context, both parents and adolescents may avoid direct confrontation in response to perceived conflict, instead relying on the strength of the PCRs to preserve emotional security and support overall well-being (Shek, 2002 ). Strengths, Limitations and Future Research Directions The current study boasts several notable strengths that contribute to its significance and relevance in the field of relationship psychology. This study extends previous research by using dyadic data from both adolescents and parents to explore the relationships between perceived family conflicts, quality of PCRs and subjective well-being. It also creatively explores the mediating role of PCRs, providing valuable insights into the dynamics between family conflicts, relationship quality, and well-being. Additionally, the study features a large sample size of 5,199 parent-child pairs, enhancing the robustness of its findings. Nevertheless, several limitations should be addressed. First, this study employed a cross-sectional design, which limits the ability to draw causal inferences about the relationships among perceived family conflicts, parent-child relationship quality, and subjective well-being. Future research should adopt longitudinal or experimental designs to better capture the directionality and temporal dynamics of these associations. Second, this study was conducted during a period (in 2021) of heightened COVID-19 precautions. Although there was no full lockdown, strict measures such as localized restrictions, school closures, and remote work may have influenced family interactions and psychological well-being. These factors could limit the generalizability of our findings. Future studies should replicate this research in post-pandemic contexts or other regions to determine whether the observed patterns persist under more typical social conditions. Third, although Shenzhen was selected as the research site due to its highly diverse population structure, which enhances the potential representativeness of the sample, there are still some limitations regarding the generalizability of the findings to other regions or cultural contexts. Shenzhen is a rapidly developing metropolitan city with a distinct socio-economic environment, and the cultural values and family dynamics in this region may differ from those in less developed or rural areas. Additionally, China’s collectivist cultural framework, which emphasizes family harmony and interdependence, may shape how conflict is perceived and managed within families. Future research should explore whether these findings hold in other regions of China or in cultures with different socio-economic conditions and value systems. Finally, although quality of PCRs may remain relatively stable over time, family conflicts is dynamic and can vary daily. Individuals’ perceptions of family conflicts can fluctuate, and these fluctuations may influence their perceptions of PCRs and subjective well-being. Adolescents, in particular, may be more sensitive to these changes in family dynamics during this developmental stage (Yang et al., 2023 ). Future studies could benefit from using ecological momentary assessment (EMA, Shiffman et al., 2008 ) or daily diary methods (Bolger et al., 2003 ) to capture real-time fluctuations in family conflicts and its impact on relationship quality and well-being. Implications The current study enhances our understanding of the interplay between family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being within parent–adolescent dyads, this study has several important implications. From a theoretical perspective, it supports the Emotional Security Theory (Davies & Cummings, 1994 ) by revealing the actor effect of family conflicts and PCRs on subjective well-being at the individual level for both adolescents and parents. The mediating role of PCRs reinforces the integration of these two frameworks in explaining how conflict impacts well-being in family systems. Moreover, the study demonstrates that adolescents’ and parental perceptions of family conflicts and PCRs are interdependent and jointly shape each other’s well-being. These findings suggest that theoretical research should consider not only intra-individual processes but also inter-individual influences within close relationships. From a practical perspective, this study carries three key implications. First, at the individual level, the significant impact of perceived family conflicts and PCRs on subjective well-being suggests the need for interventions that target both family conflicts and PCRs. To reduce the negative effects of family conflicts, programs focused on conflict resolution training and emotional regulation strategies can be implemented. One effective approach could be mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), which helps individuals regulate their emotional responses to conflict, improve self-awareness, and foster healthier communication patterns within the family (Britton et al., 2012 ; Shokri, 2021 ). By reducing the frequency and intensity of family conflicts, such interventions may enhance the emotional climate within the family, thereby improving both adolescents' and parental subjective well-being. Second, at the dyadic level, the findings show that parental perceived quality of PCRs significantly influence adolescents' subjective well-being at the dyadic level. In contrast, adolescents' perceived quality of PCRs does not directly impact parental well-being. Furthermore, parental perceived quality of the PCRs partially mediated the association between adolescents' perceived family conflicts and adolescents’ subjective well-being. This suggests that adolescents, being particularly sensitive to family dynamics (Yang et al., 2023 ), are more likely to be affected by these perceptions. These results indicate that improving parental understanding of and responsiveness to their children's emotional needs can be a critical intervention point. One potential strategy for addressing this is mindful parenting, which helps parents become more aware of their emotional states and respond compassionately to their children's emotions, creating a supportive environment that buffers the negative effects of family conflicts (Duncan et al., 2009 ). Finally, the study reveals that family conflicts perceived by adolescents or parents indirectly affects each other’s subjective well-being through the perceived quality of PCRs. This highlights the importance of maintaining a positive emotional connection between parents and adolescents to buffer the negative effects of family conflicts. Interventions that enhance quality of PCRs, such as family therapy, can cultivate empathy, responsiveness, and emotional bonding, making them particularly effective (Johnson et al., 2005 ). These interventions should prioritize activities that strengthen emotional bonds, such as family discussions, collaborative problem-solving and shared enjoyable experiences, which can foster mutual understanding and support, ultimately promoting resilience against the emotional toll of conflict. Declarations Funding This research was supported by several anonymous research grants from national, provincial, and university-level funding bodies. Specific details are omitted to maintain the integrity of the blind review process. Author Contribution Conceptualization: Ju Huang, Weiwei Jiang, Ke Huang, Xin Liao, Jialin Xiao, and Xinli Chi; Data curation and formal analysis: Ju Huang, Weiwei Jiang, and Xin Liao; Funding acquisition: Xinli Chi; Visualization: Ju Huang, and Weiwei Jiang; Writing-original draft: Ju Huang; Writing-review and editing: Ju Huang, Weiwei Jiang, Ke Huang, Xin Liao, Jialin Xiao, and Xinli Chi. 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InPsych , 33 (1), 1–7. https://psychology.org.au/publications/inpsych/2011/february/sanders Shek, D. T. L. (2002). The Relation of Parental Qualities to Psychological Well-being, School Adjustment, and Problem Behavior in Chinese Adolescents with Economic Disadvantage. The American Journal of Family Therapy , 30 (3), 215–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/019261802753577548 Shenzhen Municipal Government (2021, June 8). Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census of Shenzhen (No. 1) . http://www.sz.gov.cn/zfgb/2021/gb1199/content/post_8806392.html Shiffman, S., Stone, A. A., & Hufford, M. R. (2008). Ecological momentary assessment. Annu Rev Clin Psychol , 4 (1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091415 Shokri, A. (2021). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy on parental stress of mothers with aggressive children. Journal of research in psychopathology , 2 (3), 24–31. https://dx.doi.org/10.22098/jrp.2021.1145 Smith-Etxeberria, K., & Eceiza, A. (2021). Parental divorce, interparental conflict, and parent-child relationships in Spanish young adults. Anales de Psicología , 37 (1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.343041 United Nations (2020). Sustainable development goals . New York, United Nations. Available at: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals . Accessed 5 Dec 2023. van Eickels, R. L., Tsarpalis-Fragkoulidis, A., & Zemp, M. (2022). Family cohesion, shame-proneness, expressive suppression, and adolescent mental health-A path model approach. Frontiers in psychology , 13 , 921250. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.921250 Wang, D., Xie, R., Yan, R., Ding, W., & Lin, X. (2023). Parents’ marital satisfaction, self-compassion, and harsh discipline in China: A dyadic analysis. Family Relations , 73 (1), 502–519. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12951 Wang, P., & Vanderweele, T. J. (2011). Empirical Research on Factors Related to the Subjective Well-Being of Chinese Urban Residents. Social indicators research , 101 (3), 447–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-010-9663-y Whyne, E. Z., Woo, J., & Jeon-Slaughter, H. (2023). The Effects of Subjective Wellbeing and Self-Rated Health on Lifetime Risk of Cardiovascular Conditions in Women. International journal of environmental research and public health , 20 (14), 6380. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20146380 Yang, B., Anderson, Z., Zhou, Z., Liu, S., Haase, C. M., & Qu, Y. (2023). The longitudinal role of family conflict and neural reward sensitivity in youth’s internalizing symptoms. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience , 18 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsad037 Yin, J. X., Lin, X. Y., Tang, Y. Y., Zhang, H. Q., & Li, X. L. (2020). The discrepancies in parent–child perceptions of parenting: assessment, source, and effect. Journal of Beijing Normal University (Social Sciences), 0 (4), 48–59. https://wkxb.bnu.edu.cn/CN/Y2020/V0/I4/48 Yuan, K., Jiang, L., & Bian, Y. (2024). Parental Warmth and Children’s Subjective Well-Being in China: The Indirect Effect of Parent–Child Relationship. Journal of Child and Family Studies , 33 (6), 1869–1880. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-023-02737-3 Zaninotto, P., & Steptoe, A. (2019). Association Between Subjective Well-being and Living Longer Without Disability or Illness. JAMA network open , 2 (7), e196870. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.6870 Zeigler-Hill, V., Shackelford, T. K., Hangen, E. J., & Elliot, A. J. (2020). Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences. In Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences . Zhang, B., & Ding, J. H. (2023). Family structure, intergenerational relationship and marital stability: the modernity expansion and application of Fei Xiaotong's Basic Triangle Theory. Zheng-jiang Social Sciences , 10 , 77–84. https://doi.org/10.14167/j.zjss.2023.10.003 Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Rudolph, J., Kerin, J., & Bohadana-Brown, G. (2021). Parent emotional regulation: A meta-analytic review of its association with parenting and child adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral Development , 46 (1), 016502542110510. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254211051086 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7238644","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":496529678,"identity":"1a59287e-e66e-4582-8ee6-d3e4613beda5","order_by":0,"name":"Ju Huang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shenzhen University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ju","middleName":"","lastName":"Huang","suffix":""},{"id":496529679,"identity":"a257b792-f147-41e9-bb96-b6d41ec4ded6","order_by":1,"name":"Weiwei Jiang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Merchiston International School,","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Weiwei","middleName":"","lastName":"Jiang","suffix":""},{"id":496529680,"identity":"603e507b-9f74-423a-8003-330dbd592dc9","order_by":2,"name":"Ke Huang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shenzhen University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ke","middleName":"","lastName":"Huang","suffix":""},{"id":496529681,"identity":"6331fbf1-62b7-45c5-9ce3-1b0cb34c3077","order_by":3,"name":"Xin Liao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shenzhen University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xin","middleName":"","lastName":"Liao","suffix":""},{"id":496529682,"identity":"3735fff5-9ee5-4cc3-acad-9d955c8225ae","order_by":4,"name":"Jialin Xiao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Lingnan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jialin","middleName":"","lastName":"Xiao","suffix":""},{"id":496529683,"identity":"67114f91-3c3c-4574-b24e-b5a28eb8490d","order_by":5,"name":"Xinli Chi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAt0lEQVRIie3PsQrCMBCA4SuBTNE6tuBDnBQyFXwQl4jQzTfIUCjo6CudHLSL0BdwiIuzbo5aQcFBEjeH/Nx4H8cBxGL/mICEDJBKhdi7UAJPkm/lCoMP0TDYKz0JWsduROTscVowaABbLrwkb8aGTHtWmqFy0Fbr2kdSoZCWNQ+kw6RmP5EvUjTJJgsi7ysohAwjefMgpmWVsRRoQn7B/jA73SzP011/dRdb+sln5rf1WCwWi33rDqn8Pe4McEwEAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Shenzhen University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xinli","middleName":"","lastName":"Chi","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-29 03:53:19","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7238644/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7238644/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":88793909,"identity":"9350f313-ae7b-4fdf-a91c-1c2f0a89a684","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-11 13:13:34","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":40669,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe hypothesized research model\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e FCs, family conflicts; PCRs, parent-child relationships; SWB, subjective wellbeing.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7238644/v1/bee3cd8a4c810378bc30e46d.png"},{"id":88794540,"identity":"5b05694b-9528-4584-8450-f9ee5b1f5d8a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-11 13:21:34","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62494,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eActor-Partner Effects of conflicts, Parent-Adolescent Relationships, and Subjective Well-being (N = 5199)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e FCs, family conflicts; PCRs, parent-child relationships; SWB, subjective wellbeing. Solid lines indicate standardized regression coefficients for significant paths in the actor-partner interdependence mediation model, while dashed lines indicate nonsignificant paths. All the reported parameters are standardized.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .05. \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .01. \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7238644/v1/96f608a538dfeea945a4abfa.png"},{"id":96066530,"identity":"bd9fcb79-d9e0-4ead-86b9-638f8f9eae4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-17 09:23:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1263041,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7238644/v1/c4f37595-ced5-4968-8c6c-44bbcfa3d891.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Family Conflicts, Parent-Child Relationships and Subjective Well-being in Parent–Adolescents: An APIMeM analysis","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn 2015, the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development established 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), with the third goal explicitly aiming to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages (United Nations, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Hogan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) have suggested that the importance of well-being may be comparable to that of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Against this backdrop, increasing attention has been directed toward understanding subjective well-being, a core component of overall well-being (Okrasa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Subjective well-being refers to individuals’ positive judgments about their lives and feeling good about their life experiences (Diener et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Subjective well-being plays a crucial role in individuals' overall quality of life, influencing physical health (e.g., risk of disease), mental health (e.g., depression) and even longevity (Martín-María et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Whyne et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Zaninotto \u0026amp; Steptoe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Given the potential impact of subjective well-being on both physical and mental health, investigating its determinants and exploring ways to enhance it is of substantial importance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmotional Security Theory (Davies \u0026amp; Cummings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) provides valuable perspectives for exploring the factors influencing subjective well-being. This theory suggests that emotional security, which develops in the context of low family conflict and supportive parent-child relationships (PCRs), is fundamental to psychological functioning and life satisfaction (Davies \u0026amp; Cummings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). When individuals feel emotionally secure, they are better able to manage stress, maintain positive social interactions, and experience a greater sense of life meaning and contentment (Ryff \u0026amp; Singer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Family conflict is a key source of emotional insecurity, as it disrupts the emotional climate and relational stability within the family, thereby undermining individuals’ subjective well-being (Cummings \u0026amp; Davies, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Morelli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, high-quality PCRs provide consistent emotional support and a secure relational base, which fulfill fundamental psychological needs for belonging and attachment, thereby enhancing subjective well-being (Okeoma, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Rothwell \u0026amp; Davoodi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Drawing on this theory perspectives, prior research suggests that family conflicts and the quality of PCRs may jointly contribute to individual well-being (Athira Aneesh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; 2024; Cho \u0026amp; Han, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Smith-Etxeberria \u0026amp; Eceiza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the Emotional Security Theory posits that prolonged exposure to family conflicts may undermine individuals’ sense of emotional safety, making it more difficult to maintain sensitive and supportive parent-child interactions, which may ultimately diminish the subjective well-being of family members (anders \u0026amp; Bell, 2011; van Eickels et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, family conflicts may impact subjective well-being through the perceived quality of the PCRs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFamily Systems Theory posits that the family subsystem functions as an integrated system in which interactions (e.g., family conflicts) and relationships (e.g., the PCRs) shape each member’s psychological well-being and behavior (Priest, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It emphasizes that families consist of interconnected subsystems that exert mutual influence (Ao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Cox \u0026amp; Paley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). With the increasing prevalence of nuclear families in China (Zhang \u0026amp; Ding, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), family dynamics have become more simplified, making it essential for research to consider how parents and children may perceive the same family environment differently (Yin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, this study is crucial for distinguishing the family conflicts perceived by both adolescents and parents and examining whether these conflicts affect each other's subjective well-being through the perceived quality of PCRs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Conflicts, PCRs and Subjective Well-being\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFamily conflicts refer to disagreements and opposition among family members due to differing opinions (Marta \u0026amp; Alfieri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Previous empirical studies have provided evidence to support the negative association between family conflicts and subjective well-being at individual level. For instance, a survey of Spanish youth indicated that interparental conflict was more strongly associated with lower mother-child and father-child relationship quality (Smith-Etxeberria \u0026amp; Eceiza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, a study based on maternal reports found a significant negative correlation between maternal perceived family conflicts and their own subjective well-being (Herawati \u0026amp; Endah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). At the dyadic level, however, findings are more nuanced. One dyadic analysis reported that both maternal and adolescent perceptions of family conflict negatively predicted each other’s subjective well-being (Cho \u0026amp; Han, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, another study incorporating both parent and adolescent perspectives found no significant association between parent-reported family conflict and adolescents’ well-being (Fosco \u0026amp; Lydon-Staley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePCRs is defined as a kind of unique and influential relationship established in the process of interaction between adolescents and their parents (Zeigler-Hill \u0026amp; Shackelford, 2020). Prior research indicates that family conflicts is associated with lower quality of PCRs from the individual level. For instance, a study of Chinese parents found that marital conflict negatively affected their perceived quality of PCRs (Li \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, a survey of Chinese adolescents reported a significant negative association between perceived family conflicts and quality of PCRs (Ren et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). A review further emphasized that parent–adolescent conflict significantly impairs relationship quality, with marital conflict particularly detrimental to father–daughter relationships (Branje, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Grych \u0026amp; Fincham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Despite this growing body of evidence, few studies have explored how adolescents’ and parents’ respective perceptions of family conflict influence each other’s perceived quality of PCRs at the dyadic level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuilding on this line of inquiry, a second stream of research suggests that PCRs quality may in turn predict subjective well-being, particularly at the individual level. For instance, studies of adolescents in Kerala and broader regions of India found a significant positive correlation between adolescents' perceived PCRs quality and their psychological or subjective well-being (Athira Aneesh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; 2024). Similarly, a study conducted in the Netherlands reported that parental perceptions of relationship quality—including co-parenting and PCRs—were positively associated with their own subjective well-being (De Rooij \u0026amp; Gravesteijn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). These findings imply that PCRs may function as a crucial mediating mechanism linking family conflict and well-being. However, when examined from a dyadic perspective, findings are less consistent. A dyadic analysis revealed no significant cross-predictive effects between adolescents' and parents' perceived quality of PCRs and each other's subjective well-being (Budiarto et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This highlights the need for further research to clarify how perceptions of relationship quality jointly influence subjective well-being within parent–adolescent dyads.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, despite extensive research on the relationships among family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being, two limitations have been identified in the existing literature. First, prior studies have reported mixed findings. Specifically, while some dyadic research suggests that parent-reported family conflict negatively affects adolescents’ well-being, others have found weak or non-significant associations (Cho \u0026amp; Han, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Fosco \u0026amp; Lydon-Staley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, findings on the association between the PCRs and subjective well-being have varied between individual-level and dyadic-level analyses (Athira Aneesh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Athira Aneesh et al., 2024; Budiarto et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; De Rooij \u0026amp; Gravesteijn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Second, limited studies have investigated whether adolescents' and parental perceived family conflicts affect each other's perceived quality of PCRs at the dyadic level. Therefore, one of the main objectives of this study is to explore the associations among family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being from both individual-level and dyadic-level perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe Mediating Role of PCR\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePCRs may underlie the association between family conflicts and subjective well-being. That is, family conflicts might exert an indirect effect on subjective well-being via PCRs. According to Emotional Security Theory (Davies \u0026amp; Cummings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e), individuals’ sense of emotional security within the family system plays a central role in their adjustment and development. Repeated exposure to family conflict can threaten this emotional security, leading to heightened emotional distress and reducing individuals’ ability to maintain warm, trusting relationships with other family members. Such disruptions in PCRs may, in turn, weaken the emotional support essential for sustaining subjective well-being. Therefore, PCRs may serve as a key mediating pathway through which perceived family conflict influences subjective well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmpirical evidence indirectly supports the mediating effect of PCRs. For example, a previous study showed that PCRs mediates the effect of family environment variables (e.g., perceived parental warmth) on adolescents’ subjective well-being. Specifically, a better family environment is associated with higher quality PCRs, which in turn leads to stronger subjective well-being (Yuan et al., 2023). Another study found that parent-reported quality of PCRs (e.g., parent-child connection) mediates the impact of marital conflict on negative outcomes (e.g., internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems) in adolescents. Specifically, when marital conflict between parents intensifies and the quality of PCRs deteriorates, adolescents are more likely to exhibit behavioral issues (Braithwaite et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, despite indirect evidence suggesting that the PCRs may mediate the association between family conflicts and subjective well-being, these studies still have limitations. First, at the individual level, few studies have examined the mediating effect of the PCRs in the association between family conflicts and adolescents' subjective well-being. Second, there is a lack of research at the dyadic level investigating whether the PCRs mediate the influence of parental and adolescents' perceived family conflicts on each other's subjective well-being. Clarifying the mediating role of PCRs both at the individual and dyadic level is essential for understanding the mechanisms by which family conflict affects well-being in both adolescents and parents. Therefore, the current study aims to explore whether PCRs mediate the associations between perceived family conflict and subjective well-being from both individual-level and dyadic-level perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eActor–Partner Independence Model Framework\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the interdependent nature of parent–child data, which contrasts with the assumption of data independence in traditional regression models, the Actor–Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) offers an effective framework for analyzing dyadic data in family (Cook \u0026amp; Kenny, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Qiu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These approaches assess the extent to which an individual’s outcomes are influenced by their own characteristics as well as those of their partner (Kenny \u0026amp; Ledermann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The effect of an individual's independent variable on their own dependent variable is referred to as the actor effect, while its influence on their partner's dependent variable is termed the partner effect (Cook \u0026amp; Kenny, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). To further explore the underlying mechanisms, we extend the APIM by incorporating mediator variables, thereby constructing the Actor–Partner Interdependence Mediation Model (APIMeM) to identify potential mediators of the perceived quality of the PCRs (Ledermann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This approach allow for a comprehensive analysis that can more vividly reconstruct the psychological mechanisms affecting each other within the parent–adolescent dyads.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe Current Study\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuilding on established theoretical frameworks, this study employs the APIMeM to explore the associations among family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being. Based on the Emotional Security Theory, Family Systems Theory and previous studies, we hypothesize that (1) at the individual level, adolescents' and parental perceived family conflicts and quality of PCRs influence their own subjective well-being; (2) at the dyadic level, parental and adolescents' perceived family conflicts and quality of PCRs influence each other's subjective well-being; and (3) PCRs mediate the association between perceived family conflicts and subjective well-being. See Fig.\u0026nbsp;1 for an illustration of the proposed model.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;Insert Fig.\u0026nbsp;1 here.\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eParticipants and Procedure\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Shenzhen, China, in 2021, where we recruited adolescents and their parents to participate in our study. Shenzhen was chosen as the research site because its diverse population structure enhances the sample’s potential to be representative. According to the Seventh National Population Census (Shenzhen Municipal Government, 2021), the city’s permanent population reached 17.56\u0026nbsp;million, comprising 5.12\u0026nbsp;million registered residents and approximately 12.44\u0026nbsp;million migrant residents (over 70% of the total). This demographic composition supports the generalizability of the findings beyond a single local context.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur sample comprised N = 5199 parent-adolescent dyads, most parent-adolescent dyads (92.79%) lived together during this investigation. The separation of some parents and adolescents during the study period may have been due to COVID-19 lockdowns. The average age of the participants was \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003eadolescent\u003c/sub\u003e = 13.11 years (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 0.91) and \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003eparent\u003c/sub\u003e = 41.63 years (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 4.39). Approximately half of the adolescents are boys (54.11%), mostly the adolescent's mothers (76.55%) participated in the study. Moreover, most families are multi-child families (72.46%). Approximately half of the parents (54.78%) obtained a university or more than university diploma. The distribution of parental occupations and household annual income is relatively balanced. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the sociodemographic characteristics for parents and adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDemographic Information of the Participants\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSamples \u003cem\u003e(N = 5199)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAttrition \u003cem\u003e(N = 826)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN(M)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e%(SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN(M)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e%(SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdolescents’ gender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoys\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2813\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e449\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2386\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e377\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdolescents’ age\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSiblings\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne-child\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1432\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e216\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNone-one child\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3767\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e610\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental role\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFather\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1211\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e191\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMother\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3980\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e635\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental age\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLess than or middle school\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e994\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e168\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLess than or high school\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1357\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e205\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLess than or University\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2691\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e424\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMore than university\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e157\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental occupation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFreelance or unemployed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1896\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlue-collar worker\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1193\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e261\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhite-collar worker\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1986\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSenior executives\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e124\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHousehold annual income\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(RMB; in ten thousand yuan)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncome \u0026lt; 5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e540\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 ≤ Income \u0026lt; 10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e177\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 ≤ Income \u0026lt; 30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1844\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e289\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30 ≤ Income \u0026lt; 50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e985\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e169\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50 ≤ Income \u0026lt; 100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e545\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100 ≤ Income\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e146\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFCs \u003csub\u003eadolescents\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFCs \u003csub\u003eparents\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePCR \u003csub\u003eadolescents\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePCR \u003csub\u003eparents\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWB \u003csub\u003eadolescents\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWB \u003csub\u003eparents\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e FCs, family conflict; PCRs, parent-adolescent relationships; WB, wellbeing.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e here.\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the corresponding author’s institution (Project Number: 2020005), as well as by the participating schools. Prior to data collection, informed consent was obtained from both adolescents and their parents or legal guardians. Researchers provided detailed information about the study’s objectives, procedures, potential risks, and confidentiality measures through formal letters distributed via the schools. Both parents and adolescents were informed that participation was entirely voluntary and that they could withdraw at any point without any negative consequences. Only adolescents and parents who jointly provided written informed consent participated in the study. Adolescents completed a 20-minute paper-and-pencil questionnaire in classroom settings under the supervision of trained graduate students and school counselors, while their parents completed a separate online questionnaire at home. All responses were anonymous and treated with strict confidentiality. No monetary or material compensation was provided for participation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMeasures\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily conflicts\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFamily conflicts, as perceived by both adolescents and their parents, were assessed using the Family conflicts subscale of the Family Functioning Scale (Bloom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e). The Family Functioning Scale has been widely used across many cultures, including in China, due to its demonstrated reliability and validity in assessing family dynamics (Bloom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; McKinney et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The Family conflicts subscale includes 5 items (e.g., 'We fought a lot in our family', 'Family members sometimes hit each other'), each rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Higher scores indicate higher levels of perceived family conflicts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the internal consistency coefficients are 0.83, ensure the reliability of the family conflicts assessment. We conducted CFA to further ensure the existence of a single-factor structure in this measure. The CFA results indicated an acceptable fit to the data (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel Fit Statistics for the Measures (N = 5199)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003e(df)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCFI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTLI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSRMR\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRMSEA (90% CI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCFA of Measures\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFCs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.068 (3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.995\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.982\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.059 (0.050, 0.069)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePCRs (adolescent report)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67.451 (8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.997\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.994\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.038 (0.030, 0.046)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePCRs (parent report)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64.349 (7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.996\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.992\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.040 (0.031, 0.049)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228.045 (4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.995\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.988\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.073 (0.065, 0.082)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. χ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, Chi-square; \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e, degrees of freedom; SRMR, standardized root mean residual; CFI, comparative fit index; TLI, Tucker and Lewis Index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation; CFA, Confirmatory Factor Analysis; FCs, Family Conflicts; PCRs, Parent-Adolescent Relationships; WB, Well-Being.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e here.\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePCRs by Adolescent-Reported\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe quality of PCRs was assessed by the adolescent-reported Parent-Adolescent Relationship Scale (Lippman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The questionnaire consists of 6 items (e.g., 'My father/mother shows me he/she is proud of me', 'My father/mother takes an interest in my activities'), each rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (none of the time) to 5 (all of the time). This scale demonstrates good reliability and validity (Lippman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), making it an effective tool for assessing parent-adolescent relationship in China (Peng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). A higher score reflects a greater perceived quality of PCRs among adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the internal consistency coefficients are 0.92, indicating the reliability of the parent–adolescent relationship assessment. We conducted CFA to further ensure the existence of a single-factor structure in this measure. The CFA results indicated an acceptable fit to the data (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePCRs by Parent-Reported\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe quality of PCRs was assessed by the parent-reported Parent-Adolescent Relationship Scale (Lippman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The questionnaire consists of 7 items (e.g., 'I show my child that I am proud of him/her', ' I take an interest in my child’s activities'), each rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (none of the time) to 5 (all of the time). A higher score reflects a greater perceived quality of the PCRs among parents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the internal consistency coefficients are 0.90, indicating the reliability of the parent–adolescent relationship assessment. We conducted CFA to further ensure the existence of a single-factor structure in this measure. The CFA results indicated an acceptable fit to the data (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSubjective Well-being\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdolescents' and parental perceived well-being were assessed using the WHO-Five Well-Being Index (Allgaier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). This scale includes 5 items (e.g., 'I have felt cheerful and in good spirits', ' I have felt calm and relaxed'). Participants are asked to report the presence of these positive feelings in the last 2 weeks on a 6-point scale ranging from all of the time (5 points) to at no time (0 point). This subscale demonstrates good reliability and validity, making it an effective tool for assessing well-being in Chinese (Fung et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Du et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Higher scores indicate higher levels of perceived subjective well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the internal consistency coefficients are 0.94, ensure the reliability of the subjective well-being assessment. We conducted CFA to further ensure the existence of a single-factor structure in this measure. The CFA results indicated an acceptable fit to the data (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnalytic Strategy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSPSS 29.0\u003c/em\u003e was employed to investigate the descriptive statistics and correlations among family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being. Moreover, Harman single-factor test was used to test the common method biases. When the maximum common factor interpretation rate is below the critical value of 40%, it indicates that there are no significant common method biases (Podsakoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThen, we used \u003cem\u003eMplus 8.3\u003c/em\u003e to estimate the structural equation model. We considered that differences in individuals’ experiences of subjective well-being may be due to factors such as age, gender, number of siblings, educational level, occupation and socioeconomic status (SES; Cheng \u0026amp; Yan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Wang \u0026amp; VanderWeele, 2010). Thus, the APIM was conducted to test the effect of parental and adolescent’ perceived family conflicts and quality of PCRs on subjective well-being, after controlling for adolescent s’ age, gender, siblings and parental education level, profession and SES. We followed Kenny and Ledermann’s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) recommendations in which the data analysis procedure has three steps. We first estimated the saturation model and tested all the effects. Second, we simultaneously fixed the actor and partner effects in model as equal (the actor effects, the influence of the adolescent/parent on oneself; and the partner effects, the influence of the adolescent/parent on the partner). A liberal alpha of 0.2 was set for testing the significance of the adjusted \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e value to ensure that the dyad members were distinguishable or not (Ledermann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). If a nonsignificant difference exists (i.e. \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026gt; 0.2), we treated the dyad members as indistinguishable (i.e. the influence of adolescent and parent is similar), otherwise not. Thirdly, we specify a simpler model that constrains all actor effects to be equal and all partner effects to be equal. Moreover, the partial path of the simplified model is released, and only the actor effect is equal. Furthermore, only partner effects are defined to be equal. By comparing the simplified model with the saturated model, the optimal model is selected (Jiang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalyses employed a bootstrapping approach with 5000 resamples and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) to test the significance of the indirect effects. The mediating effect was significant if the confidence interval did not include zero. A chi-square test, comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker Lewis index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean residual (SRMR) were reported to examine the model fit. According to recommendations (Hu \u0026amp; Bentler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), we accepted the model with CFI and TLI values \u0026gt; 0.90, respectively; and RMSEA (Confidence Intervals, CI) and SRMR values \u0026lt; 0.08, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCommon Method Biases\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Harman single-factor test was used to detect common method bias (Podsakoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). After simultaneously including the measurement items of family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being for both adolescents and parents in the model, seven factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 were extracted, with the first factor explaining 29.47% of the variance. The maximum common factor interpretation rate is less than the critical value of 40%, which proves that there are no significant common method biases.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDescriptive Statistics and correlations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorrelation analyses for adolescents\u0026rsquo; and parental perceived family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The findings indicate that all variables were significantly correlated with each other (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001): 1) perceived family conflicts in both adolescents and parents were significantly negatively correlated with their respective perceived quality of PCRs (for adolescents: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.47,; for parents: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.34) and subjective well-being (for adolescents: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.37; for parents: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.32); 2) adolescent perceived family conflicts showed significant correlation with parent perceived quality of PCR (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.18) and subjective well-being (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.16); 3) parent perceived family conflicts showed significant correlation with adolescent perceived quality of PCRs (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.21) and subjective well-being (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.17); 4) perceived quality of PCRs in both adolescents and parents were significantly positively correlated with their respective perceived subjective well-being (for adolescents: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.50; for parents: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.41); 5) adolescent perceived quality of PCRs showed significant correlation with parent perceived subjective well-being (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.19); 6) parent perceived quality of PCRs showed significant correlation with adolescent perceived subjective well-being (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.25). These results satisfy the prerequisite for further APIM analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCorrelations of Family conflicts, Parent-Adolescent Relationships, and Wellbeing (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5199)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFamily conflicts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1. Adolescent report\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2. Parent report\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.36\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParent-adolescent relationship\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3. Adolescent report\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.47\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.21\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4. Parent report\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.18\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.34\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubjective well-being\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5. Adolescent report\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.37\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.17\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6. Parent report\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.16\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.32\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.19\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001 (2-tailed).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e here.\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eActor Effect and Partner Effect\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe distinguishability of the data was tested by qualifying the actor and the partner effects in the saturated model to correspond equally, respectively. The results (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) indicated that the dyadic relationships between adolescents and their parents regarding family conflicts, PCRs and well-being were statistically distinguishable (Δχ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (6)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;65.241, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFit Statistics for Actor-Partner Interdependence Mediation model (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5199)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003e(df)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCFI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTLI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSRMR\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRMSEA (90% CI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe saturation model\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFree model\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.905 (16)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.995\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.986\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.019 (0.011, 0.027)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe simple models\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConstrains AE and PE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98.889 (22)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.985\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.968\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.029 (0.023, 0.035)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConstrains AE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.362 (19)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.989\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.973\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.027 (0.021, 0.033)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConstrains PE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.391 (19)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.995\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.987\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.018 (0.011, 0.025)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. χ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, Chi-square; \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e, degrees of freedom; SRMR, standardized root mean residual; CFI, comparative fit index; TLI, Tucker and Lewis Index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation; AE, Actor Effects; PE, Partner Effects.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e here.\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter controlling for adolescent s\u0026rsquo; age, gender, siblings and parental education level, profession and SES, APIM was constructed for family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being of both adolescents and their parents. By comparing the simplified model with the saturated model (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), the saturated model demonstrated a better fit: \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e/df\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.43, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.995, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.986, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.019 (90% CI = [0.011, 0.027]), SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.013. Therefore, we selected the saturated model as the final model for analyzing the actor-partner effects of family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure 2 displays the direct effects of adolescents' and parental perceived family conflicts on PCRs and subjective well-being, along with the direct effects of PCRs on subjective well-being. There was a significant actor effect at the individual level: 1) both adolescents' and parental perceived family conflicts were negatively associated with their own subjective well-being (for adolescents: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.16, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; for parents: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.21, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001); 2) both adolescents' and parental perceived family conflicts were negatively associated with their own perceived quality of PCRs (for adolescents: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.46, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; for parents: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.32, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001); 3) both adolescents' and parental perceived quality of PCRs were positively associated with their own subjective well-being (for adolescents: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.41, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; for parents: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.33, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). At the dyadic level: 1) adolescents' perceived family conflicts was not a significant predictor of their parental well-being (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.03, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), nor did parental perceived family conflicts significantly predict their adolescents' well-being (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.02, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05); 2) both adolescents' (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.07, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and parental (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.04, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) perceived family conflicts negatively influenced each other's perceived quality of the PCRs; 3) parental perceived quality of the PCRs negatively predicted their adolescents' subjective well-being (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05 \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), but adolescents' perceived quality of the PCRs did not significantly predict their parental subjective well-being (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;Insert Fig.\u0026nbsp;2 here.\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe Mediating Effect of PCRs\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter incorporating PCRs of both adolescents and parents as a mediator, the mediating effect of PCRs was tested using Bootstrap (5000 resamples). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e displays that the indirect effects of family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being. At the individual level, adolescents' and parental perceived quality of PCRs significantly mediated the actor effect between their own perceived family conflicts and subjective well-being (for adolescents: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.357, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, 95% CI = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.397, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.318; for parents: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.231, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, 95% CI = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.268, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.197). At the dyadic level, adolescents' perceived family conflicts was associated with their own subjective well-being through the partial mediating role of the parental perceived quality of PCRs (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.007, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, 95% CI = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.013, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.002). Adolescents' and parental perceived quality of PCRs played a complete mediating role between parental perceived family conflicts and adolescent' subjective well-being (for adolescents' perceived PCRs: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;0.036, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.067, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.007; for parents\u0026rsquo; perceived PCRs: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;0.039, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.064, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.016). In the relationship between adolescent' perceived family conflicts and parental subjective well-being, parental perceived quality of PCRs played a complete mediating role (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;0.041, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.062, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe indirect effects of Family conflicts, Parent-Adolescent Relationships, and Well-being (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5199)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCI (95%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdolescents' perceived FC \u0026rarr; Adolescents' WB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal effect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.664\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.729, -0.597\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal IE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.364\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.403, -0.324\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDirect effects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.300\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.364, -0.234\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActor\u0026ndash;actor simple IE: FCs (a) \u0026ndash; PCRs (a) \u0026ndash; WB (a)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.357\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.397, -0.318\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartner\u0026ndash;partner simple IE: FCs (a) \u0026ndash; PCRs (p) \u0026ndash; WB (a)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.007\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.013, -0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParents' perceived FCs \u0026rarr; Parents' WB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal effect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.689\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.783, -0.597\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal IE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.232\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.268, -0.198\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDirect effects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.457\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.545, -0.375\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActor\u0026ndash;actor simple IE: FCs (p) \u0026ndash; PCRs (p) \u0026ndash; WB (p)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.231\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.268, -0.197\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartner\u0026ndash;partner simple IE: FCs (p) \u0026ndash; PCRs (a) \u0026ndash; WB (p)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.004, 0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParents' perceived FCs \u0026rarr; Adolescents' WB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal effect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.114\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.193, -0.040\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal IE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.075\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.114, -0.036\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDirect effects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.039\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.114, 0.032\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActor\u0026ndash;partner simple IE: FCs (p) \u0026ndash; PCRs (a) \u0026ndash; WB (a)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.036\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.067, -0.007\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartner\u0026ndash;actor simple IE: FCs (p) \u0026ndash; PCRs (p) \u0026ndash; WB (a)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.039\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.064, -0.016\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdolescent' perceived FCs \u0026rarr; Parent' WB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal effect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.106\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.172, -0.042\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal IE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.045\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.078, -0.011\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDirect effects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.061\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.127, 0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActor\u0026ndash;partner simple IE: FCs (a) \u0026ndash; PCRs (p) \u0026ndash; WB (p)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.041\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.062, -0.021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartner\u0026ndash;actor simple IE: FCs (a) \u0026ndash; PCRs (a) \u0026ndash; WB (p)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.035, 0.026\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e IE, Indirect Effect; CI, Confidence Intervals; FCs, Family conflicts; PCRs, Parent-Adolescent Relationships; WB, Well-Being; a, adolescents; p, parents.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05. \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01. \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eFigure 1\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e here.\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eResearch in family domain has extensively explored how family conflicts impact individual mental health outcomes, but most studies have adopted a unidirectional perspective. The combined interactions among perceived family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being, and how they influence each other within parent\u0026ndash;child dyads remains unclear. The current study utilized the APIMeM to explore these associations and found the potential dyadic mediating role of PCRs between family conflicts and subjective well-being, which generated comprehensive and fresh insights. Several findings are noteworthy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eActor Effect and Mediating Role of PCRs at Individual Level\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResults supported the hypothesis that perceived family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being are significantly related at the individual level for both adolescents and parents, which was consistent with previous findings (Athira Aneesh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; De Rooij \u0026amp; Gravesteijn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Herawati \u0026amp; Endah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Li \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ren et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Smith-Etxeberria \u0026amp; Eceiza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the study further found that PCRs served as a mediator between perceived family conflicts and subjective well-being at the individual level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings partially support Emotional Security Theory (Davies \u0026amp; Cummings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting that individuals who perceive higher levels of family conflicts tend to report poorer PCRs, and ultimately show lower subjective well-being. According to these theories, frequent or intense conflict may foster a negative emotional atmosphere, diminishing feelings of closeness, trust, and mutual support between family members (Cummings \u0026amp; Davies, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). As emotional distance increases, the development of secure attachments may be compromised, and opportunities for open communication, emotional validation, and shared positive experiences become more limited (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, a strained PCRs may reflect a diminished sense of emotional support, which is essential for maintaining subjective well-being (Rothwell \u0026amp; Davoodi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Given the cultural emphasis on family harmony and close parent-child bonds in China (Hochw\u0026auml;lder, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), disruptions in PCRs due to conflict may have particularly strong implications for individuals\u0026rsquo; subjective well-being. Therefore, the quality of PCRs appears to be a key mechanism through which perceived family conflicts impacts individual subjective well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePartner Effect and the Dyadic Mediation of PCRs\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study partially supported the hypothesized of partner effects among adolescents\u0026rsquo; and parental perceived family conflicts, quality of PCRs and subjective well-being. Specifically, the results indicated that both adolescents\u0026rsquo; and parental perceived family conflicts negatively influenced each other\u0026rsquo;s perceived quality of PCRs. Moreover, parental perceived quality of the PCRs negatively predicted adolescents\u0026rsquo; subjective well-being, which contrasts with the findings of Budiarto et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). It is worth noting that the adolescents in Budiarto et al.\u0026rsquo;s study were older (M\u003csub\u003eage\u003c/sub\u003e = 19.07; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.21) than those in the present study (M\u003csub\u003eage\u003c/sub\u003e = 13.11; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.91). At this developmental stage, older adolescents may have developed stronger personal beliefs, greater autonomy, and more stable social support outside the family (Ruiz \u0026amp; Yabut, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), which could buffer the impact of parental perceived quality of PCRs on adolescents' own subjective well-being. In contrast, adolescents in the present study being in early adolescence may be more sensitive to family dynamics and the emotional atmosphere at home, making their subjective well-being more susceptible to perceived changes in the PCRs (Gettler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, our findings show that when adolescents experience high levels of family conflicts, it may shape how parents perceive the quality of PCRs, which subsequently affects adolescents\u0026rsquo; own subjective well-being. This result provides support for the Family Systems Theory (Priest, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), which emphasizes the reciprocal and dynamic nature of family interactions, suggesting that adolescents\u0026rsquo; emotional experiences and behaviors in the context of family conflicts can influence parental perceptions of PCRs, thereby indirectly impacting adolescents\u0026rsquo; own subjective well-being. Additionally, adolescents' perceived quality of PCRs did not significantly predict parental subjective well-being. One possible explanation is that parental subjective well-being is influenced by a broader range of factors, such as work-life balance, financial stress, social support, and physical health (Nomaguchi \u0026amp; Milkie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, their parenting role may enable them to regulate their emotions and cognitions when confronted with their children\u0026rsquo;s negative perceptions of PCRs. This adaptive perspective may help parents approach their children\u0026rsquo;s low perceived quality of PCRs with a more constructive mindset, thereby mitigating its potential impact on their own well-being (Barros et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Zimmer-Gembeck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurther, contrary to our hypothesis, neither adolescents\u0026rsquo; nor parental perceived family conflicts had a significant direct effect on each other\u0026rsquo;s subjective well-being. However, parental perceived family conflicts indirectly influenced adolescents\u0026rsquo; subjective well-being through both adolescents\u0026rsquo; and parental perceived quality of PCRs. Similarly, adolescents' perceived family conflicts were found to indirectly affect parental subjective well-being via parental perceived quality of PCRs. This suggests that the impact of either adolescents\u0026rsquo; or parental perceived family conflicts on each other\u0026rsquo;s subjective well-being operates primarily through changes in the perceived quality of PCRs. That is, rather than having a direct effect, perceived family conflicts appear to influence how each other\u0026rsquo;s experiences the relational bond, which in turn shapes each other\u0026rsquo;s subjective well-being. These results can be understood from the perspective of Emotional Security Theory (Davies \u0026amp; Cummings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). According to Emotional Security Theory, conflict disrupts the emotional climate within the family, affecting individuals' sense of connection, support, and security within the relationship, which further influences their subjective well-being (Cummings \u0026amp; Davies, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). These results may reflect a relational, rather than adversarial, interpretation of conflict within close family relationships. In parent-child dynamics, we do not always interpret the other person\u0026rsquo;s perception of conflict as a sign of hostility or rejection, but rather as a temporary misunderstanding or a normal aspect of development (Mastrotheodoros et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Such interpretations may buffer the direct impact of perceived family conflicts on each other\u0026rsquo;s subjective well-being in the PCRs, as long as a sense of trust and emotional connection within the relationship is maintained. This indirect pathway may reflect the influence of Chinese cultural values that emphasize family cohesion and emotional restraint. In this context, both parents and adolescents may avoid direct confrontation in response to perceived conflict, instead relying on the strength of the PCRs to preserve emotional security and support overall well-being (Shek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStrengths, Limitations and Future Research Directions\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe current study boasts several notable strengths that contribute to its significance and relevance in the field of relationship psychology. This study extends previous research by using dyadic data from both adolescents and parents to explore the relationships between perceived family conflicts, quality of PCRs and subjective well-being. It also creatively explores the mediating role of PCRs, providing valuable insights into the dynamics between family conflicts, relationship quality, and well-being. Additionally, the study features a large sample size of 5,199 parent-child pairs, enhancing the robustness of its findings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, several limitations should be addressed. First, this study employed a cross-sectional design, which limits the ability to draw causal inferences about the relationships among perceived family conflicts, parent-child relationship quality, and subjective well-being. Future research should adopt longitudinal or experimental designs to better capture the directionality and temporal dynamics of these associations. Second, this study was conducted during a period (in 2021) of heightened COVID-19 precautions. Although there was no full lockdown, strict measures such as localized restrictions, school closures, and remote work may have influenced family interactions and psychological well-being. These factors could limit the generalizability of our findings. Future studies should replicate this research in post-pandemic contexts or other regions to determine whether the observed patterns persist under more typical social conditions. Third, although Shenzhen was selected as the research site due to its highly diverse population structure, which enhances the potential representativeness of the sample, there are still some limitations regarding the generalizability of the findings to other regions or cultural contexts. Shenzhen is a rapidly developing metropolitan city with a distinct socio-economic environment, and the cultural values and family dynamics in this region may differ from those in less developed or rural areas. Additionally, China\u0026rsquo;s collectivist cultural framework, which emphasizes family harmony and interdependence, may shape how conflict is perceived and managed within families. Future research should explore whether these findings hold in other regions of China or in cultures with different socio-economic conditions and value systems. Finally, although quality of PCRs may remain relatively stable over time, family conflicts is dynamic and can vary daily. Individuals\u0026rsquo; perceptions of family conflicts can fluctuate, and these fluctuations may influence their perceptions of PCRs and subjective well-being. Adolescents, in particular, may be more sensitive to these changes in family dynamics during this developmental stage (Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Future studies could benefit from using ecological momentary assessment (EMA, Shiffman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) or daily diary methods (Bolger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) to capture real-time fluctuations in family conflicts and its impact on relationship quality and well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eImplications\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe current study enhances our understanding of the interplay between family conflicts, PCRs and subjective well-being within parent\u0026ndash;adolescent dyads, this study has several important implications. From a theoretical perspective, it supports the Emotional Security Theory (Davies \u0026amp; Cummings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) by revealing the actor effect of family conflicts and PCRs on subjective well-being at the individual level for both adolescents and parents. The mediating role of PCRs reinforces the integration of these two frameworks in explaining how conflict impacts well-being in family systems. Moreover, the study demonstrates that adolescents\u0026rsquo; and parental perceptions of family conflicts and PCRs are interdependent and jointly shape each other\u0026rsquo;s well-being. These findings suggest that theoretical research should consider not only intra-individual processes but also inter-individual influences within close relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom a practical perspective, this study carries three key implications. First, at the individual level, the significant impact of perceived family conflicts and PCRs on subjective well-being suggests the need for interventions that target both family conflicts and PCRs. To reduce the negative effects of family conflicts, programs focused on conflict resolution training and emotional regulation strategies can be implemented. One effective approach could be mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), which helps individuals regulate their emotional responses to conflict, improve self-awareness, and foster healthier communication patterns within the family (Britton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Shokri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). By reducing the frequency and intensity of family conflicts, such interventions may enhance the emotional climate within the family, thereby improving both adolescents' and parental subjective well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond, at the dyadic level, the findings show that parental perceived quality of PCRs significantly influence adolescents' subjective well-being at the dyadic level. In contrast, adolescents' perceived quality of PCRs does not directly impact parental well-being. Furthermore, parental perceived quality of the PCRs partially mediated the association between adolescents' perceived family conflicts and adolescents\u0026rsquo; subjective well-being. This suggests that adolescents, being particularly sensitive to family dynamics (Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), are more likely to be affected by these perceptions. These results indicate that improving parental understanding of and responsiveness to their children's emotional needs can be a critical intervention point. One potential strategy for addressing this is mindful parenting, which helps parents become more aware of their emotional states and respond compassionately to their children's emotions, creating a supportive environment that buffers the negative effects of family conflicts (Duncan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, the study reveals that family conflicts perceived by adolescents or parents indirectly affects each other\u0026rsquo;s subjective well-being through the perceived quality of PCRs. This highlights the importance of maintaining a positive emotional connection between parents and adolescents to buffer the negative effects of family conflicts. Interventions that enhance quality of PCRs, such as family therapy, can cultivate empathy, responsiveness, and emotional bonding, making them particularly effective (Johnson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). These interventions should prioritize activities that strengthen emotional bonds, such as family discussions, collaborative problem-solving and shared enjoyable experiences, which can foster mutual understanding and support, ultimately promoting resilience against the emotional toll of conflict.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by several anonymous research grants from national, provincial, and university-level funding bodies. Specific details are omitted to maintain the integrity of the blind review process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eConceptualization: Ju Huang, Weiwei Jiang, Ke Huang, Xin Liao, Jialin Xiao, and Xinli Chi; Data curation and formal analysis: Ju Huang, Weiwei Jiang, and Xin Liao; Funding acquisition: Xinli Chi; Visualization: Ju Huang, and Weiwei Jiang; Writing-original draft: Ju Huang; Writing-review and editing: Ju Huang, Weiwei Jiang, Ke Huang, Xin Liao, Jialin Xiao, and Xinli Chi.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to express their sincere appreciation and gratitude to Dr. Xinli Chi for their guidance and support. We also sincerely appreciate the editors and reviewers for their patient guidance in improving this article. Their invaluable input significantly enhanced the quality and depth of this manuscript. 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Parent emotional regulation: A meta-analytic review of its association with parenting and child adjustment. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Behavioral Development\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e46\u003c/em\u003e(1), 016502542110510. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/01650254211051086\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/01650254211051086\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"family conflicts, parent-child relationships, subjective well-being, adolescents, actor-partner interdependence mediation model","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7238644/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7238644/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eFamily dynamics play a crucial role in promoting the psychological well-being of both adolescents and their parents, yet little is known about how these influences operate within family dyads. This study utilizes the Actor-Partner Interdependence Mediation Model to explore the relationship between family conflicts, parent-child relationships (PCRs) and subjective well-being (SWB) among adolescents and parents. A sample of 5,199 parent-adolescent dyads (adolescents: M\u003csub\u003eage\u003c/sub\u003e = 13.11, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.91; parents: M\u003csub\u003eage\u003c/sub\u003e = 41.63, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.39) from China, was recruited. At the individual level, higher perceived family conflicts and lower quality of PCRs were associated with lower SWB in both adolescents and their parents. At the dyadic level, adolescents\u0026rsquo; perceived family conflicts was associated with their own subjective well-being through the partial mediating role of the parental perceived quality of PCRs (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.007\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e, 95% CI = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.013, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.002). Further, although parental and adolescents' perceived family conflicts did not directly affect each other\u0026rsquo;s SWB, it influenced each other\u0026rsquo;s SWB indirectly through the perceived quality of PCRs. Specifically, parental perceived family conflicts indirectly influenced adolescents\u0026rsquo; SWB through both parental and adolescents' perceived quality of PCRs (for adolescents' perceived PCRs: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;0.036\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.067, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.007; for parental perceived PCRs: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;0.039\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.064, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.016). Moreover, adolescents' perceived family conflicts were found to indirectly affect parental SWB via parental perceived quality of PCRs (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;0.041\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.062, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.021). The current study highlights the value of targeting quality of PCRs in family-based interventions aimed at enhancing SWB.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Family Conflicts, Parent-Child Relationships and Subjective Well-being in Parent–Adolescents: An APIMeM analysis","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-11 13:13:29","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7238644/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"29021f37-8790-4820-a424-bee6a475ba32","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 11th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-17T09:23:13+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-11 13:13:29","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7238644","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7238644","identity":"rs-7238644","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}