Climate Change and Gendered Vulnerabilities: Women Adaptation Pathways in Laikipia North’s Semi-arid Pastoral Systems

Climate Change and Gendered Vulnerabilities: Women Adaptation Pathways in Laikipia North’s Semi-arid Pastoral Systems | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Climate Change and Gendered Vulnerabilities: Women Adaptation Pathways in Laikipia North’s Semi-arid Pastoral Systems Kelvin Kariuki Muli, Elvin Nyukuri This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8829935/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Climate change continues to exacerbate existing social and economic inequalities, with women in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) experiencing disproportionately severe impacts. This study examines the gendered socioeconomic impacts of climate change on women’s livelihoods and documents women’s adaptation experiences in Mukogodo East Ward, Laikipia North Sub-County, Kenya. Grounded in Feminist Political Ecology, the study employs a mixed-methods design combining household surveys (n = 60), focus group discussions, semi-structured interviews, and key informant interviews. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, while qualitative data were subjected to thematic analysis. Results reveal that climate change has had profound direct and indirect effects on women’s livelihoods, including reduced rainfall (90%), prolonged droughts (86.7%), food insecurity (85%), water scarcity (83%), and livestock losses (75%). Indirect impacts manifest through constrained access to land, education, and decision-making spaces, reinforcing women’s vulnerability. Despite these challenges, women demonstrate considerable adaptive capacity through the mobilisation of traditional ecological knowledge, livelihood diversification, collective savings schemes, seasonal mobility, and engagement in sustainable environmental practices such as soil conservation, water harvesting, and tree planting. The findings underscore women’s central yet under-recognised role in sustaining household and community resilience under climate stress. The study concludes that climate adaptation policies and interventions in pastoral ASAL contexts must move beyond technocratic approaches to explicitly recognise, support, and institutionalise women’s knowledge systems and adaptive strategies. Gender-responsive climate action is essential not only for social equity but also for enhancing the effectiveness and sustainability of local adaptation efforts. Climate change Feminist political ecology Gender and adaptation Women livelihoods Pastoralism Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction Climate change represents one of the most pressing global challenges of the twenty-first century, reshaping ecological systems, economic structures, and social relations across regions (IPCC, 2022 ). While climate impacts are universal, they are neither socially neutral nor evenly distributed. A growing body of scholarship demonstrates that climate change interacts with existing inequalities related to gender, class, ethnicity, and geography, producing differentiated vulnerabilities and capacities to adapt (Denton, 2002 ; Ribot, 2014 ; UN Women, 2019 ). In the Global South, and particularly within arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs), women are disproportionately affected due to their socially ascribed roles, limited access to resources, and systemic exclusion from decision-making processes (Agarwal, 2010 ; Meinzen-Dick et al., 2014 ). Pastoral and agro-pastoral systems are among the most climate-sensitive livelihood systems globally. These systems depend heavily on climate-regulated resources such as water, pasture, and livestock health, rendering them highly vulnerable to rainfall variability, prolonged droughts, and ecosystem degradation (Homewood et al., 2009; Thornton et al., 2018 ). In East Africa, recurrent droughts, rising temperatures, and increasing climate unpredictability have intensified livelihood insecurity, food shortages, and resource-based conflicts (IGAD, 2021). Within these contexts, women occupy a paradoxical position: they are central to household survival and environmental stewardship, yet remain structurally marginalised within governance and resource-control institutions (Carr, 2008 ; Ampaire et al., 2020 ). Globally, women account for approximately 43% of the agricultural labour force and up to 80% in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, where they play critical roles in food production, water management, and household provisioning (FAO, 2019 ). Despite this centrality, women’s access to land, credit, climate information, and extension services remains systematically constrained (Deere & León, 2001 ; Huyer, 2016 ). These inequalities directly shape women’s exposure and sensitivity to climate risks, as well as their capacity to respond effectively. Empirical studies from Africa and Asia consistently show that women experience greater food insecurity, heavier labour burdens, and heightened health risks under climate stress (Perez et al., 2015 ; Mude et al., 2020 ). At the same time, women are not merely passive victims of climate change. Feminist Political Ecology (FPE) scholarship highlights women’s agency, knowledge, and adaptive practices, emphasising that women actively negotiate environmental change through everyday practices, collective action, and the mobilisation of indigenous knowledge systems (Rocheleau et al., 1996 ; Agarwal, 2010 ). Traditional ecological knowledge, often transmitted intergenerationally through women, plays a critical role in climate forecasting, seed selection, livestock management, and ecosystem conservation in many rural contexts (Berkes et al., 2000 ; Davis & Rojas, 2016 ). However, such knowledge systems remain largely invisible within formal climate adaptation frameworks, which tend to privilege technocratic and externally driven solutions (Tschakert & Machado, 2012 ). Kenya exemplifies the gendered nature of climate vulnerability in ASAL contexts. Over 80% of the country’s landmass is classified as arid or semi-arid, with livelihoods predominantly dependent on pastoralism and rain-fed agriculture (GoK, 2020). Recurrent droughts, including the severe 2016–2017 and 2020–2023 drought episodes, have resulted in massive livestock losses, declining household incomes, and increased reliance on humanitarian assistance (KNBS, 2022 ). In counties such as Laikipia, climate stress intersects with land tenure inequalities, conservation pressures, and historical marginalisation of pastoral communities, further intensifying livelihood precarity (Mutua et al., 2019). Laikipia North Sub-County is characterised by semi-arid ecological conditions, pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihoods, and strong gendered divisions of labour. Women are primarily responsible for water collection, food preparation, small livestock management, and household-level natural resource use. Climate-induced environmental changes have significantly increased the time, labour, and physical risks associated with these roles (Mastrorillo et al., 2016 ). Yet, women’s voices remain marginal in climate-related decision-making, and their adaptive strategies are rarely documented in policy-relevant research. Existing literature on climate change in Kenya has largely focused on biophysical impacts, economic losses, and institutional responses, with limited attention to gender-differentiated experiences at the local level. Where gender is considered, analyses often remain descriptive, failing to interrogate the power relations that shape access to resources, knowledge, and adaptive capacity (Kabubo-Mariara, 2009; Otieno & Omwenga, 2016). There is a notable gap in empirically grounded, gender-disaggregated studies that centre women’s lived experiences, particularly within pastoral ASAL contexts such as Laikipia North. This study addresses this gap by examining the socioeconomic impacts of climate change on women’s livelihoods and documenting women’s adaptation experiences in Mukogodo East Ward. Specifically, it addresses two objectives: (1) to assess the direct and indirect effects of climate change on women’s livelihoods, including access to resources, education, and decision-making processes; and (2) to examine women’s adaptation experiences, with a focus on traditional knowledge, resilience strategies, and contributions to sustainable practices. By grounding the analysis in Feminist Political Ecology, the study provides a nuanced understanding of how gendered power relations shape both vulnerability and adaptation, offering insights for more equitable and effective climate policies in ASAL regions. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Site Description The study was conducted in Mukogodo East Ward, located in Laikipia North Sub-County, Laikipia County, Kenya as shown in Fig. 1 . Laikipia County lies between latitudes 0°18′ and 0°51′ North and longitudes 36°11′ and 37°24′ East, covering approximately 9,462 km². Mukogodo East Ward comprises four locations; Ipolei, Mumonyot (Mukogodo), Makurian, and Sieku and is characterised by semi-arid climatic conditions, recurrent droughts, and high dependence on pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihoods. Annual rainfall is low and highly variable, while temperatures are relatively high, intensifying evapotranspiration and water scarcity. The population is predominantly pastoralist, with women playing central roles in household sustenance and natural resource management. 2.2 Data Types and Sources The study adopted a mixed-methods approach, integrating quantitative and qualitative data. Primary quantitative data were collected through structured household questionnaires administered to 60 respondents. Qualitative data were generated through 20 semi-structured interviews with women, four focus group discussions involving women’s groups, and eight key informant interviews with local leaders, government officials, and representatives of civil society organisations. Secondary data were obtained from policy documents, peer-reviewed literature, government reports, and climate-related datasets relevant to Kenya and Laikipia County. 2.3 Data Processing and Analysis Quantitative data were coded and analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies and percentages, were used to summarise socioeconomic characteristics and climate impacts. Qualitative data were transcribed verbatim and analysed thematically using an inductive coding approach. Themes related to livelihood impacts, adaptation strategies, and traditional knowledge were identified and triangulated across data sources to enhance validity and reliability. 3. Results 3.1 Distribution of Respondents by locations and villages The purpose of the study was to determine the respondents' geographic and village distribution. This was required in order to ensure that the communities included in the study were fairly represented. Table 1 Distribution of Respondents by locations Ward Location Frequency Percentage Mukogodo East Ipolei 12 20 Mumonyot (Mukogodo) 16 27 Makurian 17 28 Sieku 15 25 Total 60 100 Ipolei, Mumonyot (Mukogodo), Makurian, and Sieku are the four locations where the population of Mukogodo East Ward of Laikipia County is distributed, as shown in Table 1 above. In order to create a study sample of 60 respondent households, the questionnaires were distributed as follows: Ipolei 12, Mumonyot 16, Makurian 17, and Sieku 15. Samples were taken from Makurian and Ipolei villages in Mukogodo, which had the highest and lowest household populations, respectively. The 60 responders were dispersed across four locations within Mukogodo ward, as shown in Table 1 . The study's findings are therefore indicative of the community. 3.2 Distribution of Respondents by gender Table 2 Distribution of respondents by gender Gender Frequency Percent Male 22 36.7 Female 38 63.3 Total 60 100.0 Table 2 shows that 38 women, or 63.3% of the total respondents, were interviewed, compared to 22 men, or 36.7% of the respondents. According to the Kenyan constitution, both sexes were well represented in each case, with at least 30% of each gender present (Gok, 2010a). As a result, the information gathered represented the views of every gender in the sampled region. Because gender bias was reduced, this provides accurate information on the effects of climate change and adaptive responses in the sample area. Major decisions about climate change adaptations and strategies aid in the community's mitigation of climate change in this largely female (63.3%) community. Contextualizing the study's findings requires an understanding of the respondents' demographic profile. The respondents' dispersion throughout Mukogodo East points to a representative sample that captures the range of experiences in the neighborhood. The fact that women made up the majority of responders (63.3%) emphasizes how important women are to resource management and climate change adaptation. This gender distribution is consistent with earlier research that highlights the importance of women viewpoints in discussions about climate change (Mastrorillo et al., 2016 ; Nhamo et al., 2019 ). 3.3 Distribution of respondents by age Table 3 Distribution of respondents by age Age Frequency Percentage (%) 15–25 7 11.7 26–35 13 21.7 36–44 20 33.3 45–54 9 15 55–64 6 10 65 and Above 5 8.3 Total 60 100 The different age groups of the respondents in the Mukogodo community are shown in Table 3 above. The fact that the majority of responders (33.3%) were in the 36–44 age range shows that the data was reliable and mature. Grandparents who served as the head of the household made up 8.3% of the respondents. The 10% of respondents who are over 55 make up an important demographic since they are the elders who provide advice on past climate change events and adaptations. This age group frequently exhibits maturity and experience, which offers important insights into past climatic events and their socioeconomic effects. The 8.3% of people 65 and older in the community are elders, which highlights the value of traditional knowledge and intergenerational learning in adjusting to changing environmental conditions (Agarwal, 2010 ; Davis & Rojas, 2016 ). 3.4 Distribution of respondents by educational level As shown in Fig. 2 , the majority of respondents have little education, with only 6.7% having completed secondary school or higher. 53.3% of them have no formal education, while a tiny minority of 10% have only completed primary school or less. Since most of the respondents lacked even a basic primary education, community members with at least four levels of education were used to collect data and communicate verbally with the respondents in their homes. As a result, the primary data collection period was extended to four months. With only 6.7% of respondents having finished secondary school and 53.3% having no formal education, the trend in respondents' educational attainment is alarming. Women capacity to advocate for their needs in climate governance is hampered by low educational attainment, which is a major obstacle to information and resource access (Kant & Ghosh, 2019 ). Furthermore, as evidenced by the significant reliance on enumerators with higher levels of education for data collection, women participation in community decision-making processes is frequently limited by limited literacy. Climate change's detrimental effects on education, especially for girls, have become a major concern. Research showing that climate-induced shocks increase school dropout rates is consistent with the finding that 75% of girls miss school to fetch water and firewood (Gichuki et al., 2018 ). Additionally, by forcing families to put short-term financial survival ahead of educational attainment, the 60% correlation between drought and early marriages demonstrates how climate change reinforces gender inequality (Wiggins et al., 2018 ). 3.5 Direct Socioeconomic Impacts of Climate Change on Women’s Livelihoods Findings in Table 4 indicate that climate variability and extreme weather events have significantly altered livelihood systems in Mukogodo East Ward, with women bearing a disproportionate share of the impacts. The most frequently reported climate-related changes included reduced and erratic rainfall (90%), prolonged drought periods (86.7%), and increased frequency of dry spells (81.7%). These changes have directly affected water availability, pasture productivity, and livestock health, which form the backbone of household livelihoods in the study area. Water scarcity emerged as a critical challenge, with 83% of respondents reporting longer distances and increased time spent collecting water compared to a decade ago. Women reported walking between 8 and 15 kilometres daily during peak dry seasons, significantly increasing their labour burden and reducing time available for income-generating activities and childcare. Similar patterns have been documented in other ASAL regions of Kenya and East Africa, where climate-induced water stress has intensified women’s unpaid labour and physical vulnerability (Mastrorillo et al., 2016 ; UN Women, 2019 ). Livestock losses were also pronounced, with 75% of respondents reporting significant reductions in herd sizes due to drought-related mortality. Women noted that the loss of small livestock such as goats and sheep assets traditionally managed by women—had direct implications for household food security and access to cash income. Reduced milk production further compounded nutritional insecurity, particularly for children and pregnant women. These findings align with studies across pastoral systems in East Africa that link drought-induced livestock losses to heightened gendered food insecurity (Thornton et al., 2018 ; Mude et al., 2020 ). Food insecurity was reported by 85% of households, with respondents citing reduced crop yields, declining livestock productivity, and increased food prices. Women reported coping by reducing meal frequency, prioritising children’s consumption, and relying on less nutritious food options during prolonged drought periods. Such gendered coping strategies have been widely documented in climate-vulnerable contexts, where women absorb shocks through nutritional sacrifice and increased care labour (Perez et al., 2015 ; CARE, 2020 ). Table 4 Direct Impacts of Climate Change on Livelihoods Climate Impact Frequency Percentage (%) Decreased rainfall 54 90% Prolonged drought periods 52 86.70% Food insecurity 51 85% Water scarcity 48 80% Livestock loss 45 75% 3.6 Indirect Impacts: Access to Resources, Education, and Decision-Making 3.6.1 Resource Access Constraints The findings on Fig. 3 show that women in Mukogodo East face significant resource challenges. Limited access to clean water (83%) and grazing pasture (78%) highlights daily hardships. Firewood scarcity affects 70%, increasing household burdens. Additionally, 60% lack land ownership rights, restricting economic independence and resilience. These resource constraints deepen women vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. With 90% reporting less rainfall and 86.7% experiencing extended drought, the results show that women in Mukogodo East are directly impacted by climate change. These results are in line with previous research that emphasizes how vulnerable pastoralist communities are to changes in the climate (Wiggins et al., 2018 ; Oxfam, 2018). Food insecurity is exacerbated by the direct effects of climate change; according to 85% of respondents, household nutrition is insufficient. Research by the FAO (2018), which highlights how climate shocks impair agricultural productivity and worsen hunger in rural households, is consistent with the link between climate change and food insecurity. According to the study, women in Mukogodo East experience major indirect effects from climate change. Limited access to clean water (83%) and grazing pasture (78%) highlights the daily hardships that women endure. These resource shortages increase susceptibility to climate change, supporting research showing that women are frequently the most impacted by resource scarcity (Deere & León, 2001 ; Oxfam, 2018). Women who are responsible for providing for their families face severe challenges as a result of the previously mentioned resource constraints. Particularly harmful is the 60% lack of land ownership rights, which limits resilience and economic independence (Agarwal, 2010 ; Huyer, 2016 ). According to earlier research, giving women secure land rights improves their ability to adapt to climate change and increases community resilience overall (Nhamo et al., 2019 ). In order to promote women economic independence and decision-making power in their homes and communities, these obstacles must be removed. 3.6.2 Climate Change and Access to Education The results in Table 5 highlights the adverse effects of climate change on girls' education in Mukogodo East. Most people (75%) agreed that girls skip school to get firewood and water. Furthermore, 70% of respondents cited income loss as a reason for dropping out of school, and 60% connected drought to early marriages. There are gaps in targeted interventions, as only 33% of respondents thought drought-response programs sufficiently supported girls' education. Table 5 Climate Change and Access to Education Statement Agree (%) Disagree (%) Girls miss school to help with water/firewood collection 75% 25% Drought leads to early marriages 60% 40% Lack of income during drought leads to school dropout 70% 30% Drought-response programs support girls' education 33% 67% 3.6.3 Women Participation in Climate-Related Decision-Making The findings in Table 6 indicate that women involvement in climate-related decision-making is low in Mukogodo East. While 25% are occasionally consulted, only 13.3% are actively involved. Sadly, 61.7% said they were completely uninvolved. Because women perspectives and needs are not adequately represented in climate adaptation strategies, local governance and resilience-building initiatives are less inclusive and effective. Table 6 Women Participation in Climate-Related Decision-Making Level of Involvement Frequency Percentage (%) Actively involved 8 13.30% Occasionally consulted 15 25% Not involved at all 37 61.70% Women participation in formal decision-making spaces related to climate adaptation and natural resource governance remained limited. Although community meetings and local institutions existed, women reported barriers to meaningful participation, including cultural norms, time constraints, and limited access to information. Consequently, adaptation interventions often failed to reflect women’s priorities and lived realities, reinforcing maladaptive outcomes. 3.7 Women Adaptation Experiences and Resilience Strategies Despite heightened vulnerability, women in Mukogodo East Ward demonstrated significant adaptive agency as shown in Table 7 . Livelihood diversification emerged as a key strategy, with women engaging in petty trade, beadwork, charcoal production, and small-scale crop cultivation where water access permitted. Women’s savings and credit groups (table banking) played a crucial role in buffering climate shocks by enabling access to small loans, collective risk-sharing, and emergency support. Traditional ecological knowledge constituted a central pillar of women’s adaptation practices. Respondents described using indigenous indicators such as plant phenology, animal behaviour, and wind patterns to anticipate rainfall variability and guide livelihood decisions. Women also employed traditional water conservation practices, including seasonal water rationing, protection of water sources, and the use of indigenous storage containers. These practices enhanced household resilience in the absence of reliable formal climate information. To deal with the effects of climate change, the women of Mukogodo East use a range of resilience techniques. Their propensity to cut back on household consumption during drought (83.3%) demonstrates their resourcefulness and adaptability. As families collaborate to strengthen their financial resilience, 80% of participants in group saving plans serve as an example of communal solidarity (Wiggins et al., 2018 ). Table 7 Women Resilience Strategies Strategy Frequency Percentage (%) Diversifying income sources (e.g., beadwork, charcoal, selling milk) 45 75% Group saving schemes (chamas) 48 80% Reducing household consumption during drought 50 83.30% Seasonal migration with livestock 30 50% Environmental conservation activities were also prominent. Women actively participated in tree planting, soil conservation, and rangeland rehabilitation initiatives, often through community-based organisations and women’s groups. Such practices not only contributed to ecosystem restoration but also strengthened social cohesion and collective adaptive capacity. 4. Discussion This study provides robust empirical evidence that climate change operates as a gender-differentiated stressor in semi-arid pastoral systems, intensifying pre-existing social, economic, and institutional inequalities. The findings from Mukogodo East Ward demonstrate that women experience climate impacts not only through direct livelihood disruptions—such as water scarcity, livestock losses, and food insecurity but also through indirect pathways that constrain their adaptive capacity, including limited access to productive resources, education, and decision-making power. These results strongly align with Feminist Political Ecology (FPE) perspectives, which conceptualise vulnerability and adaptation as outcomes of historically embedded power relations rather than solely biophysical exposure (Rocheleau et al., 1996 ; Agarwal, 2010 ). Comparative studies across pastoral and agro-pastoral regions of East Africa reveal strikingly similar patterns. In northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia, recurrent droughts have been shown to disproportionately increase women’s labour burdens, particularly in water collection, caregiving, and subsistence provisioning (Carr, 2008 ; Tschakert et al., 2016). Studies among Borana pastoralists in Ethiopia demonstrate that women often walk significantly longer distances for water and firewood during drought periods, mirroring the experiences documented in Mukogodo East Ward (Flintan et al., 2019 ). Such gendered labour intensification is rarely captured in macro-level climate assessments, yet it has profound implications for women’s health, time poverty, and economic opportunities. Livestock losses emerged as a critical driver of gendered vulnerability in this study, particularly given women’s reliance on small livestock for food and income. Similar findings have been reported in Ethiopia’s Afar and Somali regions, where drought-induced livestock mortality disproportionately undermines women’s asset bases and erodes household nutritional security (Mude et al., 2020 ). In the Sahel, studies from Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso similarly show that women’s control over small ruminants is central to household resilience, yet climate shocks frequently strip women of these assets without corresponding compensation or support (Djoudi & Brockhaus, 2011 ; Sendzimir et al., 2011 ). Food insecurity remains one of the most gendered outcomes of climate change globally. The coping strategies identified in this study meal reduction, prioritisation of children’s consumption, and reliance on less nutritious foods are consistent with findings from South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, where women disproportionately absorb food shortages through nutritional sacrifice (Perez et al., 2015 ; Rao et al., 2019 ). In Bangladesh and India, for example, climate-induced crop failures have been shown to exacerbate intra-household food inequalities, with women consuming fewer calories and lower-quality foods during crisis periods (Sugden et al., 2014 ). These patterns underscore the intersection between climate change and entrenched gender norms governing care, sacrifice, and responsibility. Indirect impacts related to education and decision-making further compound women’s vulnerability. The withdrawal of girls from school during drought periods, as observed in this study, reflects a broader regional trend in ASAL contexts where climate shocks disrupt educational trajectories and reinforce intergenerational poverty (UNDP, 2021 ). Evidence from Ethiopia, Chad, and South Sudan indicates that climate-induced displacement and livelihood loss disproportionately affect girls’ education, increasing risks of early marriage and long-term marginalisation (Plan International, 2019 ). Such outcomes highlight the long temporal horizon of climate impacts, extending well beyond immediate livelihood losses. Despite these vulnerabilities, the study strongly challenges deficit-based narratives that portray women solely as victims of climate change. Women in Mukogodo East Ward demonstrated considerable adaptive agency through livelihood diversification, collective action, and the mobilisation of traditional ecological knowledge. These findings resonate with studies from Ethiopia, Nepal, and India that document women’s central role in sustaining household resilience through informal economies, savings groups, and social networks (Agarwal, 2010 ; Nightingale, 2011 ). Women’s savings and credit groups, in particular, function as critical informal safety nets in contexts where formal financial services and state support are limited. Traditional ecological knowledge emerged as a cornerstone of women’s adaptation strategies in this study. Indigenous indicators related to rainfall patterns, vegetation dynamics, and animal behaviour enabled women to anticipate climatic changes and adjust livelihood practices accordingly. Similar reliance on traditional knowledge has been documented among pastoralist women in Ethiopia’s Borana zone, the Sahel, and parts of South Asia, where such knowledge complements or substitutes formal climate information systems (Berkes et al., 2000 ; Davis & Rojas, 2016 ). However, despite its demonstrated value, traditional knowledge remains marginalised within formal climate adaptation planning, which often prioritises externally generated, technocratic solutions. Women’s engagement in environmental conservation activities further illustrates the interconnectedness of gender, livelihoods, and ecosystem sustainability. Tree planting, soil conservation, and rangeland management practices documented in this study align with findings from Kenya, Tanzania, and Niger, where women’s collective action has contributed to landscape restoration and improved adaptive capacity (Pretty & Ward, 2001 ; Westermann et al., 2005 ). These practices not only enhance ecological resilience but also strengthen social cohesion, a critical yet underappreciated dimension of climate adaptation. At the policy level, the findings reveal persistent gaps between gender-responsive climate policy rhetoric and on-the-ground implementation. While Kenya has made notable commitments to gender mainstreaming in climate policy, including through the National Climate Change Action Plan and National Adaptation Plan, women’s meaningful participation remains limited. Similar implementation gaps have been identified across Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where gender is often treated as an add-on rather than a transformative lens (Arora-Jonsson, 2011 ; Huyer, 2016 ). Addressing these gaps requires structural reforms that enhance women’s access to resources, institutional representation, and decision-making power. Overall, this study contributes to interdisciplinary climate change scholarship by providing empirically grounded insights into the gendered dynamics of vulnerability and adaptation in pastoral ASAL contexts. By centring women’s lived experiences and knowledge systems, it advances calls for more inclusive, equitable, and contextually grounded climate adaptation strategies. 5. Conclusion This study demonstrates that climate change exerts profound gendered socioeconomic impacts on women’s livelihoods in Mukogodo East Ward, Laikipia North Sub-County. Women experience heightened vulnerability due to direct climate stresses and entrenched structural inequalities. Despite these challenges, women exhibit substantial adaptive capacity through traditional knowledge, livelihood diversification, collective action, and environmental stewardship. Recognising and institutionalising these practices is essential for effective and equitable climate adaptation in ASAL contexts. 6. Limitations of the Study The study is limited by its relatively small sample size and focus on a single ward, which may constrain generalisability. Additionally, reliance on self-reported data may introduce recall bias. Future research could adopt longitudinal designs and comparative analyses across multiple ASAL regions to deepen understanding of gendered climate adaptation dynamics. Declarations Data availability Statement The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author. Ethics Statement In compliance with Kenya's national research regulations, this study was approved by the National Commission for Science, Technology & Innovation (NACOSTI). Local officials, such as chiefs and village elders, were notified about the study prior to data collection and, following a thorough briefing, gave their consent as well. The Authors’ Contribution Declaration Kelvin Muli designed, coordinated this research and drafted the manuscript. Kelvin Muli and Elvin Nyukuri participated in conceiving of the study, data collection and data analysis. Elvin Nyukuri participated in research coordination, data collection and data analysis. The authors read and approved the final manuscript. Funding declaration Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD). Conflict of interest The authors affirm that this research was carried out without any commercial or financial ties that could be perceived as a potential conflict of interest. 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World Development , 33(11), 1783–1799. Wiggins, S., et al. (2018). Women and Climate Change: Impacts on Livelihoods and Well-Being. Development Studies Research, 5(1), 12-23. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8829935","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":589172561,"identity":"7df4de86-3ba3-45c1-b826-4423f4b59c89","order_by":0,"name":"Kelvin Kariuki Muli","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7klEQVRIie3PMYrCQBTG8Tc8GJsxthOC6xWUVILiVRwEK71DJPBssrvtWnmLYGkIaOMNptHKNnZRLDaJsLCFiXaC8y+Gr3i/YgBMphdMAnowzIaFjWOaZIPXKgm7EY4C7J9iPELyOAhwRL6qiD2fkTysQkW1+trtXcKWhcCS0+Q+cUREUu20IrSGo+mX7hAC2ovwPvmQym8rygm042mgWTY41stI6/BHOn430INK4kg229+IcBHSwpYTO1AFcQn5mH16ekTI/NK/yG28js6km9+NeAPpVfeXcz9KTiXkf4yK13v0Pu/6zLHJZDK9S7+EJk6nGZZW0gAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nairobi","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kelvin","middleName":"Kariuki","lastName":"Muli","suffix":""},{"id":589172562,"identity":"7a5b8c32-9814-4089-8329-2d7df0df023a","order_by":1,"name":"Elvin Nyukuri","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nairobi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Elvin","middleName":"","lastName":"Nyukuri","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-09 11:39:27","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8829935/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8829935/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102381109,"identity":"2b137fbc-8df3-4aa7-ad82-3da33b1e8022","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 06:52:30","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":177815,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of study area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8829935/v1/3030877f3cd47b7b3a8dc809.png"},{"id":102381111,"identity":"f77f9c37-ecac-4e4d-9577-5a607357d863","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 06:52:31","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":29439,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of respondents by education level\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8829935/v1/676a27042afe9398fd3b9385.png"},{"id":102381110,"identity":"05e51c4c-59a2-4360-a5d2-390a25d92b76","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 06:52:30","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22895,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResource Access Constraints\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8829935/v1/0008ba792ec59da5db08dcac.png"},{"id":103507521,"identity":"2aeb855d-7033-4272-a767-7cb69b6f9efe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-26 13:41:44","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1070456,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8829935/v1/449efce4-1523-4d33-a7a1-06d0cdbe234d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eClimate Change and Gendered Vulnerabilities: Women Adaptation Pathways in Laikipia North’s Semi-arid Pastoral Systems\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eClimate change represents one of the most pressing global challenges of the twenty-first century, reshaping ecological systems, economic structures, and social relations across regions (IPCC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). While climate impacts are universal, they are neither socially neutral nor evenly distributed. A growing body of scholarship demonstrates that climate change interacts with existing inequalities related to gender, class, ethnicity, and geography, producing differentiated vulnerabilities and capacities to adapt (Denton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Ribot, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; UN Women, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In the Global South, and particularly within arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs), women are disproportionately affected due to their socially ascribed roles, limited access to resources, and systemic exclusion from decision-making processes (Agarwal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Meinzen-Dick et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePastoral and agro-pastoral systems are among the most climate-sensitive livelihood systems globally. These systems depend heavily on climate-regulated resources such as water, pasture, and livestock health, rendering them highly vulnerable to rainfall variability, prolonged droughts, and ecosystem degradation (Homewood et al., 2009; Thornton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In East Africa, recurrent droughts, rising temperatures, and increasing climate unpredictability have intensified livelihood insecurity, food shortages, and resource-based conflicts (IGAD, 2021). Within these contexts, women occupy a paradoxical position: they are central to household survival and environmental stewardship, yet remain structurally marginalised within governance and resource-control institutions (Carr, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Ampaire et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobally, women account for approximately 43% of the agricultural labour force and up to 80% in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, where they play critical roles in food production, water management, and household provisioning (FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Despite this centrality, women\u0026rsquo;s access to land, credit, climate information, and extension services remains systematically constrained (Deere \u0026amp; Le\u0026oacute;n, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Huyer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). These inequalities directly shape women\u0026rsquo;s exposure and sensitivity to climate risks, as well as their capacity to respond effectively. Empirical studies from Africa and Asia consistently show that women experience greater food insecurity, heavier labour burdens, and heightened health risks under climate stress (Perez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Mude et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the same time, women are not merely passive victims of climate change. Feminist Political Ecology (FPE) scholarship highlights women\u0026rsquo;s agency, knowledge, and adaptive practices, emphasising that women actively negotiate environmental change through everyday practices, collective action, and the mobilisation of indigenous knowledge systems (Rocheleau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Agarwal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Traditional ecological knowledge, often transmitted intergenerationally through women, plays a critical role in climate forecasting, seed selection, livestock management, and ecosystem conservation in many rural contexts (Berkes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Davis \u0026amp; Rojas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). However, such knowledge systems remain largely invisible within formal climate adaptation frameworks, which tend to privilege technocratic and externally driven solutions (Tschakert \u0026amp; Machado, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKenya exemplifies the gendered nature of climate vulnerability in ASAL contexts. Over 80% of the country\u0026rsquo;s landmass is classified as arid or semi-arid, with livelihoods predominantly dependent on pastoralism and rain-fed agriculture (GoK, 2020). Recurrent droughts, including the severe 2016\u0026ndash;2017 and 2020\u0026ndash;2023 drought episodes, have resulted in massive livestock losses, declining household incomes, and increased reliance on humanitarian assistance (KNBS, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In counties such as Laikipia, climate stress intersects with land tenure inequalities, conservation pressures, and historical marginalisation of pastoral communities, further intensifying livelihood precarity (Mutua et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaikipia North Sub-County is characterised by semi-arid ecological conditions, pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihoods, and strong gendered divisions of labour. Women are primarily responsible for water collection, food preparation, small livestock management, and household-level natural resource use. Climate-induced environmental changes have significantly increased the time, labour, and physical risks associated with these roles (Mastrorillo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Yet, women\u0026rsquo;s voices remain marginal in climate-related decision-making, and their adaptive strategies are rarely documented in policy-relevant research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExisting literature on climate change in Kenya has largely focused on biophysical impacts, economic losses, and institutional responses, with limited attention to gender-differentiated experiences at the local level. Where gender is considered, analyses often remain descriptive, failing to interrogate the power relations that shape access to resources, knowledge, and adaptive capacity (Kabubo-Mariara, 2009; Otieno \u0026amp; Omwenga, 2016). There is a notable gap in empirically grounded, gender-disaggregated studies that centre women\u0026rsquo;s lived experiences, particularly within pastoral ASAL contexts such as Laikipia North.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study addresses this gap by examining the socioeconomic impacts of climate change on women\u0026rsquo;s livelihoods and documenting women\u0026rsquo;s adaptation experiences in Mukogodo East Ward. Specifically, it addresses two objectives: (1) to assess the direct and indirect effects of climate change on women\u0026rsquo;s livelihoods, including access to resources, education, and decision-making processes; and (2) to examine women\u0026rsquo;s adaptation experiences, with a focus on traditional knowledge, resilience strategies, and contributions to sustainable practices. By grounding the analysis in Feminist Political Ecology, the study provides a nuanced understanding of how gendered power relations shape both vulnerability and adaptation, offering insights for more equitable and effective climate policies in ASAL regions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Site Description\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Mukogodo East Ward, located in Laikipia North Sub-County, Laikipia County, Kenya as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Laikipia County lies between latitudes 0\u0026deg;18\u0026prime; and 0\u0026deg;51\u0026prime; North and longitudes 36\u0026deg;11\u0026prime; and 37\u0026deg;24\u0026prime; East, covering approximately 9,462 km\u0026sup2;. Mukogodo East Ward comprises four locations; Ipolei, Mumonyot (Mukogodo), Makurian, and Sieku and is characterised by semi-arid climatic conditions, recurrent droughts, and high dependence on pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihoods. Annual rainfall is low and highly variable, while temperatures are relatively high, intensifying evapotranspiration and water scarcity. The population is predominantly pastoralist, with women playing central roles in household sustenance and natural resource management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Data Types and Sources\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study adopted a mixed-methods approach, integrating quantitative and qualitative data. Primary quantitative data were collected through structured household questionnaires administered to 60 respondents. Qualitative data were generated through 20 semi-structured interviews with women, four focus group discussions involving women\u0026rsquo;s groups, and eight key informant interviews with local leaders, government officials, and representatives of civil society organisations. Secondary data were obtained from policy documents, peer-reviewed literature, government reports, and climate-related datasets relevant to Kenya and Laikipia County.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Data Processing and Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative data were coded and analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies and percentages, were used to summarise socioeconomic characteristics and climate impacts. Qualitative data were transcribed verbatim and analysed thematically using an inductive coding approach. Themes related to livelihood impacts, adaptation strategies, and traditional knowledge were identified and triangulated across data sources to enhance validity and reliability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Distribution of Respondents by locations and villages\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe purpose of the study was to determine the respondents' geographic and village distribution. This was required in order to ensure that the communities included in the study were fairly represented.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistribution of Respondents by locations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWard\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMukogodo East\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIpolei\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMumonyot (Mukogodo)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMakurian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSieku\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e60\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIpolei, Mumonyot (Mukogodo), Makurian, and Sieku are the four locations where the population of Mukogodo East Ward of Laikipia County is distributed, as shown in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e above. In order to create a study sample of 60 respondent households, the questionnaires were distributed as follows: Ipolei 12, Mumonyot 16, Makurian 17, and Sieku 15. Samples were taken from Makurian and Ipolei villages in Mukogodo, which had the highest and lowest household populations, respectively. The 60 responders were dispersed across four locations within Mukogodo ward, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The study's findings are therefore indicative of the community.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Distribution of Respondents by gender\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistribution of respondents by gender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e60\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100.0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows that 38 women, or 63.3% of the total respondents, were interviewed, compared to 22 men, or 36.7% of the respondents. According to the Kenyan constitution, both sexes were well represented in each case, with at least 30% of each gender present (Gok, 2010a). As a result, the information gathered represented the views of every gender in the sampled region. Because gender bias was reduced, this provides accurate information on the effects of climate change and adaptive responses in the sample area. Major decisions about climate change adaptations and strategies aid in the community's mitigation of climate change in this largely female (63.3%) community.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContextualizing the study's findings requires an understanding of the respondents' demographic profile. The respondents' dispersion throughout Mukogodo East points to a representative sample that captures the range of experiences in the neighborhood. The fact that women made up the majority of responders (63.3%) emphasizes how important women are to resource management and climate change adaptation. This gender distribution is consistent with earlier research that highlights the importance of women viewpoints in discussions about climate change (Mastrorillo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Nhamo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Distribution of respondents by age\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistribution of respondents by age\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u0026ndash;44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u0026ndash;64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65 and Above\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e60\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe different age groups of the respondents in the Mukogodo community are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e above. The fact that the majority of responders (33.3%) were in the 36\u0026ndash;44 age range shows that the data was reliable and mature. Grandparents who served as the head of the household made up 8.3% of the respondents. The 10% of respondents who are over 55 make up an important demographic since they are the elders who provide advice on past climate change events and adaptations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis age group frequently exhibits maturity and experience, which offers important insights into past climatic events and their socioeconomic effects. The 8.3% of people 65 and older in the community are elders, which highlights the value of traditional knowledge and intergenerational learning in adjusting to changing environmental conditions (Agarwal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Davis \u0026amp; Rojas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Distribution of respondents by educational level\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the majority of respondents have little education, with only 6.7% having completed secondary school or higher. 53.3% of them have no formal education, while a tiny minority of 10% have only completed primary school or less. Since most of the respondents lacked even a basic primary education, community members with at least four levels of education were used to collect data and communicate verbally with the respondents in their homes. As a result, the primary data collection period was extended to four months.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith only 6.7% of respondents having finished secondary school and 53.3% having no formal education, the trend in respondents' educational attainment is alarming. Women capacity to advocate for their needs in climate governance is hampered by low educational attainment, which is a major obstacle to information and resource access (Kant \u0026amp; Ghosh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, as evidenced by the significant reliance on enumerators with higher levels of education for data collection, women participation in community decision-making processes is frequently limited by limited literacy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change's detrimental effects on education, especially for girls, have become a major concern. Research showing that climate-induced shocks increase school dropout rates is consistent with the finding that 75% of girls miss school to fetch water and firewood (Gichuki et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, by forcing families to put short-term financial survival ahead of educational attainment, the 60% correlation between drought and early marriages demonstrates how climate change reinforces gender inequality (Wiggins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Direct Socioeconomic Impacts of Climate Change on Women\u0026rsquo;s Livelihoods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e indicate that climate variability and extreme weather events have significantly altered livelihood systems in Mukogodo East Ward, with women bearing a disproportionate share of the impacts. The most frequently reported climate-related changes included reduced and erratic rainfall (90%), prolonged drought periods (86.7%), and increased frequency of dry spells (81.7%). These changes have directly affected water availability, pasture productivity, and livestock health, which form the backbone of household livelihoods in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater scarcity emerged as a critical challenge, with 83% of respondents reporting longer distances and increased time spent collecting water compared to a decade ago. Women reported walking between 8 and 15 kilometres daily during peak dry seasons, significantly increasing their labour burden and reducing time available for income-generating activities and childcare. Similar patterns have been documented in other ASAL regions of Kenya and East Africa, where climate-induced water stress has intensified women\u0026rsquo;s unpaid labour and physical vulnerability (Mastrorillo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; UN Women, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLivestock losses were also pronounced, with 75% of respondents reporting significant reductions in herd sizes due to drought-related mortality. Women noted that the loss of small livestock such as goats and sheep assets traditionally managed by women\u0026mdash;had direct implications for household food security and access to cash income. Reduced milk production further compounded nutritional insecurity, particularly for children and pregnant women. These findings align with studies across pastoral systems in East Africa that link drought-induced livestock losses to heightened gendered food insecurity (Thornton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Mude et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood insecurity was reported by 85% of households, with respondents citing reduced crop yields, declining livestock productivity, and increased food prices. Women reported coping by reducing meal frequency, prioritising children\u0026rsquo;s consumption, and relying on less nutritious food options during prolonged drought periods. Such gendered coping strategies have been widely documented in climate-vulnerable contexts, where women absorb shocks through nutritional sacrifice and increased care labour (Perez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; CARE, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect Impacts of Climate Change on Livelihoods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate Impact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecreased rainfall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProlonged drought periods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.70%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood insecurity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater scarcity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLivestock loss\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6 Indirect Impacts: Access to Resources, Education, and Decision-Making\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6.1 Resource Access Constraints\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings on Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e show that women in Mukogodo East face significant resource challenges. Limited access to clean water (83%) and grazing pasture (78%) highlights daily hardships. Firewood scarcity affects 70%, increasing household burdens. Additionally, 60% lack land ownership rights, restricting economic independence and resilience. These resource constraints deepen women vulnerability to the impacts of climate change.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith 90% reporting less rainfall and 86.7% experiencing extended drought, the results show that women in Mukogodo East are directly impacted by climate change. These results are in line with previous research that emphasizes how vulnerable pastoralist communities are to changes in the climate (Wiggins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Oxfam, 2018). Food insecurity is exacerbated by the direct effects of climate change; according to 85% of respondents, household nutrition is insufficient. Research by the FAO (2018), which highlights how climate shocks impair agricultural productivity and worsen hunger in rural households, is consistent with the link between climate change and food insecurity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the study, women in Mukogodo East experience major indirect effects from climate change. Limited access to clean water (83%) and grazing pasture (78%) highlights the daily hardships that women endure. These resource shortages increase susceptibility to climate change, supporting research showing that women are frequently the most impacted by resource scarcity (Deere \u0026amp; Le\u0026oacute;n, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Oxfam, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen who are responsible for providing for their families face severe challenges as a result of the previously mentioned resource constraints. Particularly harmful is the 60% lack of land ownership rights, which limits resilience and economic independence (Agarwal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Huyer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). According to earlier research, giving women secure land rights improves their ability to adapt to climate change and increases community resilience overall (Nhamo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In order to promote women economic independence and decision-making power in their homes and communities, these obstacles must be removed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6.2 Climate Change and Access to Education\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e highlights the adverse effects of climate change on girls' education in Mukogodo East. Most people (75%) agreed that girls skip school to get firewood and water. Furthermore, 70% of respondents cited income loss as a reason for dropping out of school, and 60% connected drought to early marriages. There are gaps in targeted interventions, as only 33% of respondents thought drought-response programs sufficiently supported girls' education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate Change and Access to Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgree (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisagree (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGirls miss school to help with water/firewood collection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrought leads to early marriages\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLack of income during drought leads to school dropout\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrought-response programs support girls' education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6.3 Women Participation in Climate-Related Decision-Making\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e indicate that women involvement in climate-related decision-making is low in Mukogodo East. While 25% are occasionally consulted, only 13.3% are actively involved. Sadly, 61.7% said they were completely uninvolved. Because women perspectives and needs are not adequately represented in climate adaptation strategies, local governance and resilience-building initiatives are less inclusive and effective.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen Participation in Climate-Related Decision-Making\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevel of Involvement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eActively involved\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.30%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccasionally consulted\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot involved at all\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.70%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen participation in formal decision-making spaces related to climate adaptation and natural resource governance remained limited. Although community meetings and local institutions existed, women reported barriers to meaningful participation, including cultural norms, time constraints, and limited access to information. Consequently, adaptation interventions often failed to reflect women\u0026rsquo;s priorities and lived realities, reinforcing maladaptive outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.7 Women Adaptation Experiences and Resilience Strategies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite heightened vulnerability, women in Mukogodo East Ward demonstrated significant adaptive agency as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. Livelihood diversification emerged as a key strategy, with women engaging in petty trade, beadwork, charcoal production, and small-scale crop cultivation where water access permitted. Women\u0026rsquo;s savings and credit groups (table banking) played a crucial role in buffering climate shocks by enabling access to small loans, collective risk-sharing, and emergency support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional ecological knowledge constituted a central pillar of women\u0026rsquo;s adaptation practices. Respondents described using indigenous indicators such as plant phenology, animal behaviour, and wind patterns to anticipate rainfall variability and guide livelihood decisions. Women also employed traditional water conservation practices, including seasonal water rationing, protection of water sources, and the use of indigenous storage containers. These practices enhanced household resilience in the absence of reliable formal climate information.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo deal with the effects of climate change, the women of Mukogodo East use a range of resilience techniques. Their propensity to cut back on household consumption during drought (83.3%) demonstrates their resourcefulness and adaptability. As families collaborate to strengthen their financial resilience, 80% of participants in group saving plans serve as an example of communal solidarity (Wiggins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen Resilience Strategies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrategy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiversifying income sources (e.g., beadwork, charcoal, selling milk)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup saving schemes (chamas)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReducing household consumption during drought\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.30%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeasonal migration with livestock\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental conservation activities were also prominent. Women actively participated in tree planting, soil conservation, and rangeland rehabilitation initiatives, often through community-based organisations and women\u0026rsquo;s groups. Such practices not only contributed to ecosystem restoration but also strengthened social cohesion and collective adaptive capacity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provides robust empirical evidence that climate change operates as a gender-differentiated stressor in semi-arid pastoral systems, intensifying pre-existing social, economic, and institutional inequalities. The findings from Mukogodo East Ward demonstrate that women experience climate impacts not only through direct livelihood disruptions\u0026mdash;such as water scarcity, livestock losses, and food insecurity but also through indirect pathways that constrain their adaptive capacity, including limited access to productive resources, education, and decision-making power. These results strongly align with Feminist Political Ecology (FPE) perspectives, which conceptualise vulnerability and adaptation as outcomes of historically embedded power relations rather than solely biophysical exposure (Rocheleau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Agarwal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative studies across pastoral and agro-pastoral regions of East Africa reveal strikingly similar patterns. In northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia, recurrent droughts have been shown to disproportionately increase women\u0026rsquo;s labour burdens, particularly in water collection, caregiving, and subsistence provisioning (Carr, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Tschakert et al., 2016). Studies among Borana pastoralists in Ethiopia demonstrate that women often walk significantly longer distances for water and firewood during drought periods, mirroring the experiences documented in Mukogodo East Ward (Flintan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Such gendered labour intensification is rarely captured in macro-level climate assessments, yet it has profound implications for women\u0026rsquo;s health, time poverty, and economic opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLivestock losses emerged as a critical driver of gendered vulnerability in this study, particularly given women\u0026rsquo;s reliance on small livestock for food and income. Similar findings have been reported in Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s Afar and Somali regions, where drought-induced livestock mortality disproportionately undermines women\u0026rsquo;s asset bases and erodes household nutritional security (Mude et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In the Sahel, studies from Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso similarly show that women\u0026rsquo;s control over small ruminants is central to household resilience, yet climate shocks frequently strip women of these assets without corresponding compensation or support (Djoudi \u0026amp; Brockhaus, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Sendzimir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood insecurity remains one of the most gendered outcomes of climate change globally. The coping strategies identified in this study meal reduction, prioritisation of children\u0026rsquo;s consumption, and reliance on less nutritious foods are consistent with findings from South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, where women disproportionately absorb food shortages through nutritional sacrifice (Perez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Rao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In Bangladesh and India, for example, climate-induced crop failures have been shown to exacerbate intra-household food inequalities, with women consuming fewer calories and lower-quality foods during crisis periods (Sugden et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). These patterns underscore the intersection between climate change and entrenched gender norms governing care, sacrifice, and responsibility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect impacts related to education and decision-making further compound women\u0026rsquo;s vulnerability. The withdrawal of girls from school during drought periods, as observed in this study, reflects a broader regional trend in ASAL contexts where climate shocks disrupt educational trajectories and reinforce intergenerational poverty (UNDP, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Evidence from Ethiopia, Chad, and South Sudan indicates that climate-induced displacement and livelihood loss disproportionately affect girls\u0026rsquo; education, increasing risks of early marriage and long-term marginalisation (Plan International, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Such outcomes highlight the long temporal horizon of climate impacts, extending well beyond immediate livelihood losses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these vulnerabilities, the study strongly challenges deficit-based narratives that portray women solely as victims of climate change. Women in Mukogodo East Ward demonstrated considerable adaptive agency through livelihood diversification, collective action, and the mobilisation of traditional ecological knowledge. These findings resonate with studies from Ethiopia, Nepal, and India that document women\u0026rsquo;s central role in sustaining household resilience through informal economies, savings groups, and social networks (Agarwal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Nightingale, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Women\u0026rsquo;s savings and credit groups, in particular, function as critical informal safety nets in contexts where formal financial services and state support are limited.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional ecological knowledge emerged as a cornerstone of women\u0026rsquo;s adaptation strategies in this study. Indigenous indicators related to rainfall patterns, vegetation dynamics, and animal behaviour enabled women to anticipate climatic changes and adjust livelihood practices accordingly. Similar reliance on traditional knowledge has been documented among pastoralist women in Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s Borana zone, the Sahel, and parts of South Asia, where such knowledge complements or substitutes formal climate information systems (Berkes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Davis \u0026amp; Rojas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). However, despite its demonstrated value, traditional knowledge remains marginalised within formal climate adaptation planning, which often prioritises externally generated, technocratic solutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen\u0026rsquo;s engagement in environmental conservation activities further illustrates the interconnectedness of gender, livelihoods, and ecosystem sustainability. Tree planting, soil conservation, and rangeland management practices documented in this study align with findings from Kenya, Tanzania, and Niger, where women\u0026rsquo;s collective action has contributed to landscape restoration and improved adaptive capacity (Pretty \u0026amp; Ward, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Westermann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). These practices not only enhance ecological resilience but also strengthen social cohesion, a critical yet underappreciated dimension of climate adaptation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the policy level, the findings reveal persistent gaps between gender-responsive climate policy rhetoric and on-the-ground implementation. While Kenya has made notable commitments to gender mainstreaming in climate policy, including through the National Climate Change Action Plan and National Adaptation Plan, women\u0026rsquo;s meaningful participation remains limited. Similar implementation gaps have been identified across Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where gender is often treated as an add-on rather than a transformative lens (Arora-Jonsson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Huyer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Addressing these gaps requires structural reforms that enhance women\u0026rsquo;s access to resources, institutional representation, and decision-making power.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, this study contributes to interdisciplinary climate change scholarship by providing empirically grounded insights into the gendered dynamics of vulnerability and adaptation in pastoral ASAL contexts. By centring women\u0026rsquo;s lived experiences and knowledge systems, it advances calls for more inclusive, equitable, and contextually grounded climate adaptation strategies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that climate change exerts profound gendered socioeconomic impacts on women\u0026rsquo;s livelihoods in Mukogodo East Ward, Laikipia North Sub-County. Women experience heightened vulnerability due to direct climate stresses and entrenched structural inequalities. Despite these challenges, women exhibit substantial adaptive capacity through traditional knowledge, livelihood diversification, collective action, and environmental stewardship. Recognising and institutionalising these practices is essential for effective and equitable climate adaptation in ASAL contexts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Limitations of the Study","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study is limited by its relatively small sample size and focus on a single ward, which may constrain generalisability. Additionally, reliance on self-reported data may introduce recall bias. Future research could adopt longitudinal designs and comparative analyses across multiple ASAL regions to deepen understanding of gendered climate adaptation dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn compliance with Kenya\u0026apos;s national research regulations, this study was approved by the National Commission for Science, Technology \u0026amp; Innovation (NACOSTI). Local officials, such as chiefs and village elders, were notified about the study prior to data collection and, following a thorough briefing, gave their consent as well.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Authors\u0026rsquo; Contribution Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKelvin Muli designed, coordinated this research and drafted the manuscript. Kelvin Muli and Elvin Nyukuri participated in conceiving of the study, data collection and data analysis. Elvin Nyukuri participated in research coordination, data collection and data analysis. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNorwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors affirm that this research was carried out without any commercial or financial ties that could be perceived as a potential conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur gratitude goes to the MA Women Children and Nature Rights in Environmental Governance fraternity, Faculty of Law at the University of Nairobi.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAgarwal, B. 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Development Studies Research, 5(1), 12-23.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Climate change, Feminist political ecology, Gender and adaptation, Women livelihoods, Pastoralism","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8829935/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8829935/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eClimate change continues to exacerbate existing social and economic inequalities, with women in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) experiencing disproportionately severe impacts. This study examines the gendered socioeconomic impacts of climate change on women\u0026rsquo;s livelihoods and documents women\u0026rsquo;s adaptation experiences in Mukogodo East Ward, Laikipia North Sub-County, Kenya. Grounded in Feminist Political Ecology, the study employs a mixed-methods design combining household surveys (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60), focus group discussions, semi-structured interviews, and key informant interviews. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, while qualitative data were subjected to thematic analysis. Results reveal that climate change has had profound direct and indirect effects on women\u0026rsquo;s livelihoods, including reduced rainfall (90%), prolonged droughts (86.7%), food insecurity (85%), water scarcity (83%), and livestock losses (75%). Indirect impacts manifest through constrained access to land, education, and decision-making spaces, reinforcing women\u0026rsquo;s vulnerability. Despite these challenges, women demonstrate considerable adaptive capacity through the mobilisation of traditional ecological knowledge, livelihood diversification, collective savings schemes, seasonal mobility, and engagement in sustainable environmental practices such as soil conservation, water harvesting, and tree planting. The findings underscore women\u0026rsquo;s central yet under-recognised role in sustaining household and community resilience under climate stress. The study concludes that climate adaptation policies and interventions in pastoral ASAL contexts must move beyond technocratic approaches to explicitly recognise, support, and institutionalise women\u0026rsquo;s knowledge systems and adaptive strategies. Gender-responsive climate action is essential not only for social equity but also for enhancing the effectiveness and sustainability of local adaptation efforts.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Climate Change and Gendered Vulnerabilities: Women Adaptation Pathways in Laikipia North’s Semi-arid Pastoral Systems","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-11 06:52:25","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8829935/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"95913431-9454-48a4-83b8-be67a0d2aac8","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 11th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-23T14:54:10+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-11 06:52:25","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8829935","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8829935","identity":"rs-8829935","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}