Microplastic Pollution in the street dust of Delhi: A study on seasonal variations

Microplastic Pollution in the street dust of Delhi: A study on seasonal variations | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Microplastic Pollution in the street dust of Delhi: A study on seasonal variations Prerna Singh, Manoj Kumar This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5125128/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 17 Jul, 2025 Read the published version in Environmental Science and Pollution Research → Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Microplastics (MPs) pollution is a serious environmental issue, particularly in heavily polluted cities of India. Despite its relevance, comprehensive studies on MPs contamination in street dust are lacking. This primary study aims to address this gap by investigating MPs in street dust across various areas of Delhi during two different seasons. Samples were collected from four distinct locations of Delhi: industrial (Okhla Phase 1), commercial (Connaught Place), institutional (CSIR-National Physical Laboratory), and landfill (Bhalswa) during the post-monsoon and summer seasons. MPs abundance in post-monsoon ranged from 4.44 ± 1.11 MPs 100 g⁻¹ in institutional areas to 18.88 ± 4.00 MPs 100 g⁻¹ in commercial areas. During summer, MPs concentrations increased, with landfill areas showing the highest counts at 116.66 ± 18.95 MPs 100 g⁻¹ and institutional areas, the lowest at 35.55 ± 12.52 MPs 100 g⁻¹ of street dust. FTIR analysis identified polymers such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) whereas scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed various degradation patterns on the surface of MPs. Fragments and fibres were the most common shapes reported in both seasons. Our results confirmed widespread evidence of MPs contamination in the street dust of Delhi, posing significant environmental and health risks. Immediate action and collaboration are needed to develop effective mitigation strategies. This study provides a foundation for future research and interventions to address MPs pollution in urban environments. Delhi Environment Environmental pollution Microplastics pollution Polymers Street dust Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Highlights First study on MPs in street dust of Delhi, one of the world’s most polluted cities. India’s first study on preliminary seasonal variations of MPs in street dust, examining the summer and post-monsoon season. Significant seasonal variation, with higher MPs counts observed in summer than in post-monsoon season. Comprehensive characterisation revealed diverse shapes and polymer types of MPs. MPs were dominated by fibres and fragments, derived mainly from PE, PET and PS type of polymers. Introduction Microplastics (MPs) pollution has emerged as a global environmental issue with its widespread presence documented across various ecosystems worldwide. While significant attention has been given to understanding MPs pollution in marine ecosystems of India (Vaid et al. 2021 ), recent research suggests that terrestrial ecosystems including urban areas serve as potential reservoirs for MPs. In Delhi, known for its high pollution levels, there is a significant lack of research focusing on atmospheric MPs present in dust, particularly in their settled and suspended forms. The rapid increase of urbanization and industrial development in Delhi has led to a rise in plastic consumption and waste generation. Consequently, this plastic waste undergoes weathering and degradation, breaking down into small particles termed as MPs, less than 5 mm in size (Thompson et al. 2004 ; Crawford and Quinn 2017 ; UNEP 2018). MPs originate from both, primary (direct) and secondary (indirect) sources. Primary MPs are directly introduced into the environment, primarily in the form of plastic beads utilized in plastic manufacturing and personal care products. Conversely, MPs in the form of fibres and fragments are indirectly released from secondary sources, which result from the breakdown of larger plastic particles due to processes such as photocatalysis, oxidation, and mechanical weathering (Thompson 2015 ). These MPs are present in various environmental compartments including soil, water bodies, and the atmosphere posing potential risks to both human health and the environment. Among the various pathways through which MPs infiltrate urban environments, street dust is identified as a significant reservoir and pathway for MPs (Dehghani et al. 2017 ; Kang et al. 2022 ; Rabin et al. 2023 ; Kabir et al. 2024 ). MPs in street dust originate primarily from the breakdown of larger plastic items like abrasion of tyres, vehicular emissions, urban runoff carrying plastic particles, improper waste disposal, plastic degradation, and atmospheric deposition of MPs from distant sources (Dris et al. 2015 ; Hodson et al. 2017 ; Sommer et al. 2018 ; Rezania et al. 2018 ). The sources and their pathways should be systematically identified for developing effective mitigation strategies in an urban environment. Research on MPs is gaining significant attention in developed countries; however, it remains less explored in developing nations like India. Given the prevalence of highly polluted cities in India, with Delhi being a prominent example, such studies are critically needed to address this emerging environmental concern. Based on the annual report of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) (2020–2021), Delhi has emerged as the top contributor to plastic waste generation while simultaneously exhibiting the lowest plastic waste processing or management facilities (CPCB 2020). Consequently, it is expected that Delhi may have a higher abundance of MPs due to inadequate waste management practices. This preliminary assessment utilizing a multidisciplinary approach including field surveys, laboratory, and data analysis aimed to provide the first comprehensive understanding of the extent and characteristics of MPs contamination in street dust across various areas of Delhi, India's capital city during two different seasons. This study also provides valuable insights for the formulation of effective mitigation strategies and policies to address MPs pollution in urban environments. MPs pollution has emerged as a serious concern globally, particularly in India, which hosts some of the world's most polluted cities (IQ Air 2022 ; Gupta et al. 2024b ). Despite significant health risks posed by atmospheric MPs, research in this domain in India is limited. In India, research on atmospheric MPs was conducted earlier utilizing two distinct approaches; the analysis of MPs in street dust and atmospheric deposition or fallout through passive sampling techniques, primarily targeting settled dust. Additionally, the examination of MPs in particulate matter (PM) employed active sampling techniques mainly focused on suspended dust. These methods include air samplers (Narmadha et al. 2020 ), direct sweeping by quadrat sampling (Patchaiyappan et al. 2021 ), and atmospheric dust deposition collectors (Yadav et al. 2022 ). Pre-treatment procedures involve the removal of organic contaminants and density separation to isolate MPs from the samples. Analytical techniques such as fluorescence and stereomicroscopy microscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray (SEM-EDX), High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Mass Spectroscopy (HPLC-MS), and Raman spectroscopy enable the physical and chemical characterisation of MPs, providing insights into their abundance, size, shape, and polymer composition (Zhang et al. 2020 ; Kang et al. 2022 ; Patchaiyappan et al. 2021 ). The existing studies aimed to comprehensively investigate the presence and distribution of atmospheric MPs, providing valuable insights into their sources, transport mechanisms, and potential environmental implications within Indian urban environments. Present studies on atmospheric MPs, primarily conducted in major cities of India like Chennai, Varanasi, Nagpur, Mumbai, Jharkhand, Kerala, Patna, the Indian Himalayas, West Bengal, and seven sites along the river Ganga of India (Narmadha et al. 2020 ; Zhang et al. 2020 ; Patchaiyappan et al. 2021 ; Pandey et al. 2022 ; Yadav et al. 2022 ; Napper et al. 2023 ; Parashar and Hait 2023 ; Nandi et al. 2024 ; Kannankai and Devipriya 2024 ; Moorchilot et al. 2024 ; Yadav et al. 2024 ; Mandal et al. 2024 ) they provided initial insights into the presence and characteristics of MPs in the atmosphere. However, there is a notable lack of comprehensive studies addressing critical aspects such as the impact of atmospheric MPs on air quality and human health. Additionally, source apportionment of atmospheric MPs presents a major challenge and is currently in its initial stage. Studies in India have mainly identified plastic wrapping, textiles, and small-scale tyre industries as potential sources of atmospheric MPs based on their shapes and polymers. Spatial heterogeneity within urban environments was observed, indicating varying distributions across different locations; for example, higher concentrations were observed in residential areas compared to commercial and industrial zones in Nagpur, India (Narmadha et al. 2020 ). Furthermore, MPs fluxes exhibited temporal variability, influenced by factors such as seasonality and proximity to pollution sources. In Chennai, the northern region exhibited lower concentrations compared to the southern part, suggesting differential pollution loads and transport mechanisms within the city (Patchaiyappan et al. 2021 ). Understanding atmospheric MPs sources, pathways, and fate in Indian cities is crucial for developing effective mitigation strategies. However, few countries including India lack specific guidelines for MPs in ambient air. Comprehensive inventories of MPs concentration, shape, and polymer type are essential to address this gap. Waste management practices significantly influence MPs characteristics and concentrations. Given India's waste management challenges, including improper waste collection and disposal, higher MPs emissions can be expected. According to CPCB (2015), the predominant polymers in plastic waste of India are low-density polyethylene and high-density polyethylene, which together constitute (66.91%), followed by polypropylene (9.9%), polyethylene terephthalate (8.66%), other polymers (6.43%), polystyrene (4.77%), and polyvinyl chloride (4.14%). Since the generation of secondary MPs is closely linked to local plastic waste composition, this distribution suggests that low-density polyethylene and high-density polyethylene are likely major contributors to MPs across India. However, regional differences in plastic usage and waste management practices can result in varying dominant polymer types, highlighting the importance of site-specific studies to better understand MPs sources and support targeted mitigation strategies. In addition, the diverse sources of MPs in India also contribute to variations in the dominant polymer types observed. Studies conducted in India have identified various types of MPs present in atmospheric dust, primarily occurring in four distinct morphological forms: fragments, fibres, films, and spherical particles, originating from a range of common polymers such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Notably, the dominant shape and polymer composition vary across different geographical locations, indicating the influence of local anthropogenic activities and waste management practices The studies on atmospheric MPs are urgently required due to the significant environmental and health implications posed by MPs, which arise from their unique chemical and physical properties. MPs are composed of complex mixtures containing various chemical components such as additives, processing aids, resins, dyes, and other substances employed to enhance the strength and flexibility of plastic products. These constituents present potential hazards to both, human health and the environment due to their toxic nature. Furthermore, MPs also serve as vectors for the transport of contaminants and pose ingestion risks to terrestrial organisms, potentially entering the food chain. Also, the persistence of MPs in the environment exacerbates ecological degradation and threatens ecosystem integrity (Wu et al. 2019 ; Jiang et al. 2020 ; Soltani et al. 2021 ). MPs possess a large surface area to volume ratio, making them effective sorbents for toxic chemicals such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which can adhere to their surfaces on loading (Naik et al. 2019 ). The existing studies on MPs in street dust within India have been limited to cities such as Chennai and Varanasi. (Patchaiyappan et al. 2021 ; Pandey et al. 2022 ). Conducting research in Delhi is particularly important due to its status as a major urban centre with high pollution levels, a dense population, and complex environmental dynamics, making it a crucial hotspot for studying atmospheric MPs pollution in India. The study provided essential inventory data for Delhi by analysing seasonal variations in MPs counts and by examining their physical and chemical characteristics, including shape, counts, and polymer types. Furthermore, identifying pollution patterns and potential sources of contamination can help in mitigating MPs pollution to some extent. The study also aligns with key objectives of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs), particularly in the context of environmental health and urban sustainable development (Stoett et al. 2024 ). By identifying the presence and characteristics of MPs in street dust, the study contributes to SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) by highlighting potential human exposure risks. The findings also support SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) by informing urban pollution control measures. Additionally, the study identifies the need of improving waste management and reducing plastic pollution, thus contributing to SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) (United Nations 2020 ). Despite growing global concerns, research on MPs contamination in street dust remains limited across major Indian cities including Delhi, the national capital of India and also one of the most polluted cities. Therefore, this study represents the first preliminary investigation into the spatial and seasonal variations of MPs contamination in the region, providing valuable inventory data for Delhi which will be useful in the development of effective mitigation strategies. Materials and methods Study site Samples of street dust were collected from the selected locations of Delhi, India (Fig. 1 ). The location of Delhi, India's capital city, is between latitudes 28° 23′ 17′′ − 28° 53′ 00′′ N and longitude 76° 50′ 24′′ − 77° 20′ 37′′ E (Nagar et al. 2017 ; CPCB 2024). It has a total area of 1483 km 2 , of which 1113.65 km 2 belong to urban areas and 369.35 km 2 to rural areas (GOI 2011 ). Delhi serves as the research site due to its pivotal role as the capital city of India and its profound environmental characteristics. Situated within the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the region experiences diverse environmental challenges, including high levels of air pollution, increased vehicular emissions, industrial activities, and rapid urbanization (Tiwari et al. 2013 ). With its sub-tropical semi-arid climate, Delhi experiences an average annual precipitation of 611.8 mm and a mean annual temperature of 31.5°C. The climatic conditions, combined with its unique geography, meteorological factors, and rapid urban expansion, play a crucial role in determining the dispersion and distribution of contaminants including MPs (Masood et al. 2023 ). Further, the average wind speed of Delhi is around 2.5 m s⁻¹ (Weather Atlas), resulting in the predominant contribution of pollutants from local sources. In addition, our study strategically selected sites representing distinct land-use types, distributed across various regions of the city and separated by significant distances, to effectively study spatial variation. Microplastics sampling All sample collections were conducted in October and April of 2023 − 2024 to observe the post-monsoon and summer sampling outcomes, respectively. Samples were systematically collected from four distinct areas in Delhi, including industrial (Okhla phase 1), commercial (Connaught Place), Institutional (CSIR-National Physical Laboratory), and landfill areas (Bhalswa), along the kerbside of roads (Table 1 ). Our study has examined the presence of MPs in industrial, commercial, institutional, and landfill settings, providing insights into various pollution sources. Industrial sectors were found to contribute MPs through manufacturing processes, while commercial zones showed increased MPs due to consumer waste. The Institutional area i.e. CSIR-National Physical Laboratory (NPL) at Pusa, New Delhi, characterized as a control site for this study due to restricted movement for common public, high tree cover (i.e. greenery) and less pollution whereas landfills were identified as reservoirs for degraded plastic waste. This comprehensive approach will help in the development of targeted site-specific mitigation strategies to effectively combat MPs pollution. Table 1 Details of sampling sites Site No. Type of place Sampling site Latitude Longitude No. of Replicates For two seasons Site 1 Landfill area Bhalswa 28.737994 77.15622 (n = 6) Three replicates for each season Site 2 Commercial area Connaught Place 28.630587 77.221641 (n = 6) Three replicates for each season Site 3 Institutional area CSIR-National Physical Laboratory 28.634543 77.175338 (n = 6) Three replicates for each season Site 4 Industrial area Okhla Phase 1 28.529607 77.272235 (n = 6) Three replicates for each season The influence of vehicular traffic and wind-induced turbulence leads to non-uniform dispersion of road dust pollutants across the road surface. Consequently, sampling was conducted within a 1 m 2 area adjacent to the road curb to obtain a representative assessment of MPs deposition on the road. Street dust was collected within a one square meter area using a wooden paint brush and metal pan, and then placed in a paper bag (Patchaiyappan et al. 2021 ). At each location, additional samples were collected from distances of two to three meters (He et al. 2023 ). Three samples were combined to create a composite, forming one replicate. To ensure reliability, three replicates were collected for each area, resulting in a total of 24 samples (n = 24) across both seasons. The street dust samples were then transported to the laboratory, where extraneous matter, including gravel, leaves, small fragments of bricks, and concrete debris, was removed from the samples. Microplastics pretreatment or extraction The isolation of MPs particles from samples involves a series of sequential steps in isolation protocols. These steps include chemical treatments to remove organic and inorganic components, especially in street dust samples (Lusher et al. 2020 ). Following collection, the street dust samples undergo a series of pre-treatment steps. Initially, the samples were dried at 60 − 70°C for 24 hours in a laboratory drying oven to remove any moisture content. Subsequently, the dried samples were sieved using a 5 mm sieve to eliminate large debris and aggregates. Organic digestion was then conducted using 35 ml of 30% hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) until the stop of bubble formation, followed by heating to 70 − 75°C for 30 minutes to accelerate the reaction. This approach ensured the complete digestion of organic materials, minimizing the risk of misidentification and improving the accuracy of MPs identification (Duan et al. 2020 ; Pfeiffer and Fischer, 2020 ; Patchaiyappan et al. 2021 ; Pandey et al. 2022 ). In addition, the selection of (H 2 O 2 ) for digestion was made due to its recognized effectiveness and suitability for fulfilling the objectives of our experimental framework, as evidenced by its widespread usage in most relevant studies (Dehghani et al. 2017 ; Yukioka et al. 2020 ; Roychand and Pramanik 2020 ; Yang et al. 2023 ). To prevent the loss of MPs due to the vigorous reaction that occurs within 30 minutes of adding hydrogen peroxide, a 500 ml glass beaker was used. The samples were covered with aluminium foil and left for 24 − 48 hours (Patchaiyappan et al. 2021 ; Kannankai and Devipriya 2024 ). The density separation was performed using zinc chloride (ZnCl 2 ) (Density: 1.6 g cm − 3 ) to isolate MPs particles from the samples (Pandey et al. 2022 ). Earlier studies suggested that an optimal density range of (1.6 − 1.8 g cm − 3 ) would be suitable for density separation (Shao et al. 2022 ); hence, ZnCl 2 almost equal to this density was used in this study. Also, ZnCl 2 has proved higher efficiency compared to other salts, as it facilitates the separation of high-density polymers easily such as PET (1.38 − 1.41 g cm − 3 ) and PVC (1.35 − 1.39 g cm − 3 ) (Ruggero et al. 2020 ). After carefully stirring the solution with a glass rod for two minutes, it was left undisturbed for the next 24 to 48 hours. The supernatant containing MPs particles was collected in a separate beaker post-extraction, and filtration on Whatman filter paper (Grade 42, Diameter 42.5 mm, Pore size 2.5 micron) was performed using a vacuum filtration assembly (Pandey et al. 2022 ). The contents were washed with distilled water two to three times to prevent the formation of ZnCl 2 crystals during the extraction of the final collection of MPs samples. The filter papers were dried at room temperature until they completely dried and after that, the samples were subsequently transferred to a petri dish and sealed with parafilm (Fig. 2 ). Microplastics identification and characterisation Visual identification using stereomicroscope After pre-treatment, the collected MPs particles were subjected to visual identification. Nile red staining was used to enhance the visibility of MPs particles before 30 minutes of stereomicroscopic analysis, with 2 − 3 drops of Nile red solution evenly sprayed onto the filter paper containing the collected particles (Shruti et al. 2022 ). Nile red, a lipophilic dye, exhibits a preference for hydrophobic particles like plastics, making it a rapid, straight-forward, and cost-effective technique for distinguishing plastic particles from coexisting clay or silt particles. The stained filter paper was dried at room temperature to ensure proper staining. Subsequently, the prepared samples were ready for further analysis to identify and quantify the presence and characteristics of MPs particles using stereomicroscope. A Magnus (MSZ Tr) stereomicroscope was used to analyse the presence of MPs in the collected samples visually. The filter paper was examined under the stereomicroscope, which is equipped with a built-in 5-megapixel HD digital camera, an objective zoom range of (0.65x to 4.5x) (including 10x eyepieces), and a built-in LED light with a lifespan of 30,000 hours. Furthermore, the stereomicroscope utilized a 6V 15W halogen lamp at the top for focused surface illumination and a 5W fluorescent lamp at the bottom for ambient lighting, operating in transmission mode. Supported by a standard stage equipped with transmitted light bases, this setup enables detailed observation of three-dimensional structures and fine details crucial for studying MPs in street dust. MPs were identified and categorized based on characteristics described by previous researchers. Images of the detected MPs were captured using the 5 MP HD digital camera using Mag Vision software. MPs particles were quantified using Mag Vision software, with different shapes (Fibres, fragments, films, and spherical particles) identified and distinguished by distinct colour codes. In addition, the MPs particles were manually counted under stereomicroscopic analysis as part of our research methodology. The Whatman filter (Diameter; 47 mm) was divided into four equal sections, each section was observed three times to minimize the chances of misidentification or error. Through this sequential methodology, the research aimed to systematically assess the extent of MPs pollution in the street dust of Delhi. Polymer identification using FTIR spectroscopy The FTIR spectroscopy was performed using (Make: PerkinElmer, Spectrum Two) FTIR spectrometer. For the FTIR analysis, the contents from the filter paper were removed and crushed into small MPs pieces. Because a pellet needs to be made for the FTIR analysis, Potassium bromide (KBr) salt is utilized as a binding agent for MPs. Because of its transparency in the infrared (IR) spectrum, KBr is chosen to ensure that it doesn't affect the spectral analysis. A small amount of KBr was mixed with the MPs samples. The mixture was then pressed in a pellet die using a Hydraulic Pellet Press to form (KBr) pellets. This procedure was used to prepare the samples for FTIR analysis (Konechnaya et al. 2020 ; Afrin et al. 2020 ; Renner 2020 ; Yanuar et al. 2024 ; Mushtak et al. 2024 ; Bai et al. 2025 ; Ghosh et al. 2025 ). The FTIR spectra of the samples were recorded in the range of 400–4000 cm⁻¹, using a resolution of 4 cm⁻¹. The spectra were then analysed by identifying and documenting the characteristic peaks. These peaks were then compared with published literatures and polymer libraries including the Open Specy Database ( https://openanalysis.org/openspecy/ ) to determine the corresponding polymer types. Only those spectra showing strong similarity with known characteristic peaks of specific polymers were considered for final identification (Cowgner et al. 2021; De Frond et al. 2021 ; Veerasingam et al. 2021 ). Surface analysis using SEM For the SEM analysis, the filter paper containing the MPs was cut into small pieces. The filter was then coated with a conductive layer of gold to prevent charging during analysis (Lindstrom et al. 2024 ). Next, the representative MPs samples were carefully placed onto carbon discs attached to specimen stubs using tweezers. A blank Whatman filter was also used to distinguish MPs particles from the filter paper, preventing confusion. The MPs collected on the filter were also shown, this approach ensures clear differentiation between the filter paper and the MPs particles. Images were captured in backscattered mode at an operating voltage of 10 KeV. Imaging a variety of samples with moderate resolution and penetration was suitable with an electron high tension of 10.00 kV. Statistical Analysis For the statistical analysis, Origin software (Version 2022, OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA, USA) was used to evaluate the variability in MPs counts and shapes across different sites and seasons. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests with varied input values were performed to assess the effects of multiple factors on MPs distribution in Delhi and to determine the significance of observed differences and interactions within the dataset. Initially, a two-way ANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of site-specific factors (Okhla, NPL, Bhalswa, Connaught Place) and seasonal variations (post-monsoon and summer) on the overall MPs counts. This analysis aimed to reveal spatial and temporal variations in MPs abundance, as well as the influence of localized environmental conditions, human activities, and waste management practices. Afterwards, shape-specific analysis was conducted by categorizing MPs counts on the basis of shapes (fragments, fibres, films, pellets) and two-way ANOVA analysis was performed to explore the impact of site and shape, as well as the season and shape, on the distribution of each MPs type. Quality control and assurance of experiment During experimental analysis, careful attention was given to minimize the risk of contamination. Researchers prioritized the use of appropriate clothes, such as cotton clothing, to mitigate plastic contamination. The laboratory environment is maintained correctly, with a thorough cleaning using acetone liquid and enclosure of all the glass apparatus with aluminium foil throughout the study duration. Additionally, precautionary measures, such as keeping window frames and ventilators closed, are implemented to limit the potential for plastic contamination further. These rigorous quality assurance practices safeguard the integrity of the research findings and enhance the credibility of the study outcomes. Throughout the experimental period, a blank run was conducted to monitor the potential contamination of MPs from the surrounding environment or the apparatus utilized. Results and Discussion Abundance of microplastics (MPs) In the post-monsoon season, the average abundance of MPs in 100 grams of street dust revealed notable variations across different areas. Commercial areas exhibited an average concentration of 18.88 ± 4.00 MPs 100 g⁻¹ of street dust. Landfill areas, characterized by higher waste accumulation, had an average of 16.66 ± 1.92 MPs 100 g⁻¹ of street dust. Industrial areas showed a slightly lower average of 11.11 ± 4.44 MPs 100 g⁻¹ of street dust. Institutional areas, which are less influenced by human activity, exhibited the lowest concentration with an average of 4.44 ± 1.11 MPs 100 g⁻¹ of street dust. During the summer season, the distribution of MPs in street dust showed significant variation across the site. In commercial areas, the average abundance increased to 77.77 ± 27.50 MPs 100 g⁻¹ of street dust indicating a noticeable change from the post-monsoon period. Industrial areas recorded an average of 55.55 ± 12.22 MPs 100 g⁻¹ of street dust, while landfill areas showed a higher average of 116.66 ± 18.95 MPs 100 g⁻¹ of street dust, reflecting the impact coming from direct sources of discarded plastic waste. Institutional areas continued to have the lowest concentration, with an average of 35.55 ± 12.52 MPs 100 g⁻¹ of street dust, consistent with their less disturbed nature. In the post-monsoon season, the highest counts of MPs were observed in the commercial area, likely due to extensive commercial activities and huge traffic. This was followed by the Bhalswa landfill, which potentially accumulates significant amounts of plastic waste, and the Okhla industrial area, where industrial activities might contribute to MPs pollution. CSIR-NPL exhibited the lowest levels of MPs concentration which might be due to restricted public access, proper waste disposal systems and surrounding tree cover. Conversely, in the summer season, the maximum counts of MPs were observed at the Bhalswa landfill, possibly driven by extensive accumulation of plastic waste. Additionally, the high temperatures during summer in the landfill environment further break down larger plastic items into MPs; thus, contributing to their increased presence. This was followed by the CP, Okhla, and NPL, respectively. These findings highlight MPs as a prominent pollutant, indicating the development of comprehensive strategies that include all major contributing factors such as local anthropogenic activities, population density, pollution sources, and environmental conditions across different locations (Szewc et al. 2021 ; Ashrafy et al. 2023 ; Ghosh et al. 2023 ). The seasonal variation in MPs counts in Delhi was strongly influenced by prevailing meteorological conditions, as determined by monthly meteorological parameters obtained from the NASA POWER (Prediction of Worldwide Energy Resource) platform ( https://power.larc.nasa.gov/ ). During the summer month of (April 2024), higher MPs counts were likely driven by dry and windy conditions, including extremely low rainfall (0.13 mm), low relative humidity (22.79%), elevated temperatures (maximum: 41.87°C; minimum: 17.82°C), and higher wind speeds (3.55 ms⁻¹). Such conditions are favourable for the resuspension of dust particles and the wider dispersion of MPs in the atmosphere, thereby increasing their abundance in street dust. In contrast, the post-monsoon period of (October 2023) experienced residual effects of the preceding monsoon, which may have contributed to a reduction in deposited MPs through surface runoff and washing. The relatively higher humidity (51.32%), lower wind speeds (2.56 ms⁻¹), moderate temperatures (maximum: 37.8°C; minimum: 16.23°C), and light precipitation (0.26 mm) during this period resulted in lower MPs counts. These seasonal differences can be attributed to several environmental factors. Firstly, the higher temperatures and increased UV radiation during summer accelerate the degradation of plastic materials; thus, potentially enhancing the release of MPs into the environment (Zha et al. 2022 ; Chang et al. 2025 ). Secondly, reduced precipitation limits the wash-off of MPs from surfaces, allowing their accumulation in street dust (Unice et al. 2019 ; Kang et al. 2022 ). In addition, increased human activities during summer months may contribute to the dispersion of plastic debris. Also, the dry weather conditions and intensified winds characteristic of summer facilitate the transport and deposition of MPs into street dust. Conversely, the monsoon season witnessed heavy rainfall which mobilizes and transports MPs from streets into drainage systems and water bodies, thereby diminishing their presence in street dust (Su et al. 2020 ; Monira et al. 2021 ). However, this redistribution increases MPs impact on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems downstream. Post-monsoon sampling reflects the aftereffects of these rain events, indicating reduced concentrations of MPs in street dust but potentially higher impacts on other ecosystems due to increased runoff. Furthermore, a study in Ma'anshan City, China, conducted by Wang et al. ( 2022 ) found no significant seasonal variation in MPs abundance in road dust; however, polymer composition and morphology varied across seasons. In contrast, our study observed considerable variations in MPs levels between the two seasons in Delhi, India, suggesting a notable influence of seasonal factors on MPs distribution. These differences likely resulted from regional environmental differences, including climatic conditions, urban infrastructure, and anthropogenic activities. In addition, variations in sampling methods and the number of seasons considered may contribute to these different findings. Our findings highlight the seasonal dynamics of MPs in urban environments, showing the complex relationship between weather patterns, human activities, and plastic pollution. Comparing both seasons, it is evident that the concentration of MPs fluctuates, potentially influenced by seasonal factors such as rainfall, temperature, wind patterns, and human activity patterns (Fig. 3 ). There is an urgent need to explore the seasonal variations of MPs in street dust of India; therefore, this research aims to fill this gap by systematically examining and reporting these seasonal differences for the first time. In this study, statistical analysis was also performed to thoroughly validate the observed differences in MPs counts and shapes across different sites and seasons in Delhi. By applying two-way ANOVA, the effects of site-specific factors (Okhla, NPL, Bhalswa, Connaught Place) and temporal variations (post-monsoon and summer) on MPs distribution were observed. The analysis revealed significant spatial variability in MPs counts (F = 4.40; p = 0.019), highlighting that localized environmental conditions, human activities, and waste management practices contributed to elevated MPs concentrations at specific locations. Seasonal effects were particularly pronounced, with MPs significantly more abundant in the summer compared to the post-monsoon season (F = 37.57; p = 1.45 × 10⁻⁵), highlighting the substantial influence of weather patterns and atmospheric conditions on MPs pollution. Whereas, the interaction between site and season was not statistically significant (F = 2.43; p = 0.103), indicating a relative consistency in seasonal trends across sites. The analysis also indicated a highly significant main effect of season on MP shapes (F = 47.80; p = 7.19 × 10⁻¹⁰), reflecting considerable variations in MPs types linked to seasonal changes. The interaction between season and shape was also significant (F = 13.08; p = 3.87 × 10⁻⁷) which suggests that certain MPs types, such as fragments, are more prevalent during the summer months due to increased degradation under solar radiation, whereas fibres were more prominent in the post-monsoon season, likely due to increased textile shedding and runoff from rainfall. Furthermore, site-specific differences in MPs shapes were significant (F = 2.93; p = 0.0385), highlighting distinct patterns in MPs distribution across various locations. However, the interaction between site and shape was not significant (F = 0.58; p = 0.81), indicating that despite the variability in MPs shapes by site, their overall distribution followed consistent trends. These findings provide critical insights into the complex spatial and temporal dynamics of MPs pollution, emphasizing the need for targeted mitigation strategies that account for both seasonal and site-specific factors. Our comprehensive statistical validation enhances the reliability of the results, providing a valuable contribution to the growing body of research on MPs pollution in urban environments. In both the post-monsoon and summer seasons, fragments, fibres, and films (Fig. 4 ) were the primary shapes of MPs identified, with fragments and fibres consistently dominating in both seasons. In the post-monsoon season, MPs exhibited a predominance of fibres (48%), fragments (39%), and films comprising (13%) of the total observed MPs. In contrast, fragments were the most prevalent shape during the summer season i.e., (55%), followed by fibres (36%), and films making up (9%) of the MPs composition (Fig. 5 ). This seasonal variation highlights the dominance of fibres and fragments as the primary shapes of MPs present in the studied environment. This consistent presence indicates that the sources and processes contributing to MPs pollution might be similar across seasons. Fragments likely originate from the breakdown of larger plastic items, while fibres are predominantly released from synthetic textiles or clothes (Browne et al. 2011 ; Periyasamy and Tehrani-Bagha 2022 ). The persistent presence of these shapes suggests that daily activities, such as the wear and tear of larger plastic products into fragments and the release of fibres, continued to be significant contributors of MPs pollution in street dust. Furthermore, in the majority of studies conducted in India to date, the predominant shapes identified have been either fragments or fibres. Our findings aligned with the previously published literature. This consistency highlights the reliability and validity of our results, confirming the established scientific evidence in the field. For example, a study from Nagpur, India, found that fibres were the predominant form of roadside suspended dust (Narmadha et al. 2020 ). In samples of MPs extracted from street dust in various locations of Varanasi, fibres of different colours and shapes were observed (Pandey et al. 2022 ). Similarly, research conducted in Chennai, India, reported that fragments and fibres were the predominant shapes in street dust samples (Patchaiyappan et al. 2021 ). Another study conducted in Victoria, Australia, by Su et al. ( 2020 ) also identified fibres as the dominant shape in street dust. Moreover, in their respective atmospheric MPs investigations, Wright et al. ( 2020 ) and Hasnatul et al. ( 2023 ) documented the prevalence of 92% fibrous MPs. Surface morphological analysis of microplastics (MPs) SEM is recognized as a valuable technique for evaluating both the surface morphology and the degradation patterns of MPs. This technique offers high-resolution imaging of the selected MPs surface properties, providing qualitative information as depicted in (Fig. 6 ). The observation of grooves, pits, and jagged edges in surface particles of SEM images indicated the occurrence of mechanical and chemical weathering phenomena (Ahmad et al. 2024 ). Overall, the presence of these weathering features suggests that MPs are not fresh or pristine but have been present in the environment for some time. Over time, environmental exposure is anticipated to further break down MPs into nanoplastics (NPs), which pose a greater threat due to their smaller size (Sutkar et al. 2023 ). Polymer and chemical characterisation of microplastics (MPs) The chemical composition of the suspected MPs collected from street dust samples was identified using FTIR. The spectral range for these polymer MPs typically ranges from (400 cm − 1 to 4000 cm − 1 ) (Kappler et al. 2018 ; Pervez et al. 2020 ). This spectral range in FTIR spectroscopy was selected for studying all polymer types because it includes the fundamental vibrational modes of the majority of polymeric materials. This range thoroughly identifies and examines distinct polymers by detecting various bands corresponding to different functional groups and molecular bonds. This method enables a rapid and qualitative assessment of MPs in street dust by detecting distinct intensity peaks that correspond to these specific chemical bonds and functional groups (Gupta et al. 2024a ). FTIR spectra analysis of representative samples revealed the dominance of polyethylene (PE) of both types i.e., high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) MPs. A comprehensive literature review was conducted to identify the characteristic peaks for these polymers. For PET, in our study, the characteristic peaks were identified at 1735, 1245, 1094, and 720 cm⁻¹, corresponding to the aromatic ester C = O stretch, aromatic ester C-C-O stretch, and aromatic ester O-C-C stretch, respectively (Jarosz et al. 2022 ; Amrutha et al. 2023 ; Nair and Perumal 2023 ). Polyethylene, including both HDPE and LDPE, exhibited prominent peaks at 2917, 2849, 1462, 1377, and 720 cm⁻¹. These peaks correspond to the CH₂ asymmetric stretch (C-H stretch), CH₂ symmetric stretch (C-H stretch), CH₂ bending, CH₃ umbrella mode, and CH₂ rocking vibrations (Nolasco et al. 2022 ; Singh et al. 2023 ; Banik et al. 2024 ; Vignesh et al. 2024 ; Bhavsar et al. 2024 ; Sivalingam et al. 2024 ). Polystyrene demonstrated distinctive peaks at 3080, 3025, 2923, 2850, 1600, 1492, and 698 cm⁻¹. These peaks are associated with the aromatic C-H stretch, CH₂ asymmetric and symmetric stretches, aromatic ring modes (C = C stretch within benzene), and aromatic ring bending vibrations (Jung et al. 2018 ; Cowger et al. 2021 ; Campanale at al. 2023; Banik et al. 2024 ; Villegas-Camacho et al. 2024 ) (Fig. 7 ). These identified polymers were majorly present in the street dust of Delhi, showing their strong association with urban anthropogenic activities, pollution sources, urban infrastructure, poor waste management practices, and inconsistent enforcement of single-use plastic bans. PE-type MPs primarily originate from packaging materials and plastic bags that are inappropriately discarded along the kerbside of the road. However, the widespread use of PET in storage containers, beverage bottles, and synthetic textiles draws attention to the growing demand in the city for lightweight, durable wrapping and increased production of synthetic fabrics. PS, commonly linked to disposable food plates, protective packaging, and Styrofoam products, highlights the significant contribution coming from the expansive food sector of Delhi, particularly the extensive use of single-use packaging by various restaurants and street food vendors. Existing studies on MPs in street dust have found similar results; for example, Pandey et al. ( 2022 ) identified PE as the most prevalent polymer in Varanasi, India, followed by PET, PS, PP, and PVC. Another study conducted at Nagpur on roadside suspended dust in India reported PE as the dominant polymer (Narmadha et al. 2020 ). The studies of Yadav et al. ( 2024 ) and Mandal et al. ( 2024 ), conducted near the Himalayas and in West Bengal respectively, also identified PE as the dominant polymer. Similarly, O’Brien et al. ( 2021 ) observed PET as the dominant polymer in their study, along with significant contributions coming from PVC. Further, Asrin and Dipareza ( 2019 ) also identified PET as the predominant polymer in their study. These studies collectively highlight the global prevalence of these polymers in urban environments and their strong association with human activities and waste management practices. Our findings are consistent with established literature, confirming the types of MPs present and their spectral characteristics. Overall, the FTIR analysis provides a precise approach for identifying MPs through verification of their chemical compositions, contributing to a detailed understanding of MPs pollution in the urban environment. The presence of these common polymers in street dust highlights significant environmental contamination from everyday plastic usage. Due to their persistence, these MPs gradually break down into much smaller particles, infiltrating terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and posing significant ecological risks. Furthermore, their airborne nature raises concerns for human inhalation and associated health impacts. Continuous inputs from packaging, textiles, and improper plastic disposal lead to urban degradation, which in turn highlight the urgent need for sustainable alternatives, efficient waste management, and strict regulatory measures to control MPs pollution. Conclusion This preliminary study represents the first crucial step in identifying MPs in street dust within the urban environment of Delhi. Our findings confirmed the widespread presence of MPs in street dust across various sampling sites in Delhi, highlighting the pervasive nature of MPs contamination in urban settings. This study highlights the urgent need for comprehensive mitigation strategies, as MPs in street dust pose significant risks to both environmental and human health. Future research in Delhi should also focus on MPs from other sampling types, such as dust fallout and suspended dust because all these mediums are linked and contribute to each other's composition. MPs in settled dust have the potential to become resuspended and, hence, enter the atmosphere. This resuspension poses a high risk of inhalation for humans and other living organisms. Additionally, MPs settling on soil and vegetation can adversely affect terrestrial ecosystems. This cyclical process, where suspended dust ultimately settles as street dust, which can again be resuspended back into the atmosphere demands an in-depth understanding of MPs across various sampling mediums. Our study focused on two seasons (post-monsoon and summer); future research needs to incorporate long-term sampling across all seasons. Extended monitoring will reveal temporal trends, seasonal variations, and the persistence of MPs, providing deep insights necessary for effective environmental management strategies. While this work provides initial insights concerning MPs in street dust of Delhi, there are still significant gaps in understanding MPs of other essential sampling types, such as atmospheric dust fallout and suspended dust. Future research should fill these gaps to completely understand the presence and distribution of MPs in the atmospheric dust of major Indian cities, such as Delhi. In addition, the limited research on atmospheric MPs in India, with diverse sampling methods, emphasizes the need for a standardized approach to assess MPs pollution accurately. Collaborative efforts involving researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders are crucial for developing holistic solutions to combat MPs pollution. By raising awareness and implementing effective measures, we can work towards creating a cleaner and healthier environment for present and future generations. Abbreviations MPs Microplastics ANOVA Analysis of variance CPCB Central Pollution Control Board FTIR Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy HDPE High-Density Polyethylene HPLC-MS High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Mass Spectroscopy KBr Potassium Bromide LDPE Low-Density Polyethylene NPL National Physical Laboratory NPs Nano plastics PE Polyethylene PET Polyethylene Terephthalate POPs Persisted Organic Pollutants PP Polypropylene PS Polystyrene PVC Polyvinyl chloride SDG Sustainable Development Goals SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy SEM-EDX Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray ZnCl 2 Zinc chloride Declarations Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Director and the Head of the Environmental Science and Biomedical Metrology Division (ESBMD) of CSIR-National Physical Laboratory for providing the necessary infrastructure and support for this study. Prerna Singh (SRF) also acknowledges the Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR) for facilitating her Ph.D. studies. The authors thankfully acknowledge Archana Rani, Senior Research Fellow, CSIR-NPL, New Delhi, for her assistance in the preparation of the map included in this study. Funding This research was funded by the University Grants Commission (UGC), Government of India, through the Senior Research Fellowship (SRF) awarded to Prerna Singh, under the National Eligibility Test (UGC-NET) for Environmental Sciences (NTA Ref. No.: 210510064662), dated 12th March 2022. The fellowship is part of the financial assistance scheme supporting her Ph. D. studies. Manoj Kumar sincerely thanks the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) for their funding support (Project code GAP 181132), which contributed to the successful completion of this research. Authors contribution Prerna Singh: conceptualization; methodology; sample collection; analysis and investigation of samples; writing—original draft; Manoj Kumar: conceptualization; methodology plan; review and editing and supervision. Ethical Approval Not applicable Consent to Participate Not applicable Consent to Publish Not applicable Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Data Availability Statement The datasets developed during the current study will be available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Clinical trial No.: Not applicable References Afrin S, Uddin MK, Rahman MM (2020) Microplastics contamination in the soil from Urban Landfill site. 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FTIR-Plastics: a Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy dataset for the six most prevalent industrial plastic polymers Wang T, Niu S, Wu J, Yu J (2022) Seasonal and daily occurrence of microplastic pollution in urban road dust. J Clean Prod 380:135025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135025 Weather Atlas (Climate and monthly weather forecast New Delhi, India). https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/india/new-delhi-climate . Accessed 6 January 2025 Wright SL, Ulke J, Font A, Chan KLA, Kelly FJ (2020) Atmospheric microplastic deposition in an urban environment and an evaluation of transport. Environ Int 136:105411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105411 Wu P, Huang J, Zheng Y, Yang Y, Zhang Y, He F, Gao B (2019) Environmental occurrences, fate, and impacts of microplastics. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 184:109612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.109612 Yadav A, Kumar A, Sharma N, Kaushal S, Kataria V, Dietze E, Anoop A (2024) Atmospheric deposition of microplastics in an urban conglomerate near to the foothills of Indian Himalayas: investigating the quantity, chemical character, possible sources and transport mechanisms. Environ Pollut 361:124629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124629 Yadav H, Sethulekshmi S, Shriwastav A (2022) Estimation of microplastic exposure via the composite sampling of drinking water, respirable air, and cooked food from Mumbai, India. Environ Res 214:113735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113735 Yang C, Niu S, Xia Y, Wu J (2023) Microplastics in urban road dust: Sampling, analysis, characterization, pollution level, and influencing factors. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 168:117348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2023.117348 Yanuar AT, Pramudia Z, Susanti YAD, Kurniawan A (2024) Analysis of microplastics in spring water. Emerg Contam 10(1):100277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emcon.2023.100277 Yukioka S, Tanaka S, Nabetani Y, Suzuki Y, Ushijima T, Fujii S, Singh S (2020) Occurrence and characteristics of microplastics in surface road dust in Kusatsu (Japan), Da Nang (Vietnam), and Kathmandu (Nepal). Environ Pollut 256:113447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113447 Zha F, Shang M, Ouyang Z, Guo X (2022) The aging behaviors and release of microplastics: A review. Gondwana Res 108:60–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2021.10.025 Zhang J, Wang L, Kannan K (2020) Microplastics in house dust from 12 countries and associated human exposure. Environ Int 134:105314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105314 Supplementary Files floatimage1.jpeg Graphical Abstract Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 17 Jul, 2025 Read the published version in Environmental Science and Pollution Research → Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Apr, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 25 Apr, 2025 Editor invited by journal 25 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 23 Apr, 2025 Editorial decision: Minor Revision 12 Dec, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5125128","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":447848286,"identity":"53cbc6cd-03e2-49ca-b302-d04bd32ef845","order_by":0,"name":"Prerna Singh","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"CSIR-NPL: CSIR National Physical Laboratory","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Prerna","middleName":"","lastName":"Singh","suffix":""},{"id":447848287,"identity":"dc75075d-f925-41a3-a4c5-86c67136d49f","order_by":1,"name":"Manoj Kumar","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA0ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAwkog7G9AcS1IEVLzwFkLjFaGCQSwCRhLebSPQZMN2ruyDHPfH51w48CCQb+9u4EvFos55wxYM459syYcXZO2c0eoKUSZ85uwO+wGzlALWyHExtn56Td4AFqMZDIJUbLP6CWmWfSbv4hWktuG1DLDPZjt4myxXJGWsHh3L7Dxow9OWy3ZQwkeAj6xVwieePjnG+H5Qzbjz+7+eaPjRx/ey9+LSBwAEQYNvAYgGgegsrhQJ6B/QHxqkfBKBgFo2BEAQDm5EkYCB1Q4gAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9897-8581","institution":"CSIR National Physical Laboratory","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Manoj","middleName":"","lastName":"Kumar","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-09-20 17:12:25","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5125128/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5125128/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-025-36753-1","type":"published","date":"2025-07-17T16:05:21+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":82030103,"identity":"642bc415-08c3-4a05-b0c7-9a02021578b8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-06 07:12:06","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":789881,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSampling locations and schematic representation of microplastics (MPs) collection from road dust across various locations of Delhi, India\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5125128/v1/6de08d0632621c16af7c6ed6.png"},{"id":82030042,"identity":"89cdf2ab-eb0b-4cb5-a83c-3ba907818cf8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-06 07:12:05","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1066313,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlow chart showing the sequential steps involved in microplastics (MPs) extraction from street dust\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5125128/v1/03e5bfb7d5c908fcbd4529d5.png"},{"id":82028088,"identity":"2e5321ba-22b3-4a21-a98e-d4e34744b821","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-06 06:56:05","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":126457,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSeasonal comparison of average microplastic (MPs) abundance in study locations (mean ± SE) (n = 24)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5125128/v1/4b4f41aa175c2a5030438d6b.png"},{"id":82028645,"identity":"14479db6-fcd9-4fac-9859-84f36f025b22","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-06 07:04:05","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":753343,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAssessment of microplastic (MPs) structures from various study sites in Delhi using a stereomicroscope with an objective zoom range of (0.65x to 4.5x) (including 10x eyepieces) (A) (Fragments); (B) (Films); (C) (Fibres)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5125128/v1/a03139ec9d1dedc5a8f8157b.png"},{"id":82030900,"identity":"8711e69f-3652-488c-90e5-5a6aa9ce560b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-06 07:20:05","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":218473,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSeasonal percentage variations in shapes of microplastics (MPs)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5125128/v1/bd6cda4f8999b14c90fc626d.png"},{"id":82030044,"identity":"497c9d3a-e2c1-400b-b050-9b0f698b8225","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-06 07:12:05","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":760403,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM images of some representative samples of identified microplastics (MPs) showing patterns of degradation such as pits, jagged edges, and grooves (a) Blank Whatman filter paper; (b-d) Fibres; (e-g) Fragments\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5125128/v1/8a01e7c39395ab4fc1af0980.png"},{"id":82030046,"identity":"61bec536-1385-4e9b-a1ee-d2d3dd43dad7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-06 07:12:05","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2838613,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFTIR Spectra of some representative samples of Microplastics (MPs); (a) Polyethylene terephthalate (PET); (b) Polystyrene (PS); (c) Polyethylene\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5125128/v1/87265218be8b52cf5ab040b2.png"},{"id":88506116,"identity":"46cc8d5d-fa00-4f95-a02f-73c11254c2aa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 07:31:17","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":7457040,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5125128/v1/20ab3242-3342-4bfa-941a-29e4b35528c1.pdf"},{"id":82028089,"identity":"0c2d1e62-42ae-42fb-b73f-b8fdfc0232cf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-06 06:56:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1018748,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGraphical Abstract\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5125128/v1/7b6091328a083886ad8e28be.jpeg"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Microplastic Pollution in the street dust of Delhi: A study on seasonal variations","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFirst study on MPs in street dust of Delhi, one of the world\u0026rsquo;s most polluted cities.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIndia\u0026rsquo;s first study on preliminary seasonal variations of MPs in street dust, examining the summer and post-monsoon season.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSignificant seasonal variation, with higher MPs counts observed in summer than in post-monsoon season.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eComprehensive characterisation revealed diverse shapes and polymer types of MPs.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMPs were dominated by fibres and fragments, derived mainly from PE, PET and PS type of polymers.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMicroplastics (MPs) pollution has emerged as a global environmental issue with its widespread presence documented across various ecosystems worldwide. While significant attention has been given to understanding MPs pollution in marine ecosystems of India (Vaid et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), recent research suggests that terrestrial ecosystems including urban areas serve as potential reservoirs for MPs. In Delhi, known for its high pollution levels, there is a significant lack of research focusing on atmospheric MPs present in dust, particularly in their settled and suspended forms. The rapid increase of urbanization and industrial development in Delhi has led to a rise in plastic consumption and waste generation. Consequently, this plastic waste undergoes weathering and degradation, breaking down into small particles termed as MPs, less than 5 mm in size (Thompson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Crawford and Quinn \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; UNEP 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMPs originate from both, primary (direct) and secondary (indirect) sources. Primary MPs are directly introduced into the environment, primarily in the form of plastic beads utilized in plastic manufacturing and personal care products. Conversely, MPs in the form of fibres and fragments are indirectly released from secondary sources, which result from the breakdown of larger plastic particles due to processes such as photocatalysis, oxidation, and mechanical weathering (Thompson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These MPs are present in various environmental compartments including soil, water bodies, and the atmosphere posing potential risks to both human health and the environment. Among the various pathways through which MPs infiltrate urban environments, street dust is identified as a significant reservoir and pathway for MPs (Dehghani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Kang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Rabin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kabir et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMPs in street dust originate primarily from the breakdown of larger plastic items like abrasion of tyres, vehicular emissions, urban runoff carrying plastic particles, improper waste disposal, plastic degradation, and atmospheric deposition of MPs from distant sources (Dris et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Hodson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Sommer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Rezania et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The sources and their pathways should be systematically identified for developing effective mitigation strategies in an urban environment. Research on MPs is gaining significant attention in developed countries; however, it remains less explored in developing nations like India. Given the prevalence of highly polluted cities in India, with Delhi being a prominent example, such studies are critically needed to address this emerging environmental concern. Based on the annual report of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) (2020\u0026ndash;2021), Delhi has emerged as the top contributor to plastic waste generation while simultaneously exhibiting the lowest plastic waste processing or management facilities (CPCB 2020). Consequently, it is expected that Delhi may have a higher abundance of MPs due to inadequate waste management practices. This preliminary assessment utilizing a multidisciplinary approach including field surveys, laboratory, and data analysis aimed to provide the first comprehensive understanding of the extent and characteristics of MPs contamination in street dust across various areas of Delhi, India's capital city during two different seasons. This study also provides valuable insights for the formulation of effective mitigation strategies and policies to address MPs pollution in urban environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMPs pollution has emerged as a serious concern globally, particularly in India, which hosts some of the world's most polluted cities (IQ Air \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Gupta et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024b\u003c/span\u003e). Despite significant health risks posed by atmospheric MPs, research in this domain in India is limited. In India, research on atmospheric MPs was conducted earlier utilizing two distinct approaches; the analysis of MPs in street dust and atmospheric deposition or fallout through passive sampling techniques, primarily targeting settled dust. Additionally, the examination of MPs in particulate matter (PM) employed active sampling techniques mainly focused on suspended dust. These methods include air samplers (Narmadha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), direct sweeping by quadrat sampling (Patchaiyappan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and atmospheric dust deposition collectors (Yadav et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Pre-treatment procedures involve the removal of organic contaminants and density separation to isolate MPs from the samples. Analytical techniques such as fluorescence and stereomicroscopy microscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray (SEM-EDX), High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Mass Spectroscopy (HPLC-MS), and Raman spectroscopy enable the physical and chemical characterisation of MPs, providing insights into their abundance, size, shape, and polymer composition (Zhang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Kang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Patchaiyappan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The existing studies aimed to comprehensively investigate the presence and distribution of atmospheric MPs, providing valuable insights into their sources, transport mechanisms, and potential environmental implications within Indian urban environments. Present studies on atmospheric MPs, primarily conducted in major cities of India like Chennai, Varanasi, Nagpur, Mumbai, Jharkhand, Kerala, Patna, the Indian Himalayas, West Bengal, and seven sites along the river Ganga of India (Narmadha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Patchaiyappan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Pandey et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Yadav et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Napper et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Parashar and Hait \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Nandi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Kannankai and Devipriya \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Moorchilot et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yadav et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Mandal et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) they provided initial insights into the presence and characteristics of MPs in the atmosphere. However, there is a notable lack of comprehensive studies addressing critical aspects such as the impact of atmospheric MPs on air quality and human health. Additionally, source apportionment of atmospheric MPs presents a major challenge and is currently in its initial stage. Studies in India have mainly identified plastic wrapping, textiles, and small-scale tyre industries as potential sources of atmospheric MPs based on their shapes and polymers. Spatial heterogeneity within urban environments was observed, indicating varying distributions across different locations; for example, higher concentrations were observed in residential areas compared to commercial and industrial zones in Nagpur, India (Narmadha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, MPs fluxes exhibited temporal variability, influenced by factors such as seasonality and proximity to pollution sources. In Chennai, the northern region exhibited lower concentrations compared to the southern part, suggesting differential pollution loads and transport mechanisms within the city (Patchaiyappan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Understanding atmospheric MPs sources, pathways, and fate in Indian cities is crucial for developing effective mitigation strategies. However, few countries including India lack specific guidelines for MPs in ambient air. Comprehensive inventories of MPs concentration, shape, and polymer type are essential to address this gap.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWaste management practices significantly influence MPs characteristics and concentrations. Given India's waste management challenges, including improper waste collection and disposal, higher MPs emissions can be expected. According to CPCB (2015), the predominant polymers in plastic waste of India are low-density polyethylene and high-density polyethylene, which together constitute (66.91%), followed by polypropylene (9.9%), polyethylene terephthalate (8.66%), other polymers (6.43%), polystyrene (4.77%), and polyvinyl chloride (4.14%). Since the generation of secondary MPs is closely linked to local plastic waste composition, this distribution suggests that low-density polyethylene and high-density polyethylene are likely major contributors to MPs across India. However, regional differences in plastic usage and waste management practices can result in varying dominant polymer types, highlighting the importance of site-specific studies to better understand MPs sources and support targeted mitigation strategies. In addition, the diverse sources of MPs in India also contribute to variations in the dominant polymer types observed. Studies conducted in India have identified various types of MPs present in atmospheric dust, primarily occurring in four distinct morphological forms: fragments, fibres, films, and spherical particles, originating from a range of common polymers such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Notably, the dominant shape and polymer composition vary across different geographical locations, indicating the influence of local anthropogenic activities and waste management practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe studies on atmospheric MPs are urgently required due to the significant environmental and health implications posed by MPs, which arise from their unique chemical and physical properties. MPs are composed of complex mixtures containing various chemical components such as additives, processing aids, resins, dyes, and other substances employed to enhance the strength and flexibility of plastic products. These constituents present potential hazards to both, human health and the environment due to their toxic nature. Furthermore, MPs also serve as vectors for the transport of contaminants and pose ingestion risks to terrestrial organisms, potentially entering the food chain. Also, the persistence of MPs in the environment exacerbates ecological degradation and threatens ecosystem integrity (Wu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Jiang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Soltani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). MPs possess a large surface area to volume ratio, making them effective sorbents for toxic chemicals such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which can adhere to their surfaces on loading (Naik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe existing studies on MPs in street dust within India have been limited to cities such as Chennai and Varanasi. (Patchaiyappan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Pandey et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Conducting research in Delhi is particularly important due to its status as a major urban centre with high pollution levels, a dense population, and complex environmental dynamics, making it a crucial hotspot for studying atmospheric MPs pollution in India. The study provided essential inventory data for Delhi by analysing seasonal variations in MPs counts and by examining their physical and chemical characteristics, including shape, counts, and polymer types. Furthermore, identifying pollution patterns and potential sources of contamination can help in mitigating MPs pollution to some extent. The study also aligns with key objectives of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs), particularly in the context of environmental health and urban sustainable development (Stoett et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). By identifying the presence and characteristics of MPs in street dust, the study contributes to SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) by highlighting potential human exposure risks. The findings also support SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) by informing urban pollution control measures. Additionally, the study identifies the need of improving waste management and reducing plastic pollution, thus contributing to SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) (United Nations \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Despite growing global concerns, research on MPs contamination in street dust remains limited across major Indian cities including Delhi, the national capital of India and also one of the most polluted cities. Therefore, this study represents the first preliminary investigation into the spatial and seasonal variations of MPs contamination in the region, providing valuable inventory data for Delhi which will be useful in the development of effective mitigation strategies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy site\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples of street dust were collected from the selected locations of Delhi, India (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The location of Delhi, India's capital city, is between latitudes 28\u0026deg; 23\u0026prime; 17\u0026prime;\u0026prime; \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;28\u0026deg; 53\u0026prime; 00\u0026prime;\u0026prime; N and longitude 76\u0026deg; 50\u0026prime; 24\u0026prime;\u0026prime; \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;77\u0026deg; 20\u0026prime; 37\u0026prime;\u0026prime; E (Nagar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; CPCB 2024). It has a total area of 1483 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, of which 1113.65 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e belong to urban areas and 369.35 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e to rural areas (GOI \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Delhi serves as the research site due to its pivotal role as the capital city of India and its profound environmental characteristics. Situated within the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the region experiences diverse environmental challenges, including high levels of air pollution, increased vehicular emissions, industrial activities, and rapid urbanization (Tiwari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). With its sub-tropical semi-arid climate, Delhi experiences an average annual precipitation of 611.8 mm and a mean annual temperature of 31.5\u0026deg;C. The climatic conditions, combined with its unique geography, meteorological factors, and rapid urban expansion, play a crucial role in determining the dispersion and distribution of contaminants including MPs (Masood et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Further, the average wind speed of Delhi is around 2.5 m s⁻\u0026sup1; (Weather Atlas), resulting in the predominant contribution of pollutants from local sources. In addition, our study strategically selected sites representing distinct land-use types, distributed across various regions of the city and separated by significant distances, to effectively study spatial variation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMicroplastics sampling\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll sample collections were conducted in October and April of 2023\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2024 to observe the post-monsoon and summer sampling outcomes, respectively. Samples were systematically collected from four distinct areas in Delhi, including industrial (Okhla phase 1), commercial (Connaught Place), Institutional (CSIR-National Physical Laboratory), and landfill areas (Bhalswa), along the kerbside of roads (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Our study has examined the presence of MPs in industrial, commercial, institutional, and landfill settings, providing insights into various pollution sources. Industrial sectors were found to contribute MPs through manufacturing processes, while commercial zones showed increased MPs due to consumer waste. The Institutional area i.e. CSIR-National Physical Laboratory (NPL) at Pusa, New Delhi, characterized as a control site for this study due to restricted movement for common public, high tree cover (i.e. greenery) and less pollution whereas landfills were identified as reservoirs for degraded plastic waste. This comprehensive approach will help in the development of targeted site-specific mitigation strategies to effectively combat MPs pollution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDetails of sampling sites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of place\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSampling site\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLatitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLongitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo. of Replicates For two seasons\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLandfill area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBhalswa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.737994\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.15622\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree replicates for each season\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommercial area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConnaught Place\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.630587\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.221641\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree replicates for each season\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstitutional area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCSIR-National Physical Laboratory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.634543\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.175338\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree replicates for each season\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndustrial area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkhla Phase 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.529607\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.272235\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree replicates for each season\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe influence of vehicular traffic and wind-induced turbulence leads to non-uniform dispersion of road dust pollutants across the road surface. Consequently, sampling was conducted within a 1 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e area adjacent to the road curb to obtain a representative assessment of MPs deposition on the road. Street dust was collected within a one square meter area using a wooden paint brush and metal pan, and then placed in a paper bag (Patchaiyappan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). At each location, additional samples were collected from distances of two to three meters (He et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Three samples were combined to create a composite, forming one replicate. To ensure reliability, three replicates were collected for each area, resulting in a total of 24 samples (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24) across both seasons. The street dust samples were then transported to the laboratory, where extraneous matter, including gravel, leaves, small fragments of bricks, and concrete debris, was removed from the samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMicroplastics pretreatment or extraction\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe isolation of MPs particles from samples involves a series of sequential steps in isolation protocols. These steps include chemical treatments to remove organic and inorganic components, especially in street dust samples (Lusher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Following collection, the street dust samples undergo a series of pre-treatment steps. Initially, the samples were dried at 60\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;70\u0026deg;C for 24 hours in a laboratory drying oven to remove any moisture content. Subsequently, the dried samples were sieved using a 5 mm sieve to eliminate large debris and aggregates. Organic digestion was then conducted using 35 ml of 30% hydrogen peroxide (H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) until the stop of bubble formation, followed by heating to 70\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;75\u0026deg;C for 30 minutes to accelerate the reaction. This approach ensured the complete digestion of organic materials, minimizing the risk of misidentification and improving the accuracy of MPs identification (Duan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Pfeiffer and Fischer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Patchaiyappan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Pandey et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, the selection of (H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) for digestion was made due to its recognized effectiveness and suitability for fulfilling the objectives of our experimental framework, as evidenced by its widespread usage in most relevant studies (Dehghani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Yukioka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Roychand and Pramanik \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Yang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). To prevent the loss of MPs due to the vigorous reaction that occurs within 30 minutes of adding hydrogen peroxide, a 500 ml glass beaker was used. The samples were covered with aluminium foil and left for 24\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;48 hours (Patchaiyappan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Kannankai and Devipriya \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The density separation was performed using zinc chloride (ZnCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) (Density: 1.6 g cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e) to isolate MPs particles from the samples (Pandey et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Earlier studies suggested that an optimal density range of (1.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.8 g cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e) would be suitable for density separation (Shao et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e); hence, ZnCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e almost equal to this density was used in this study. Also, ZnCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e has proved higher efficiency compared to other salts, as it facilitates the separation of high-density polymers easily such as PET (1.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.41 g cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e) and PVC (1.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.39 g cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e) (Ruggero et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter carefully stirring the solution with a glass rod for two minutes, it was left undisturbed for the next 24 to 48 hours. The supernatant containing MPs particles was collected in a separate beaker post-extraction, and filtration on Whatman filter paper (Grade 42, Diameter 42.5 mm, Pore size 2.5 micron) was performed using a vacuum filtration assembly (Pandey et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The contents were washed with distilled water two to three times to prevent the formation of ZnCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e crystals during the extraction of the final collection of MPs samples. The filter papers were dried at room temperature until they completely dried and after that, the samples were subsequently transferred to a petri dish and sealed with parafilm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMicroplastics identification and characterisation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eVisual identification using stereomicroscope\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter pre-treatment, the collected MPs particles were subjected to visual identification. Nile red staining was used to enhance the visibility of MPs particles before 30 minutes of stereomicroscopic analysis, with 2\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3 drops of Nile red solution evenly sprayed onto the filter paper containing the collected particles (Shruti et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Nile red, a lipophilic dye, exhibits a preference for hydrophobic particles like plastics, making it a rapid, straight-forward, and cost-effective technique for distinguishing plastic particles from coexisting clay or silt particles. The stained filter paper was dried at room temperature to ensure proper staining. Subsequently, the prepared samples were ready for further analysis to identify and quantify the presence and characteristics of MPs particles using stereomicroscope. A Magnus (MSZ Tr) stereomicroscope was used to analyse the presence of MPs in the collected samples visually. The filter paper was examined under the stereomicroscope, which is equipped with a built-in 5-megapixel HD digital camera, an objective zoom range of (0.65x to 4.5x) (including 10x eyepieces), and a built-in LED light with a lifespan of 30,000 hours. Furthermore, the stereomicroscope utilized a 6V 15W halogen lamp at the top for focused surface illumination and a 5W fluorescent lamp at the bottom for ambient lighting, operating in transmission mode. Supported by a standard stage equipped with transmitted light bases, this setup enables detailed observation of three-dimensional structures and fine details crucial for studying MPs in street dust.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMPs were identified and categorized based on characteristics described by previous researchers. Images of the detected MPs were captured using the 5 MP HD digital camera using Mag Vision software. MPs particles were quantified using Mag Vision software, with different shapes (Fibres, fragments, films, and spherical particles) identified and distinguished by distinct colour codes. In addition, the MPs particles were manually counted under stereomicroscopic analysis as part of our research methodology. The Whatman filter (Diameter; 47 mm) was divided into four equal sections, each section was observed three times to minimize the chances of misidentification or error. Through this sequential methodology, the research aimed to systematically assess the extent of MPs pollution in the street dust of Delhi.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePolymer identification using FTIR spectroscopy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe FTIR spectroscopy was performed using (Make: PerkinElmer, Spectrum Two) FTIR spectrometer. For the FTIR analysis, the contents from the filter paper were removed and crushed into small MPs pieces. Because a pellet needs to be made for the FTIR analysis, Potassium bromide (KBr) salt is utilized as a binding agent for MPs. Because of its transparency in the infrared (IR) spectrum, KBr is chosen to ensure that it doesn't affect the spectral analysis. A small amount of KBr was mixed with the MPs samples. The mixture was then pressed in a pellet die using a Hydraulic Pellet Press to form (KBr) pellets. This procedure was used to prepare the samples for FTIR analysis (Konechnaya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Afrin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Renner \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Yanuar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Mushtak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Bai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Ghosh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe FTIR spectra of the samples were recorded in the range of 400\u0026ndash;4000 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, using a resolution of 4 cm⁻\u0026sup1;. The spectra were then analysed by identifying and documenting the characteristic peaks. These peaks were then compared with published literatures and polymer libraries including the Open Specy Database (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://openanalysis.org/openspecy/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://openanalysis.org/openspecy/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) to determine the corresponding polymer types. Only those spectra showing strong similarity with known characteristic peaks of specific polymers were considered for final identification (Cowgner et al. 2021; De Frond et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Veerasingam et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSurface analysis using SEM\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor the SEM analysis, the filter paper containing the MPs was cut into small pieces. The filter was then coated with a conductive layer of gold to prevent charging during analysis (Lindstrom et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Next, the representative MPs samples were carefully placed onto carbon discs attached to specimen stubs using tweezers. A blank Whatman filter was also used to distinguish MPs particles from the filter paper, preventing confusion. The MPs collected on the filter were also shown, this approach ensures clear differentiation between the filter paper and the MPs particles. Images were captured in backscattered mode at an operating voltage of 10 KeV. Imaging a variety of samples with moderate resolution and penetration was suitable with an electron high tension of 10.00 kV.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the statistical analysis, Origin software (Version 2022, OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA, USA) was used to evaluate the variability in MPs counts and shapes across different sites and seasons. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests with varied input values were performed to assess the effects of multiple factors on MPs distribution in Delhi and to determine the significance of observed differences and interactions within the dataset. Initially, a two-way ANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of site-specific factors (Okhla, NPL, Bhalswa, Connaught Place) and seasonal variations (post-monsoon and summer) on the overall MPs counts. This analysis aimed to reveal spatial and temporal variations in MPs abundance, as well as the influence of localized environmental conditions, human activities, and waste management practices. Afterwards, shape-specific analysis was conducted by categorizing MPs counts on the basis of shapes (fragments, fibres, films, pellets) and two-way ANOVA analysis was performed to explore the impact of site and shape, as well as the season and shape, on the distribution of each MPs type.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eQuality control and assurance of experiment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring experimental analysis, careful attention was given to minimize the risk of contamination. Researchers prioritized the use of appropriate clothes, such as cotton clothing, to mitigate plastic contamination. The laboratory environment is maintained correctly, with a thorough cleaning using acetone liquid and enclosure of all the glass apparatus with aluminium foil throughout the study duration. Additionally, precautionary measures, such as keeping window frames and ventilators closed, are implemented to limit the potential for plastic contamination further. These rigorous quality assurance practices safeguard the integrity of the research findings and enhance the credibility of the study outcomes. Throughout the experimental period, a blank run was conducted to monitor the potential contamination of MPs from the surrounding environment or the apparatus utilized.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAbundance of microplastics (MPs)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the post-monsoon season, the average abundance of MPs in 100 grams of street dust revealed notable variations across different areas. Commercial areas exhibited an average concentration of 18.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.00 MPs 100 g⁻\u0026sup1; of street dust. Landfill areas, characterized by higher waste accumulation, had an average of 16.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.92 MPs 100 g⁻\u0026sup1; of street dust. Industrial areas showed a slightly lower average of 11.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.44 MPs 100 g⁻\u0026sup1; of street dust. Institutional areas, which are less influenced by human activity, exhibited the lowest concentration with an average of 4.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.11 MPs 100 g⁻\u0026sup1; of street dust. During the summer season, the distribution of MPs in street dust showed significant variation across the site. In commercial areas, the average abundance increased to 77.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;27.50 MPs 100 g⁻\u0026sup1; of street dust indicating a noticeable change from the post-monsoon period. Industrial areas recorded an average of 55.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.22 MPs 100 g⁻\u0026sup1; of street dust, while landfill areas showed a higher average of 116.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.95 MPs 100 g⁻\u0026sup1; of street dust, reflecting the impact coming from direct sources of discarded plastic waste. Institutional areas continued to have the lowest concentration, with an average of 35.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.52 MPs 100 g⁻\u0026sup1; of street dust, consistent with their less disturbed nature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the post-monsoon season, the highest counts of MPs were observed in the commercial area, likely due to extensive commercial activities and huge traffic. This was followed by the Bhalswa landfill, which potentially accumulates significant amounts of plastic waste, and the Okhla industrial area, where industrial activities might contribute to MPs pollution. CSIR-NPL exhibited the lowest levels of MPs concentration which might be due to restricted public access, proper waste disposal systems and surrounding tree cover. Conversely, in the summer season, the maximum counts of MPs were observed at the Bhalswa landfill, possibly driven by extensive accumulation of plastic waste. Additionally, the high temperatures during summer in the landfill environment further break down larger plastic items into MPs; thus, contributing to their increased presence. This was followed by the CP, Okhla, and NPL, respectively. These findings highlight MPs as a prominent pollutant, indicating the development of comprehensive strategies that include all major contributing factors such as local anthropogenic activities, population density, pollution sources, and environmental conditions across different locations (Szewc et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ashrafy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Ghosh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe seasonal variation in MPs counts in Delhi was strongly influenced by prevailing meteorological conditions, as determined by monthly meteorological parameters obtained from the NASA POWER (Prediction of Worldwide Energy Resource) platform (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://power.larc.nasa.gov/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://power.larc.nasa.gov/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). During the summer month of (April 2024), higher MPs counts were likely driven by dry and windy conditions, including extremely low rainfall (0.13 mm), low relative humidity (22.79%), elevated temperatures (maximum: 41.87\u0026deg;C; minimum: 17.82\u0026deg;C), and higher wind speeds (3.55 ms⁻\u0026sup1;). Such conditions are favourable for the resuspension of dust particles and the wider dispersion of MPs in the atmosphere, thereby increasing their abundance in street dust. In contrast, the post-monsoon period of (October 2023) experienced residual effects of the preceding monsoon, which may have contributed to a reduction in deposited MPs through surface runoff and washing. The relatively higher humidity (51.32%), lower wind speeds (2.56 ms⁻\u0026sup1;), moderate temperatures (maximum: 37.8\u0026deg;C; minimum: 16.23\u0026deg;C), and light precipitation (0.26 mm) during this period resulted in lower MPs counts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese seasonal differences can be attributed to several environmental factors. Firstly, the higher temperatures and increased UV radiation during summer accelerate the degradation of plastic materials; thus, potentially enhancing the release of MPs into the environment (Zha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Chang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Secondly, reduced precipitation limits the wash-off of MPs from surfaces, allowing their accumulation in street dust (Unice et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Kang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, increased human activities during summer months may contribute to the dispersion of plastic debris. Also, the dry weather conditions and intensified winds characteristic of summer facilitate the transport and deposition of MPs into street dust. Conversely, the monsoon season witnessed heavy rainfall which mobilizes and transports MPs from streets into drainage systems and water bodies, thereby diminishing their presence in street dust (Su et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Monira et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, this redistribution increases MPs impact on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems downstream. Post-monsoon sampling reflects the aftereffects of these rain events, indicating reduced concentrations of MPs in street dust but potentially higher impacts on other ecosystems due to increased runoff. Furthermore, a study in Ma'anshan City, China, conducted by Wang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) found no significant seasonal variation in MPs abundance in road dust; however, polymer composition and morphology varied across seasons. In contrast, our study observed considerable variations in MPs levels between the two seasons in Delhi, India, suggesting a notable influence of seasonal factors on MPs distribution. These differences likely resulted from regional environmental differences, including climatic conditions, urban infrastructure, and anthropogenic activities. In addition, variations in sampling methods and the number of seasons considered may contribute to these different findings. Our findings highlight the seasonal dynamics of MPs in urban environments, showing the complex relationship between weather patterns, human activities, and plastic pollution. Comparing both seasons, it is evident that the concentration of MPs fluctuates, potentially influenced by seasonal factors such as rainfall, temperature, wind patterns, and human activity patterns (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). There is an urgent need to explore the seasonal variations of MPs in street dust of India; therefore, this research aims to fill this gap by systematically examining and reporting these seasonal differences for the first time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, statistical analysis was also performed to thoroughly validate the observed differences in MPs counts and shapes across different sites and seasons in Delhi. By applying two-way ANOVA, the effects of site-specific factors (Okhla, NPL, Bhalswa, Connaught Place) and temporal variations (post-monsoon and summer) on MPs distribution were observed. The analysis revealed significant spatial variability in MPs counts (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.40; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.019), highlighting that localized environmental conditions, human activities, and waste management practices contributed to elevated MPs concentrations at specific locations. Seasonal effects were particularly pronounced, with MPs significantly more abundant in the summer compared to the post-monsoon season (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37.57; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.45 \u0026times; 10⁻⁵), highlighting the substantial influence of weather patterns and atmospheric conditions on MPs pollution. Whereas, the interaction between site and season was not statistically significant (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.43; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.103), indicating a relative consistency in seasonal trends across sites. The analysis also indicated a highly significant main effect of season on MP shapes (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;47.80; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.19 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup1;⁰), reflecting considerable variations in MPs types linked to seasonal changes. The interaction between season and shape was also significant (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.08; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.87 \u0026times; 10⁻⁷) which suggests that certain MPs types, such as fragments, are more prevalent during the summer months due to increased degradation under solar radiation, whereas fibres were more prominent in the post-monsoon season, likely due to increased textile shedding and runoff from rainfall. Furthermore, site-specific differences in MPs shapes were significant (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.93; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0385), highlighting distinct patterns in MPs distribution across various locations. However, the interaction between site and shape was not significant (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.58; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.81), indicating that despite the variability in MPs shapes by site, their overall distribution followed consistent trends. These findings provide critical insights into the complex spatial and temporal dynamics of MPs pollution, emphasizing the need for targeted mitigation strategies that account for both seasonal and site-specific factors. Our comprehensive statistical validation enhances the reliability of the results, providing a valuable contribution to the growing body of research on MPs pollution in urban environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn both the post-monsoon and summer seasons, fragments, fibres, and films (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) were the primary shapes of MPs identified, with fragments and fibres consistently dominating in both seasons. In the post-monsoon season, MPs exhibited a predominance of fibres (48%), fragments (39%), and films comprising (13%) of the total observed MPs. In contrast, fragments were the most prevalent shape during the summer season i.e., (55%), followed by fibres (36%), and films making up (9%) of the MPs composition (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). This seasonal variation highlights the dominance of fibres and fragments as the primary shapes of MPs present in the studied environment. This consistent presence indicates that the sources and processes contributing to MPs pollution might be similar across seasons. Fragments likely originate from the breakdown of larger plastic items, while fibres are predominantly released from synthetic textiles or clothes (Browne et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Periyasamy and Tehrani-Bagha \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The persistent presence of these shapes suggests that daily activities, such as the wear and tear of larger plastic products into fragments and the release of fibres, continued to be significant contributors of MPs pollution in street dust.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, in the majority of studies conducted in India to date, the predominant shapes identified have been either fragments or fibres. Our findings aligned with the previously published literature. This consistency highlights the reliability and validity of our results, confirming the established scientific evidence in the field. For example, a study from Nagpur, India, found that fibres were the predominant form of roadside suspended dust (Narmadha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In samples of MPs extracted from street dust in various locations of Varanasi, fibres of different colours and shapes were observed (Pandey et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, research conducted in Chennai, India, reported that fragments and fibres were the predominant shapes in street dust samples (Patchaiyappan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Another study conducted in Victoria, Australia, by Su et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) also identified fibres as the dominant shape in street dust. Moreover, in their respective atmospheric MPs investigations, Wright et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and Hasnatul et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) documented the prevalence of 92% fibrous MPs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSurface morphological analysis of microplastics (MPs)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM is recognized as a valuable technique for evaluating both the surface morphology and the degradation patterns of MPs. This technique offers high-resolution imaging of the selected MPs surface properties, providing qualitative information as depicted in (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). The observation of grooves, pits, and jagged edges in surface particles of SEM images indicated the occurrence of mechanical and chemical weathering phenomena (Ahmad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, the presence of these weathering features suggests that MPs are not fresh or pristine but have been present in the environment for some time. Over time, environmental exposure is anticipated to further break down MPs into nanoplastics (NPs), which pose a greater threat due to their smaller size (Sutkar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePolymer and chemical characterisation of microplastics (MPs)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe chemical composition of the suspected MPs collected from street dust samples was identified using FTIR. The spectral range for these polymer MPs typically ranges from (400 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e to 4000 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) (Kappler et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Pervez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This spectral range in FTIR spectroscopy was selected for studying all polymer types because it includes the fundamental vibrational modes of the majority of polymeric materials. This range thoroughly identifies and examines distinct polymers by detecting various bands corresponding to different functional groups and molecular bonds. This method enables a rapid and qualitative assessment of MPs in street dust by detecting distinct intensity peaks that correspond to these specific chemical bonds and functional groups (Gupta et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024a\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFTIR spectra analysis of representative samples revealed the dominance of polyethylene (PE) of both types i.e., high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) MPs. A comprehensive literature review was conducted to identify the characteristic peaks for these polymers. For PET, in our study, the characteristic peaks were identified at 1735, 1245, 1094, and 720 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, corresponding to the aromatic ester C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O stretch, aromatic ester C-C-O stretch, and aromatic ester O-C-C stretch, respectively (Jarosz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Amrutha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Nair and Perumal \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Polyethylene, including both HDPE and LDPE, exhibited prominent peaks at 2917, 2849, 1462, 1377, and 720 cm⁻\u0026sup1;. These peaks correspond to the CH₂ asymmetric stretch (C-H stretch), CH₂ symmetric stretch (C-H stretch), CH₂ bending, CH₃ umbrella mode, and CH₂ rocking vibrations (Nolasco et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Banik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Vignesh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Bhavsar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Sivalingam et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Polystyrene demonstrated distinctive peaks at 3080, 3025, 2923, 2850, 1600, 1492, and 698 cm⁻\u0026sup1;. These peaks are associated with the aromatic C-H stretch, CH₂ asymmetric and symmetric stretches, aromatic ring modes (C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C stretch within benzene), and aromatic ring bending vibrations (Jung et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Cowger et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Campanale at al. 2023; Banik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Villegas-Camacho et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). These identified polymers were majorly present in the street dust of Delhi, showing their strong association with urban anthropogenic activities, pollution sources, urban infrastructure, poor waste management practices, and inconsistent enforcement of single-use plastic bans. PE-type MPs primarily originate from packaging materials and plastic bags that are inappropriately discarded along the kerbside of the road. However, the widespread use of PET in storage containers, beverage bottles, and synthetic textiles draws attention to the growing demand in the city for lightweight, durable wrapping and increased production of synthetic fabrics. PS, commonly linked to disposable food plates, protective packaging, and Styrofoam products, highlights the significant contribution coming from the expansive food sector of Delhi, particularly the extensive use of single-use packaging by various restaurants and street food vendors. Existing studies on MPs in street dust have found similar results; for example, Pandey et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) identified PE as the most prevalent polymer in Varanasi, India, followed by PET, PS, PP, and PVC. Another study conducted at Nagpur on roadside suspended dust in India reported PE as the dominant polymer (Narmadha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The studies of Yadav et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and Mandal et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), conducted near the Himalayas and in West Bengal respectively, also identified PE as the dominant polymer. Similarly, O\u0026rsquo;Brien et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) observed PET as the dominant polymer in their study, along with significant contributions coming from PVC. Further, Asrin and Dipareza (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) also identified PET as the predominant polymer in their study. These studies collectively highlight the global prevalence of these polymers in urban environments and their strong association with human activities and waste management practices. Our findings are consistent with established literature, confirming the types of MPs present and their spectral characteristics. Overall, the FTIR analysis provides a precise approach for identifying MPs through verification of their chemical compositions, contributing to a detailed understanding of MPs pollution in the urban environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe presence of these common polymers in street dust highlights significant environmental contamination from everyday plastic usage. Due to their persistence, these MPs gradually break down into much smaller particles, infiltrating terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and posing significant ecological risks. Furthermore, their airborne nature raises concerns for human inhalation and associated health impacts. Continuous inputs from packaging, textiles, and improper plastic disposal lead to urban degradation, which in turn highlight the urgent need for sustainable alternatives, efficient waste management, and strict regulatory measures to control MPs pollution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis preliminary study represents the first crucial step in identifying MPs in street dust within the urban environment of Delhi. Our findings confirmed the widespread presence of MPs in street dust across various sampling sites in Delhi, highlighting the pervasive nature of MPs contamination in urban settings. This study highlights the urgent need for comprehensive mitigation strategies, as MPs in street dust pose significant risks to both environmental and human health. Future research in Delhi should also focus on MPs from other sampling types, such as dust fallout and suspended dust because all these mediums are linked and contribute to each other's composition. MPs in settled dust have the potential to become resuspended and, hence, enter the atmosphere. This resuspension poses a high risk of inhalation for humans and other living organisms. Additionally, MPs settling on soil and vegetation can adversely affect terrestrial ecosystems. This cyclical process, where suspended dust ultimately settles as street dust, which can again be resuspended back into the atmosphere demands an in-depth understanding of MPs across various sampling mediums.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur study focused on two seasons (post-monsoon and summer); future research needs to incorporate long-term sampling across all seasons. Extended monitoring will reveal temporal trends, seasonal variations, and the persistence of MPs, providing deep insights necessary for effective environmental management strategies. While this work provides initial insights concerning MPs in street dust of Delhi, there are still significant gaps in understanding MPs of other essential sampling types, such as atmospheric dust fallout and suspended dust. Future research should fill these gaps to completely understand the presence and distribution of MPs in the atmospheric dust of major Indian cities, such as Delhi. In addition, the limited research on atmospheric MPs in India, with diverse sampling methods, emphasizes the need for a standardized approach to assess MPs pollution accurately. Collaborative efforts involving researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders are crucial for developing holistic solutions to combat MPs pollution. By raising awareness and implementing effective measures, we can work towards creating a cleaner and healthier environment for present and future generations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eMPs \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Microplastics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eANOVA \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Analysis of variance\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCPCB \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Central Pollution Control Board\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFTIR \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHDPE \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;High-Density Polyethylene\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHPLC-MS \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Mass Spectroscopy\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKBr \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Potassium Bromide\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLDPE \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Low-Density Polyethylene\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNPL \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;National Physical Laboratory\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNPs \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Nano plastics\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePE \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Polyethylene\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePET \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Polyethylene Terephthalate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePOPs \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Persisted Organic Pollutants\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePP \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Polypropylene\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePS \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Polystyrene\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePVC \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Polyvinyl chloride\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSDG \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Sustainable Development Goals\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSEM \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Scanning Electron Microscopy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSEM-EDX \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZnCl\u003csub\u003e2 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003eZinc chloride\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are grateful to the Director and the Head of the Environmental Science and Biomedical Metrology Division (ESBMD) of CSIR-National Physical Laboratory for providing the necessary infrastructure and support for this study. Prerna Singh (SRF) also acknowledges the Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR) for facilitating her Ph.D. studies. The authors thankfully acknowledge Archana Rani, Senior Research Fellow, CSIR-NPL, New Delhi, for her assistance in the preparation of the map included in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was funded by the University Grants Commission (UGC), Government of India, through the Senior Research Fellowship (SRF) awarded to Prerna Singh, under the National Eligibility Test (UGC-NET) for Environmental Sciences (NTA Ref. No.: 210510064662), dated 12th March 2022. The fellowship is part of the financial assistance scheme supporting her Ph. D. studies. Manoj Kumar sincerely thanks the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF\u0026amp;CC) for their funding support (Project code GAP 181132), which contributed to the successful completion of this research.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrerna Singh:\u003c/strong\u003e conceptualization; methodology; sample collection; analysis and investigation of samples; writing—original draft; \u003cstrong\u003eManoj Kumar:\u003c/strong\u003e conceptualization; methodology plan; review and editing and supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe datasets developed during the current study will be available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial No.:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAfrin S, Uddin MK, Rahman MM (2020) Microplastics contamination in the soil from Urban Landfill site. 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Environ Int 134:105314. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105314\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.envint.2019.105314\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Delhi, Environment, Environmental pollution, Microplastics pollution, Polymers, Street dust","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5125128/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5125128/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMicroplastics (MPs) pollution is a serious environmental issue, particularly in heavily polluted cities of India. Despite its relevance, comprehensive studies on MPs contamination in street dust are lacking. This primary study aims to address this gap by investigating MPs in street dust across various areas of Delhi during two different seasons. Samples were collected from four distinct locations of Delhi: industrial (Okhla Phase 1), commercial (Connaught Place), institutional (CSIR-National Physical Laboratory), and landfill (Bhalswa) during the post-monsoon and summer seasons. MPs abundance in post-monsoon ranged from 4.44 ± 1.11 MPs\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100 g⁻¹ in institutional areas to 18.88 ± 4.00 MPs 100 g⁻¹ in commercial areas. During summer, MPs concentrations increased, with landfill areas showing the highest counts at 116.66 ± 18.95 MPs 100 g⁻¹ and institutional areas, the lowest at 35.55 ± 12.52 MPs 100 g⁻¹ of street dust. FTIR analysis identified polymers such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) whereas scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed various degradation patterns on the surface of MPs. Fragments and fibres were the most common shapes reported in both seasons. Our results confirmed widespread evidence of MPs contamination in the street dust of Delhi, posing significant environmental and health risks. Immediate action and collaboration are needed to develop effective mitigation strategies. This study provides a foundation for future research and interventions to address MPs pollution in urban environments.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Microplastic Pollution in the street dust of Delhi: A study on seasonal variations","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-06 06:56:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5125128/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-04-25T09:07:44+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-04-25T07:31:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2025-04-25T04:24:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2025-04-24T00:24:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"decision","content":"Minor Revision","date":"2024-12-13T03:08:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e8433c0f-e9f5-4bc1-b39a-825dae24abae","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 6th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-07T07:14:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5125128","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-025-36753-1","journal":{"identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research"},"publishedOn":"2025-07-17 16:05:21","publishedOnDateReadable":"July 17th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-06 06:56:00","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11356-025-36753-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-025-36753-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5125128","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5125128","identity":"rs-5125128","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}