Ethnozoological scatology: A situational report on the utilization of animal excrement in traditional medicine in Ghana

Ethnozoological scatology: A situational report on the utilization of animal excrement in traditional medicine in Ghana | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Ethnozoological scatology: A situational report on the utilization of animal excrement in traditional medicine in Ghana Evans Paul Kwame Ameade, Stephen Gmawurim, Emmanuel Adom This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4305896/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Animal excrement although may be considered as a waste product, has since ancient days found use in the management of several physical disorders and sometimes for spiritual or mystical purposes. This study assessed the extent of use and the attitude towards the use of animal excrement in traditional medicine among the Ghanaian public. Data was collected from 399 persons in the Tamale metropolis of the Northern Region of Ghana using a semi-structured questionnaire. Data analysis involved the use of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, Version 26 and the results presented in the form of tables and charts. The multivariate logistic regression model was used to assess predictors. Using a confidence interval of 95%, an association between variables was assumed to be significant when p ≤ 0.05. Whereas 44 (11.6%) indicated a personal use of animal excrement for traditional medicine, up to 234 (58.6%) knew some other person who had ever used animal excrement as medicine. For users of animal excrements, the majority, 42 (97.7%) used them for therapeutic reasons with only 1 (2.3%) claiming to use them for spiritual or mystical purposes. The top two most cited excrements were from the Dromedary camel ( Camelus dromedarius ) and the cow ( Bos taurus ). Statistically significant associations were found between the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine and respondents’ ages (p-value < 0.001), religious affiliation (p-value < 0.001), employment status (p-value = 0.018), highest educational attainment (p-value = 0.003) and knowing someone who used animal excrement (p-value < 0.001). The predictors of the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine were age, religious affiliation and knowing a user. The attitude towards the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine is barely average (51.8%) with the worst attitude towards the therapeutic use of human excreta. This attitude towards animal excrement in traditional medicine was significantly associated with the age of respondents, their religious affiliation, their educational attainment, ever used animal excrement or knowing a user. Animal excrement scatology traditional medicine attitude Ghana Figures Figure 1 Contributions to the literature The use of animal parts and their product existed but not many studies have been conducted on their use in this modern period. Although might be considered disgusting, animal excrement has found use in human traditional medicine but not many studies have been reported Our search did not report any study stating the level of use of animal excrement in the general public hence this might be the first finding Knowing what people use animal excrement for in traditional medicine can form the basis for scientific studies leading to the discovery of new drugs. INTRODUCTION One notable characteristic of living things is the removal of their waste produced through the life processes. Plants do not have specialized organs for the removal of this waste so they channel them into structures which are removed by the activities of other animals who depend on them. Various parts of plants such as the bark, leaves, and roots, among others are sources of drugs for humans but it must be noted that the active principles such as alkaloids, terpenoids, and flavonoids in these plant parts are possibly metabolic waste which gets stored in their parts awaiting their disposal [ 1 , 2 ]. Various parts of animals have been reportedly used across the world for traditional medicine although it is worth noting that a high number of plants are used in complementary and alternative medicine in both developed and developing countries [ 3 – 5 ]. The study of the use of animal parts in traditional medicine which has been referred to as zootherapy since the 1990s become a relevant subject in ethnomedicine [ 6 ]. Zootherapeutic materials are beyond the body parts but also include animal products (eg. Honey), secretions (eg. bile, milk, venoms) and excrements such as urine, faeces, kidney stones and ambergris [ 6 – 9 ]. Although the use of animal excrement may seem nauseating and repulsive in the modern era, the fact is, that the use of excrement as food, medicine and agriculture is a practice of old in Africa, Asia and even the West [ 10 – 12 ]. Of the many medical systems recorded, Egyptian medicine is among the oldest also had healing recipes for the excrement of animals [ 11 ]. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, excrement medicine was placed in a medical system called stercoraceous medicines [ 11 ]. Several forebears of medicine and pharmacy such as Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Asclepiades, and Galen had listed and recommended animal excrement for the management of various disease conditions [ 11 ]. Many wild and domestic animals but not limited to the following are among sources of these medicinal faeces; horse, deer, hippopotamus, swallow, donkey, dog, cat, ox, sheep, hen, pig, goat, lizards and humans [ 3 , 4 , 11 ]. As much as excrements are useful medicinally, the disgust several animals including humans have for it is well documented [ 13 ]. For the excrement of herbivores, their curative activities could be attributable to the several phytochemical compounds present in them. The use of human excreta has found use in both traditional and more recently mainstream medical systems. Abebe et al, (2022) reported the use of human faecal matter for the management of wounds in Ethiopia [ 14 ]. The United States Food and Drug Administration in April 2023 approved a product made from human faecal matter for use in the management of Clostridioides difficile although it had for several years been found to be useful in the management of several other disorders including inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, obesity, and diabetes mellitus [ 15 , 16 ]. Although excrement may be considered waste, its invaluable role in the restoration of health is not in doubt but there is limited information on the proportion of the population that uses them for any purpose. There are few studies on the perception and attitude towards the use of human excreta in agriculture [ 10 , 17 ] but there is a paucity of information on the perception of its use as medicine. This study which we consider possibly as the first, measured the level of use of animal excrement in traditional medicine in Ghana and the attitude of the general population towards its use for restoration of human health. METHODS Study area and settings The study area was Tamale, the only city in northern Ghana which is geographically situated between latitude 9 o 16 and 9 o 34 North and longitude 0 o 36 and 0 o 57 West and occupies a land area of 646.7 km 2 [ 18 ]. The population of Tamale as of 2010 was 233,252 [ 18 ]. Data collection was done in the two major markets in Tamale, the main lorry parks, and some banks within the Central Business Area in Tamale. Study design A cross-sectional design was used to conduct this quantitative research between April and May 2023. Study population The study population was adults who are 18 years and above and resident in the Tamale metropolis. Sample size The sample size was calculated using the Yamane: formula $$n=\frac{N}{1+N\left({e}^{2}\right)}$$ n = sample size, N = total population, e = level of significance (0.05). The total population of persons above 20 years in Tamale in 2021 was 194,647 [ 18 ]. $$n=\frac{\text{194,647}}{1+\text{194,647}\left({0.05}^{2}\right)}$$ n = 399 Sampling procedure Convenience sampling was used in this study. Study tool The de novo semi-structured questionnaire was designed by the authors and was then piloted among 30 adults in Dungu, a suburb of Tamale. After the pre-testing of the questionnaire, the researchers analyzed all the questions to ensure the face validity of the questionnaire. The study tool was divided into sections. Section A which collected information on the respondent's sociodemographic characteristics was made up of seven questions. Section B of the questionnaire had seven questions which assessed their usage of animal excrement while section C was made up of four questions that measured the perception of respondents about the use of animal excrement in health. A five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree and strongly disagree were provided as the responses to the perception-related questions. Data collection At the data collection site, adults were approached and encouraged to participate in the study after the researchers introduced themselves to them and explained what the research was all about. Some lettered respondents self-administered the questionnaire but, in many cases, the questionnaire which was in English language was translated into the local language, Dagbanli or other Ghanaian languages which the respondent understood Data measurement The perception of respondents to the use of animal excrement in traditional medicine was assessed with four questions. Scores allocated to the responses were; strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), not sure (3), agree (4), and strongly agree (5). The mean perception score for each of the questions was converted to percentages with five as the denominator. For the overall percentage perception score, the overall mean score was divided by 4 (there were four questions which assessed the perception) and converted to a percentage. Less than 50% perception score was considered as poor, 50 to 69% as average, 70 to 89% as good, and ≥ 90% was adjudged as excellent. The quantitative ethnobiological parameter, Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) was used to assess the relative importance of the various animals whose excrements are used for traditional medicine in Ghana. The RFC was obtained by dividing the number of respondents who reported using the excrement of a species in traditional medicine (Fc) by the total number of participants in the survey (N) (Tardio & Pardo-de-Santayana,2008) [ 19 ] RFC = Fc/N Statistical analysis Data collected was entered into Microsoft Excel and then analyzed using IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26.0. The results were presented as tables and charts. Multivariate logistic regression was used to assess the association between the independent socio-demographic characteristics variables and dichotomous dependent variable “Yes” or “No” as a response to respondents ever using animal excrement for traditional medicine. The association between variables was considered as statistically significant only if the p-value < 0.05 at a confidence interval of 95%. RESULTS Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents Male respondents were in the majority (211; 52.9%), so also were those working in the informal employment sector (250; 62.7%) and persons who hail from northern Ghana (360; 90.2%). Most respondents were between the ages of 31 and 40 years (153; 38.3%), belonged to the Islamic faith (197; 49.4%), and were individuals whose highest educational attainment was basic level (143; 35.8%) as shown in Table 1 . Table 1 Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents Variable Subgroup Frequency Percentage Age (years) 50 31 7.8 Sex Female 188 47.1 Male 211 52.9 Religious affiliation Christianity 177 44.4 Islam 197 49.4 Traditional African Religion 25 6.3 Occupation Formal 76 19 Informal 250 62.7 Unemployed 73 18.3 Region of origin (n = 1) Southern Ghana 39 9.8 Northern Ghana 360 90.2 Highest educational status No formal education 70 17.5 Basic level 143 35.8 Secondary level 48 12 Tertiary 138 34.6 Level of use of animal excrement in traditional medicine Table 2 shows the level of use of animal excrement in traditional medicine. Whereas 44 (11.6%) indicated a personal use of animal excrement for traditional medicine, up to 234 (58.6%) knew some other person who had ever used animal excrement as medicine. For users of animal excrement, in the majority, 42 (97.7%) used it for the management of physical diseases with only 1 (2.3%) claiming using it for spiritual or mystical purposes. Whereas 21 (48.8%) were very satisfied with the outcome after using the animal excrement, an almost equal number, 22 (51.2%) indicated they were satisfied with the results obtained after using the animal excrement. Parents. 16 (37.2%) and other relatives, 15 (34.9%) such as uncles, cousins, and aunts were the top two categories of individuals who recommended the use of animal excrement by the respondents. Table 2 Use of animal excrement in traditional medicine by respondents Statements Responses Frequency Percentage Have you ever used animal excrement for any condition or situation before? Yes 44 11.0 No 355 89.0 Do you know anyone who has used animal excrement as medicine? Yes 234 58.6 No 165 41.4 What did you recently use the animal excrement for? (n = 43) Physical diseases 42 97.7 Spiritual/Mystical purpose 1 2.3 The person who recommended the animal excrement for traditional medicine (n = 43) Parents 16 37.2 Other relatives 15 34.9 Friend 8 18.6 Self 2 4.7 Grandfather 1 2.3 Wife 1 2.3 Level of satisfaction after the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine Very satisfied 21 48.8 Satisfied 22 51.2 Method for the preparation and administration of the animal excrement Four ways of preparation and application of the animal excrement were reported by the respondents (Fig. 1 ). Whereas some respondents apply the excrement in its wet raw state to the affected part, 2 (4.8%), the majority, 38 (90.5%) add water to the dry excrement to form a paste before applying topically to the affected part. For those who consumed the animal excrement, one respondent (2.4%) added water to it and drank the mixture while another single respondent (2.4%) added the excrement to food before ingesting. Animals whose excrement is used for traditional medicine by respondents The top three most cited animals whose excrement were used for traditional medicine were the Dromedary camel ( Camelus dromedarius ) of the family Camelidae, the cow ( Bos taurus ) belonging to the family Bovidae and the African ground squirrel ( Xerus spp) of the family Sciuridae with relative frequency of citation values of 0.048, 0.023 and 0.015 respectively. Majority of the animals were herbivores (83.3%) with just one (16.7%), the Nile crocodile ( Crocodylus niloticus ) being a carnivore. Table 3 Relative frequency of citation of animals whose excrement were used for traditional medicine Common name Dagbani name Scientific name Family Classification based on diet Number of mentions Relative frequency citation (RFC) Dromedary camel Laakum Camelus dromedarius Camelidae Herbivore 19 0.048 Cow Nahu Bos taurus Bovidae Herbivore 9 0.023 African ground squirrel Shashiriga Xerus spp Sciuridae Herbivore 6 0.015 Nile crocodile Nyabiga Crocodylus niloticus Crocodylidae Carnivore 5 0.013 Elephant Wɔbigu Loxodonta africanus Elephantidae Herbivore 2 0.005 Grasscutter Sakɔɣu Thryonomys swinderianus Thryonomyidae Herbivore 1 0.003 Association between sociodemographic characteristics and the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine Various sociodemographic factors were found to be associated with the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine among the respondents (Table 4 ). A lot more males (11.8% versus 10.1%) and a greater number of respondents hailing from the northerly regions of Ghana (11.1 versus 10.3%) use animal excrement for traditional medicine but the differences were not statistically significant (p-value > 0.05). Statistically significant associations were found between the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine and respondents’ ages (p-value < 0.001), religious affiliation (p-value < 0.001), employment status (p-value = 0.018), highest educational attainment (p-value = 0.003) and knowing someone who used animal excrement (p-value < 0.001). For the age categories, respondents older than 50 years were the highest users (35.5%) followed by those below 21 years (21.4%) with the other age groups recording less than 15%. In this study, believers in Traditional African Religion were the highest users (44.0%), followed by adherents of Islam (11.2%) with the Christians being the least users (6.2%). Up to 14.4% of respondents in the informal working sector reportedly used animal excrement compared to the < 7.0% for the unemployed and formal sector workers. Persons with no formal education or a maximum of basic education were the highest users (11.2%) whereas respondents with tertiary-level education used them least (5.8%). Respondents who know anyone who ever used animal excrement for traditional medicines have a greater chance of becoming users themselves when compared who did not know any users (16.7% versus 3.0%). Crude odd ratio results showed that when compared to respondents less than 21 years, persons between 21 and 30 years were 98.5 $ less likely to use animal excrement (COR – 0.105, p-value = 0.01). However, believers in Traditional African Religion were approximately 11.8 times more likely than Christians (p-value = 0.001), persons with no formal education 4.8 times more likely (p-value < 0.001), while those who know other users were 6.4 times more likely (p-value < 0.001), to use animal excrement for traditional medicine. By holding all other independent variables within the model constant, the adjusted odds ratio found being a respondent between the ages of 21 and 30 (AOR = 0.025; p-value = 0.016), 31 to 40 AOR = 0.034 ; (p-value = 0.032 ), a follower of Traditional African Religion (AOR = 5.9; p-value = 0.005) and knowing a user of animal excrement (AOR = 6.6; p-value = 0.001) are the predictors of the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine in this study. Table 4 Association between sociodemographic characteristics and the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine Variable Subgroups Ever used animal excrement? Chi-square test Logistic regression No Yes Chi-square statistic p-value p-value Crude Odds ratio p-value Adjusted Odds ratio Age groups < 21 11 (78.6%) 3 (21.4%) 29.308 50 20 (64.5%) 11 (35.5%) 0.351 2.017 0.145 0.091 Sex Male 186 (88.2%) 25 (11.8%) 0.307 0.633 0.58 1.196 0.594 0.824 Female 169 (89.9%) 19 (10.1%) 1 1 Religious affiliation Christianity 166 (93.8%) 11 (6.2%) 31.884 < 0.001* 1 1 Islam 175 (88.8%) 22 (11.2%) 0.096 1.897 0.116 2.075 Traditional African religion 14 (56.0%) 11 (44.0%) < 0.001* 11.857 0.005* 5.933 Employment status Formal 71 (93.4%) 5 (6.6%) 7.992 0.018* 1 1 Informal 214 (85.6%) 36 (14.4%) 0.079 2.389 0.773 1.867 Unemployed 70 (95.9%) 3 (4.1%) 0.508 0.609 0.226 0.143 Region of origin Southern Ghana 35 (89.7%) 4 (10.3%) 0.026 1.000 1 1 Northern Ghana 320 (88.9%) 40 (11.1%) 0.871 1.094 0.158 0.31 Highest educational status None 54 (77.1%) 16 (11.2%) 14.191 0.003* 0.001* 4.815 0.949 0.872 Basic level 127 (88.8%) 16 (11.2%) 0.112 2.047 0.844 0.656 Secondary level 44 (91.7%) 4 (8.3%) 0.54 1.477 0.888 0.744 Tertiary level 130 (94.2%) 8 (5.8%) 1 1 Know anyone who used animal excrement No 160 (97.0%) 5 (3.0%) 18.340 < 0.001* 1 1 Yes 195 (83.3%) 39 (16.7%) < 0.001* 6.4 0.001* 6.636 Respondents’ attitude towards the use of animal excrement as medicine The overall attitude score towards using animal excrement for traditional medicine was (2.589 ± 0.089 or 51.8%) as shown in Table 5 . The best attitude score of 52.4% was recorded in response to the question if respondents do not mind using animal excrement for traditional medicine but the worst perception was recorded for therapeutic use of human excreta. Table 5 Assessment of respondent’s attitude towards the therapeutic use of animal excrement Attitude assessment statement Attitude scores (Mean ± Standard deviation) Percentage Attitude score Sufficient evidence supports the benefits of animal excrement as a medicine 2.59 ± 0.889 51.8 I do not mind buying animal excrement to use as medicine 2.62 ± 0.916 52.4 I would recommend animal excrement to others as an alternative to modern medicine 2.6 ± 0.907 52.0 I will not mind using human excreta if it has medicinal property 2.54 ± 0.947 50.8 Overall attitude score 2.589 ± 0.089 51.8 Association between sociodemographic characteristics of respondents and their attitude towards the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine There were no statistically significant associations between the respondent's attitude toward the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine and respondents’ sex, employment status, and home region (p-value > 0.05). For ages, except for persons below 21 years, the increasing positive attitude was observed as the respondent's age increased with persons older than 50 years (48.4%) recording the best attitude and the difference between these scores being statistically significant (p-value = 0.002). There was a significant difference in attitude towards the therapeutic use of animal excrement among adherents of the various religious beliefs (p-value = 0.002). Believers of the Traditional African Religion had the best attitude score (49.4%), followed by followers of Islam (41.8%) with the worst attitude among Christians (39.8%). The educational status of the respondents was associated with the attitude towards the use of animal excrement (p-value = 0.02) with persons who had no formal education having the best attitude score (45.0%) while those with some level of education scored ≤ 41.3%. Ever using animal excrement for traditional medicine (63.6% versus 38.7%; p-value < 0.001) or knowing someone who used it (44.1% versus 37.6%; p-value < 0.001) significantly increased positive attitude toward the use of animal excrement as a form of medicine. Table 6 Association between sociodemographic characteristics of respondents and their attitude towards the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine Variable Subgroup Frequency Mean attitude score/5 Percentage of maximum score p-value Age (years) 50 31 2.419 ± 0.851 48.4 Sex Male 211 2.088 ± 0.666 41.8 0.589 Female 188 2.052 ± 0.660 41.0 Religious affiliation Christianity 177 1.991 ± 0.599 39.8 0.002* Islam 197 2.092 ± 0.684 41.8 Traditional African Religion 25 2.472 ± 0.787 49.4 Employment type Formal 76 2.116 ± 0.527 42.3 0.428 Informal 250 2.083 ± 0.724 41.7 Unemployed 73 1.984 ± 0.565 39.7 Home region Southern Ghana 39 2.118 ± 0.617 42.4 0.643 Northern Ghana 360 2.066 ± 0.669 41.3 Highest educational status None 70 2.251 ± 0.718 45.0 0.02* Basic level 143 2.067 ± 0.661 41.3 Secondary level 48 1.867 ± 0.734 37.3 Tertiary level 138 2.055 ± 0.590 41.1 Ever used animal excrement for traditional medicine? No 355 1.934 ± 0.548 38.7 < 0.001* Yes 44 3.182 ± 0.422 63.6 Know anyone who used animal excrement for traditional medicine? No 165 1.879 ± 0.599 37.6 < 0.001* Yes 234 2.207 ± 0.674 44.1 DISCUSSION The use of non-conventional medicines is in no way abating despite the increase in technological advancement and the development of new medicines and healing devices [ 20 ]. Even in developed countries including the United States of America, there is increasing spending on complementary and alternative medicines [ 21 ]. Just like other natural healing materials, the use of animal parts and their products in traditional medicine has existed since time immemorial and is even at present used in many countries in Asia, the Americas and Africa [ 22 – 27 ]. Although it may be considered a waste product, the excrement of both wild and domestic animals including humans has found use in traditional medicine in many places around the world [ 3 , 4 , 11 , 13 ] but the level of patronage remains largely unreported. The 11.0% patronage level recorded in this study was below the 35–85% reported for herbal medicine [ 28 – 32 ] which confirms the greater role plants play in traditional medicine than animals. For 58.6% of the respondents to indicate knowing some other person who had ever used animal excrement is even fascinating. This could mean a lot more people are using animal excrement for traditional medicine. This lower self-confessed percentage patronage level might be due to many respondents not being willing to honestly identify themselves as users of animal excrement because of the general poor perception and aversion to issues related to faecal matter. The influence of close relatives in the use of traditional medicine just as reported in many previous studies [ 14 , 29 , 33 ] similar to what has been found in this study in which more than two-thirds (72.1%) of the respondents had the animal excrement medicine recommended to them by parents or other close relatives. Almost all the respondents (99.7%) in this study used excrement for the management of physical disorders but just as reported by Abebe et al., (2022) [ 14 ] spiritual or mystical uses were reported. Several other previous studies reported the medicinal use of the excrement for the management of various physical ailments such as diarrhoea, skin diseases, dyspepsia, amenorrhoea, snake bites, psychosis, whooping cough and cold, asthma, epilepsy, diabetes, otitis, jaundice, night blindness among others [ 5 , 6 , 11 ]. Chemical analysis of some animal excrements found the presence of several phytochemicals which may be responsible for the activity of these seemingly waste products. For instance, from the faeces of the complex-toothed flying squirrel ( Trogopterus xanthipes ) were isolated terpenoids (pomolic acid, 3-O-cis-p-coumaroyltormentic acid, 2α-hydroxyursolic acid, and jacoumaric acid)., flavonoids (kaempferol 3-O-α-l-(4″E-p-coumaroyl)-rhamnoside, hinokifavone, afzelin, and quercitrin), lignans, sterols, and esters [ 5 , 34 – 36 ]. Of the six animals whose excrements were reportedly used by the respondents in this study, all except one ( Corcodylus niloticus ) are herbivores. Since they feed on plants, these pharmacologically active principles in the excrements may be secondary metabolites some of which may exert therapeutic effects after undergoing metabolic changes in the animal [ 6 ]. The top three most cited excrement used by the respondents in this study were from Dromedary camel ( Camelus dromedarius ), Cow (Bos taurus) and African ground squirrel ( Xerus spp). The use of Dromedary camel excrement has been reported in Sudan for arthritis [ 37 ]. Also, the excrement of Cow ( Bos taurus) has been found useful in the management of fever, epilepsy, catarrh, abscesses, urinary tract infections, food poisoning, limb pain, gout, diabetes, haemorrhoids, among others [ 5 , 11 , 38 ]. Although not among the top three, the excrement of the African elephant ( Loxodonta africanus ) was of medicinal value to some of the respondents in this study. Dubost et al., (2021) found the use of elephant excrement in Xayaboury province, Lao PDR mainly for gastrointestinal and skin disorders while Friant et al., 2021 reported the use of alcoholic extraction of the faecal matter for the treatment of fevers [6,.39] The topical route seems to be the most applied route among the respondents in this study since only 4.8% of the respondents added dry excrement to a liquid or food for oral consumption. This is corroborated by several other studies that found that both topical and enteral routes are used depending on the condition or purpose of the use of the animal excrement [ 6 ]. For some persons, the thought of applying excrement onto their body or ingesting it is disgusting which influences their perception of or attitude towards the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine. This study found a statistically significant association between attitude towards the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine and some sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents such as age, religious affiliation, employment status, educational level and knowing some other user of the animal excrement. Generally, as a person ages, their disease burdens and their spiritual realization increase and this might account for the increasing desire to use animal excrement with those above 50 years being the top most users. The influence of the sector of employment and the educational status on the use of traditional medicine has been reported by several authors [ 27 , 40 – 42 ]. Ameade et al., (2024) also reported the influence of religious affiliation on the use of traditional medicine and this has also been reflected in the significantly greater desire of followers of Traditional African Religion to patronise animal excrement for traditional medicine [ 42 ]. According to Cherry (2023), a person’s attitude is dependent on experience, observation, as well as social factors so it is understandable that respondents who knew other users of animal excrement for traditional medicine would significantly patronize them than their counterparts who had no previous association with a user [ 43 ]. The only predictors of the use of animal excrement in traditional medicine were age, knowing a user and religious affiliation. Those who know other users of animal excrement for traditional medicine were 6.6 times more likely to patronize it than those who do not know any users (AOR = 6.6; p-value = 0.001) while believers in Traditional African Religion were 5.9 times more likely to resort to animal excrement than Christians. However, an overall attitude score of 51.8% on the use of animal excrement in healthcare is also not surprising because of the abhorrence people generally have towards the use of animal waste, especially that of humans even in Agriculture [ 44 – 46 ]). The disgust towards the use of human excreta was also observed in this study with just half (50.8%) unwilling to use human excreta if it has medicinal value. This attitude towards animal excrement in traditional medicine was significantly associated with the age of respondents, their religious affiliation, their educational attainment, ever used animal excrement or knowing a user. The reasons for these associations are similar to those that are responsible for the persons with certain characteristics using animal excrement for traditional medicine discussed earlier. Despite the average attitude scores, the use of animal excrement will be expected to continue since all the respondents in this study were satisfied or very satisfied with the outcome of the use of the excrement. Despite these findings, this study has some weaknesses which include the convenience sampling method used, and the fact that the study was conducted in only one city in Ghana so the results cannot be generalized. However, a careful search by the authors did not find any other publication which assessed the extent of use of animal excrement by a people and the attitudes towards it when used for therapeutic purposes. Similar studies could therefore be undertaken in other places to provide a more balance view about the use of and attitude towards animal excrement in healthcare. Conclusion Animal excrement is used in Ghana for traditional medicine especially that of Dromedary camel ( Camelus dromedarius ) and cow ( Bos taurus ). Although some persons use animal excrement for spiritual or mystical purposes, they are mostly used for the management of physical disorders through topical application. Age, being a believer in Traditional African Religion and knowing a user of animal excrement are the significant predictors of their use in traditional medicine. The overall attitude towards the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine is average, but it is significantly influenced by the age of the respondents, their religious beliefs, educational status, and ever using or knowing some other person who used the animal excrement for traditional medicine. With users being satisfied with the outcome after use of the animal excrement, the use of this animal waste will continue into the future and there will be the need for more scientific researh since new orthodox medicnes could be discovered. Abbreviations RFC Relative Frequency of Citation Fc Number of respondents who reported using the excrement of a species in traditional medicine N Number of participants in the survey SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences COR Crude Odds Ratio AOR Adjusted Odds Ratio Declarations Data Availability The results presented are adequate to support the conclusion of this study. However, the lead author is available to provide extra data upon request. Conflicts of interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article. Funding Statement No funds were received Ethical consideration and consent to participate Data were collected from participants only after they gave their informed consent to take part in the study. The Ethics Committee of the School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences of the University for Development Studies provided prior approval for this study. 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Planta Med. 2012;78(11):PI323. El-Kamali HH. Folk medicinal use of some animal products in Central Sudan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;72(1–2):279–82. Oyedeji-Amusa MO, Ojuromi OT, Ashafa AO. Ethnoveterinary survey of tradomedical importance of Bos taurus L urine, bile and dung in Nigeria and South Africa. Trop J Pharm Res. 2016;15(8):1807–13. Friant, S., Bonwitt, J., Ayambem, W. A., Ifebueme, N. M., Alobi, A. O., Otukpa, O.M., … Jacka, J. K. (2022). Zootherapy as a potential pathway for zoonotic spillover:a mixed-methods study of the use of animal products in medicinal and cultural practices in Nigeria. One Health Outlook , 4 (1), 5. Tesfaye M, Erena MG. Indigenous ethnozoological and ethnoveterinary medicinal practices in Leka Dullecha district, western Ethiopia. Global Vet. 2020;22(5):286–97. Hailemariam M, Mekonen S. Extent and Awareness to Use Animals for Traditional Medicine and Attitudes towards Ethnozoological Knowledge among Communities of Menz Keya Gabriel District, North Ethiopia. Egypt Acad J Biol Sci B Zool. 2021;13:77–88. Ameade, E.P.K., Attuquayefio, D.K., Gbogbo, F., Sarkodie, A.J., Ofori, B.Y., et al.,… Adom, E. (2024). Predictors of use of Animal-based Traditional Medicines as First Choice Medication when Unwell Amid Abundant Herbal and Orthodox Medicines – A Study in Ghana. Wor Jour of Medic and Heal Care 2(1), 01–10. Cherry K. (2023). The Components of Attitude: Definition, Formation, Changes. Verywellmind com https://www.verywellmind.com/attitudes-how-theyform-change-shape-behavior-2795897 . Mariwah S, Drangert J-OO. Community perceptions of human excreta as fertilizer in peri-urban agriculture in Ghana. Waste Manag Res. 2011;29:815–22. Appiah-Effah E, Nyarko KB, Adum L, Antwi EO, Awuah E. Perception of peri-urban farmers on faecal sludge compost and its utilization: A case study of three peri-urban communities in Ashanti region of Ghana. Compost Sci Util. 2015;23:267–75. Mugivhisa LL, Olowoyo JO, Mzimba D. Perceptions on organic farming and selected organic fertilizers by subsistence farmers in Ga-Rankuwa, Pretoria, South Africa. Afr J Sci Technol Innov Dev. 2017;9:85–91. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4305896","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":295345059,"identity":"1fb8224e-7e3b-4f63-b9dc-3da4a0aa3add","order_by":0,"name":"Evans Paul Kwame Ameade","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAwUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACNhBxQI6BgYdELcaka0lsIFqLfHtb2oMPf+6kbzh+9uCDDwx2croNBLQYnDl23HBm27PcDWfykg1nMCQbmx0gpEUivU2at+Fw7oYDOWbSPEAXbiOkRX4GUMufP4fTDc6/IVILw420Y9IMbIcTDG4QawvQL+mGvW2HDWfeeGNsOMOACL8AQ8zswY8/h+X5zucYPvhQYSdHUAsDNGIYFMAqDQgrR2iRbyBO9SgYBaNgFIxAAABCdEegHbVFZwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University for Development Studies","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Evans","middleName":"Paul Kwame","lastName":"Ameade","suffix":""},{"id":295345061,"identity":"388f0ec9-2923-47c6-8fea-dd5b85722fb9","order_by":1,"name":"Stephen Gmawurim","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University for Development Studies","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Stephen","middleName":"","lastName":"Gmawurim","suffix":""},{"id":295345063,"identity":"734b5be1-0642-4a1d-933e-bb0a07bbfa49","order_by":2,"name":"Emmanuel Adom","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University for Development Studies","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Emmanuel","middleName":"","lastName":"Adom","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-04-22 12:39:58","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4305896/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4305896/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":55580680,"identity":"59c476f2-b825-4090-8a56-332c6153a4ec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-30 07:38:37","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":53809,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods of preparation and use of animal \u003c/strong\u003eexcrement \u003cstrong\u003efor traditional medicine\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4305896/v1/d2112819c29c9792144cc08f.png"},{"id":56307639,"identity":"c9e19dd5-3233-4de0-b087-d9e3f18a9d8d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-11 13:24:18","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1127255,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4305896/v1/3498315f-f56f-4245-a6ee-546952f5cb22.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Ethnozoological scatology: A situational report on the utilization of animal excrement in traditional medicine in Ghana","fulltext":[{"header":"Contributions to the literature","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe use of animal parts and their product existed but not many studies have been conducted on their use in this modern period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough might be considered disgusting, animal excrement has found use in human traditional medicine but not many studies have been reported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur search did not report any study stating the level of use of animal excrement in the general public hence this might be the first finding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eKnowing what people use animal excrement for in traditional medicine can form the basis for scientific studies leading to the discovery of new drugs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eOne notable characteristic of living things is the removal of their waste produced through the life processes. Plants do not have specialized organs for the removal of this waste so they channel them into structures which are removed by the activities of other animals who depend on them. Various parts of plants such as the bark, leaves, and roots, among others are sources of drugs for humans but it must be noted that the active principles such as alkaloids, terpenoids, and flavonoids in these plant parts are possibly metabolic waste which gets stored in their parts awaiting their disposal [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Various parts of animals have been reportedly used across the world for traditional medicine although it is worth noting that a high number of plants are used in complementary and alternative medicine in both developed and developing countries [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR4\" citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The study of the use of animal parts in traditional medicine which has been referred to as zootherapy since the 1990s become a relevant subject in ethnomedicine [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Zootherapeutic materials are beyond the body parts but also include animal products (eg. Honey), secretions (eg. bile, milk, venoms) and excrements such as urine, faeces, kidney stones and ambergris [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7 CR8\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Although the use of animal excrement may seem nauseating and repulsive in the modern era, the fact is, that the use of excrement as food, medicine and agriculture is a practice of old in Africa, Asia and even the West [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR11\" citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Of the many medical systems recorded, Egyptian medicine is among the oldest also had healing recipes for the excrement of animals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, excrement medicine was placed in a medical system called stercoraceous medicines [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Several forebears of medicine and pharmacy such as Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Asclepiades, and Galen had listed and recommended animal excrement for the management of various disease conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Many wild and domestic animals but not limited to the following are among sources of these medicinal faeces; horse, deer, hippopotamus, swallow, donkey, dog, cat, ox, sheep, hen, pig, goat, lizards and humans [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. As much as excrements are useful medicinally, the disgust several animals including humans have for it is well documented [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. For the excrement of herbivores, their curative activities could be attributable to the several phytochemical compounds present in them. The use of human excreta has found use in both traditional and more recently mainstream medical systems. Abebe et al, (2022) reported the use of human faecal matter for the management of wounds in Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. The United States Food and Drug Administration in April 2023 approved a product made from human faecal matter for use in the management of \u003cem\u003eClostridioides difficile\u003c/em\u003e although it had for several years been found to be useful in the management of several other disorders including inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, obesity, and diabetes mellitus [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Although excrement may be considered waste, its invaluable role in the restoration of health is not in doubt but there is limited information on the proportion of the population that uses them for any purpose. There are few studies on the perception and attitude towards the use of human excreta in agriculture [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] but there is a paucity of information on the perception of its use as medicine. This study which we consider possibly as the first, measured the level of use of animal excrement in traditional medicine in Ghana and the attitude of the general population towards its use for restoration of human health.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy area and settings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study area was Tamale, the only city in northern Ghana which is geographically situated between latitude 9\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e 16 and 9\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e 34 North and longitude 0\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e 36 and 0\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e 57 West and occupies a land area of 646.7 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. The population of Tamale as of 2010 was 233,252 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Data collection was done in the two major markets in Tamale, the main lorry parks, and some banks within the Central Business Area in Tamale.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional design was used to conduct this quantitative research between April and May 2023.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy population\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study population was adults who are 18 years and above and resident in the Tamale metropolis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSample size\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sample size was calculated using the Yamane: formula\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$n=\\frac{N}{1+N\\left({e}^{2}\\right)}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;sample size, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;total population, e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;level of significance (0.05). The total population of persons above 20 years in Tamale in 2021 was 194,647 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$n=\\frac{\\text{194,647}}{1+\\text{194,647}\\left({0.05}^{2}\\right)}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;399\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSampling procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConvenience sampling was used in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy tool\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003ede novo\u003c/em\u003e semi-structured questionnaire was designed by the authors and was then piloted among 30 adults in Dungu, a suburb of Tamale. After the pre-testing of the questionnaire, the researchers analyzed all the questions to ensure the face validity of the questionnaire. The study tool was divided into sections. Section A which collected information on the respondent's sociodemographic characteristics was made up of seven questions. Section B of the questionnaire had seven questions which assessed their usage of animal excrement while section C was made up of four questions that measured the perception of respondents about the use of animal excrement in health. A five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree and strongly disagree were provided as the responses to the perception-related questions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the data collection site, adults were approached and encouraged to participate in the study after the researchers introduced themselves to them and explained what the research was all about. Some lettered respondents self-administered the questionnaire but, in many cases, the questionnaire which was in English language was translated into the local language, Dagbanli or other Ghanaian languages which the respondent understood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData measurement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe perception of respondents to the use of animal excrement in traditional medicine was assessed with four questions. Scores allocated to the responses were; strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), not sure (3), agree (4), and strongly agree (5). The mean perception score for each of the questions was converted to percentages with five as the denominator. For the overall percentage perception score, the overall mean score was divided by 4 (there were four questions which assessed the perception) and converted to a percentage. Less than 50% perception score was considered as poor, 50 to 69% as average, 70 to 89% as good, and \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;90% was adjudged as excellent. The quantitative ethnobiological parameter, Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) was used to assess the relative importance of the various animals whose excrements are used for traditional medicine in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe RFC was obtained by dividing the number of respondents who reported using the excrement of a species in traditional medicine (Fc) by the total number of participants in the survey (N) (Tardio \u0026amp; Pardo-de-Santayana,2008) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRFC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Fc/N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData collected was entered into Microsoft Excel and then analyzed using IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26.0. The results were presented as tables and charts. Multivariate logistic regression was used to assess the association between the independent socio-demographic characteristics variables and dichotomous dependent variable \u0026ldquo;Yes\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;No\u0026rdquo; as a response to respondents ever using animal excrement for traditional medicine. The association between variables was considered as statistically significant only if the p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 at a confidence interval of 95%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSociodemographic characteristics of respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale respondents were in the majority (211; 52.9%), so also were those working in the informal employment sector (250; 62.7%) and persons who hail from northern Ghana (360; 90.2%). Most respondents were between the ages of 31 and 40 years (153; 38.3%), belonged to the Islamic faith (197; 49.4%), and were individuals whose highest educational attainment was basic level (143; 35.8%) as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSociodemographic characteristics of respondents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubgroup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e153\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e188\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e211\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReligious affiliation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChristianity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e177\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIslam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e197\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional African Religion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccupation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion of origin (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSouthern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorthern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e360\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighest educational status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo formal education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTertiary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLevel of use of animal\u003c/b\u003e excrement \u003cb\u003ein traditional medicine\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the level of use of animal excrement in traditional medicine. Whereas 44 (11.6%) indicated a personal use of animal excrement for traditional medicine, up to 234 (58.6%) knew some other person who had ever used animal excrement as medicine. For users of animal excrement, in the majority, 42 (97.7%) used it for the management of physical diseases with only 1 (2.3%) claiming using it for spiritual or mystical purposes. Whereas 21 (48.8%) were very satisfied with the outcome after using the animal excrement, an almost equal number, 22 (51.2%) indicated they were satisfied with the results obtained after using the animal excrement. Parents. 16 (37.2%) and other relatives, 15 (34.9%) such as uncles, cousins, and aunts were the top two categories of individuals who recommended the use of animal excrement by the respondents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUse of animal\u003c/b\u003e excrement \u003cb\u003ein traditional medicine by respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatements\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHave you ever used animal excrement for any condition or situation before?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e355\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDo you know anyone who has used animal excrement as medicine?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e234\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat did you recently use the animal excrement for? (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;43)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical diseases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpiritual/Mystical purpose\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe person who recommended the animal excrement for traditional medicine (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;43)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther relatives\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFriend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrandfather\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevel of satisfaction after the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery satisfied\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSatisfied\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMethod for the preparation and administration of the animal\u003c/b\u003e excrement\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour ways of preparation and application of the animal excrement were reported by the respondents (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Whereas some respondents apply the excrement in its wet raw state to the affected part, 2 (4.8%), the majority, 38 (90.5%) add water to the dry excrement to form a paste before applying topically to the affected part. For those who consumed the animal excrement, one respondent (2.4%) added water to it and drank the mixture while another single respondent (2.4%) added the excrement to food before ingesting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnimals whose excrement is used for traditional medicine by respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe top three most cited animals whose excrement were used for traditional medicine were the Dromedary camel (\u003cem\u003eCamelus dromedarius\u003c/em\u003e) of the family Camelidae, the cow (\u003cem\u003eBos taurus\u003c/em\u003e) belonging to the family Bovidae and the African ground squirrel (\u003cem\u003eXerus\u003c/em\u003e spp) of the family Sciuridae with relative frequency of citation values of 0.048, 0.023 and 0.015 respectively. Majority of the animals were herbivores (83.3%) with just one (16.7%), the Nile crocodile (\u003cem\u003eCrocodylus niloticus\u003c/em\u003e) being a carnivore.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRelative frequency of citation of animals whose\u003c/b\u003e excrement \u003cb\u003ewere used for traditional medicine\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommon name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDagbani name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScientific name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClassification based on diet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of mentions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative frequency citation (RFC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDromedary camel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaakum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCamelus dromedarius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCamelidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerbivore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNahu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBos\u0026nbsp;taurus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBovidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerbivore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfrican ground squirrel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShashiriga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eXerus\u003c/em\u003e spp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSciuridae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerbivore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNile crocodile\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNyabiga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCrocodylus niloticus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrocodylidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarnivore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElephant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWɔbigu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLoxodonta africanus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElephantidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerbivore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrasscutter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSakɔɣu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThryonomys swinderianus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThryonomyidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerbivore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAssociation between sociodemographic characteristics and the use of animal\u003c/b\u003e excrement \u003cb\u003efor traditional medicine\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious sociodemographic factors were found to be associated with the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine among the respondents (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). A lot more males (11.8% versus 10.1%) and a greater number of respondents hailing from the northerly regions of Ghana (11.1 versus 10.3%) use animal excrement for traditional medicine but the differences were not statistically significant (p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Statistically significant associations were found between the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine and respondents\u0026rsquo; ages (p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), religious affiliation (p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), employment status (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.018), highest educational attainment (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003) and knowing someone who used animal excrement (p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). For the age categories, respondents older than 50 years were the highest users (35.5%) followed by those below 21 years (21.4%) with the other age groups recording less than 15%. In this study, believers in Traditional African Religion were the highest users (44.0%), followed by adherents of Islam (11.2%) with the Christians being the least users (6.2%). Up to 14.4% of respondents in the informal working sector reportedly used animal excrement compared to the \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;7.0% for the unemployed and formal sector workers. Persons with no formal education or a maximum of basic education were the highest users (11.2%) whereas respondents with tertiary-level education used them least (5.8%). Respondents who know anyone who ever used animal excrement for traditional medicines have a greater chance of becoming users themselves when compared who did not know any users (16.7% versus 3.0%). Crude odd ratio results showed that when compared to respondents less than 21 years, persons between 21 and 30 years were 98.5\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e less likely to use animal excrement (COR \u0026ndash; 0.105, p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01). However, believers in Traditional African Religion were approximately 11.8 times more likely than Christians (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001), persons with no formal education 4.8 times more likely (p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), while those who know other users were 6.4 times more likely (p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), to use animal excrement for traditional medicine. By holding all other independent variables within the model constant, the adjusted odds ratio found being a respondent between the ages of 21 and 30 (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.025; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.016), 31 to 40 AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.034 ; (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.032 ), a follower of Traditional African Religion (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.9; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005) and knowing a user of animal excrement (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.6; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001) are the predictors of the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociation between sociodemographic characteristics and the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubgroups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used animal excrement?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChi-square test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLogistic regression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChi-square statistic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrude Odds ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdjusted Odds ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 (78.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (21.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.308\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105 (97.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (2.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.016*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e139 (90.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 (9.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.369\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (86.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (14.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.596\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (64.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 (35.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.351\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.145\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.091\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e186 (88.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 (11.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.307\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.633\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.196\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.594\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.824\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e169 (89.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (10.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReligious affiliation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChristianity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e166 (93.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 (6.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.884\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIslam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e175 (88.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22 (11.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.096\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.897\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.116\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.075\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional African religion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 (56.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 (44.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.857\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.933\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployment status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71 (93.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (6.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.992\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.018*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e214 (85.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36 (14.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.079\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.389\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.773\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.867\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 (95.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (4.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.508\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.609\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.226\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion of origin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSouthern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 (89.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (10.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorthern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e320 (88.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (11.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.871\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.094\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighest educational status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54 (77.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16 (11.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.191\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.815\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.949\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.872\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e127 (88.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16 (11.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.047\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.844\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.656\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44 (91.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (8.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.477\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.888\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.744\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTertiary level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130 (94.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (5.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKnow anyone who used animal excrement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160 (97.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (3.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.340\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e195 (83.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39 (16.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.636\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRespondents\u0026rsquo; attitude towards the use of animal excrement as medicine\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall attitude score towards using animal excrement for traditional medicine was (2.589\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.089 or 51.8%) as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. The best attitude score of 52.4% was recorded in response to the question if respondents do not mind using animal excrement for traditional medicine but the worst perception was recorded for therapeutic use of human excreta.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssessment of respondent\u0026rsquo;s attitude towards the therapeutic use of animal excrement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitude assessment statement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitude scores (Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Standard deviation)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage Attitude score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSufficient evidence supports the benefits of animal excrement as a medicine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.889\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI do not mind buying animal excrement to use as medicine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.916\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI would recommend animal excrement to others as an alternative to modern medicine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.907\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI will not mind using human excreta if it has medicinal property\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.947\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall attitude score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.589\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.089\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAssociation between sociodemographic characteristics of respondents and their attitude towards the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere were no statistically significant associations between the respondent's attitude toward the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine and respondents\u0026rsquo; sex, employment status, and home region (p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). For ages, except for persons below 21 years, the increasing positive attitude was observed as the respondent's age increased with persons older than 50 years (48.4%) recording the best attitude and the difference between these scores being statistically significant (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002). There was a significant difference in attitude towards the therapeutic use of animal excrement among adherents of the various religious beliefs (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002). Believers of the Traditional African Religion had the best attitude score (49.4%), followed by followers of Islam (41.8%) with the worst attitude among Christians (39.8%). The educational status of the respondents was associated with the attitude towards the use of animal excrement (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.02) with persons who had no formal education having the best attitude score (45.0%) while those with some level of education scored\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;41.3%. Ever using animal excrement for traditional medicine (63.6% versus 38.7%; p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) or knowing someone who used it (44.1% versus 37.6%; p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) significantly increased positive attitude toward the use of animal excrement as a form of medicine.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociation between sociodemographic characteristics of respondents and their attitude towards the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubgroup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean attitude score/5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage of maximum score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.616\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.928\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.584\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e153\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.033\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.646\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.151\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.666\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.419\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.851\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e211\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.088\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.666\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.589\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e188\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.052\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.660\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReligious affiliation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChristianity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e177\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.991\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.599\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIslam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e197\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.092\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.684\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional African Religion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.472\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.787\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployment type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.116\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.527\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.428\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.083\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.724\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.984\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.565\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHome region\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSouthern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.118\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.617\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.643\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorthern Ghana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e360\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.066\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.669\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighest educational status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.251\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.718\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.067\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.661\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.867\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.734\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTertiary level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.055\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.590\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used animal excrement for traditional medicine?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e355\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.934\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.548\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.182\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.422\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKnow anyone who used animal excrement for traditional medicine?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.879\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.599\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e234\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.207\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.674\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe use of non-conventional medicines is in no way abating despite the increase in technological advancement and the development of new medicines and healing devices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Even in developed countries including the United States of America, there is increasing spending on complementary and alternative medicines [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Just like other natural healing materials, the use of animal parts and their products in traditional medicine has existed since time immemorial and is even at present used in many countries in Asia, the Americas and Africa [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR23 CR24 CR25 CR26\" citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Although it may be considered a waste product, the excrement of both wild and domestic animals including humans has found use in traditional medicine in many places around the world [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] but the level of patronage remains largely unreported. The 11.0% patronage level recorded in this study was below the 35\u0026ndash;85% reported for herbal medicine [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR29 CR30 CR31\" citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] which confirms the greater role plants play in traditional medicine than animals. For 58.6% of the respondents to indicate knowing some other person who had ever used animal excrement is even fascinating. This could mean a lot more people are using animal excrement for traditional medicine. This lower self-confessed percentage patronage level might be due to many respondents not being willing to honestly identify themselves as users of animal excrement because of the general poor perception and aversion to issues related to faecal matter. The influence of close relatives in the use of traditional medicine just as reported in many previous studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] similar to what has been found in this study in which more than two-thirds (72.1%) of the respondents had the animal excrement medicine recommended to them by parents or other close relatives. Almost all the respondents (99.7%) in this study used excrement for the management of physical disorders but just as reported by Abebe et al., (2022) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e] spiritual or mystical uses were reported. Several other previous studies reported the medicinal use of the excrement for the management of various physical ailments such as diarrhoea, skin diseases, dyspepsia, amenorrhoea, snake bites, psychosis, whooping cough and cold, asthma, epilepsy, diabetes, otitis, jaundice, night blindness among others [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Chemical analysis of some animal excrements found the presence of several phytochemicals which may be responsible for the activity of these seemingly waste products. For instance, from the faeces of the complex-toothed flying squirrel (\u003cem\u003eTrogopterus xanthipes\u003c/em\u003e) were isolated terpenoids (pomolic acid, 3-O-cis-p-coumaroyltormentic acid, 2α-hydroxyursolic acid, and jacoumaric acid)., flavonoids (kaempferol 3-O-α-l-(4\u0026Prime;E-p-coumaroyl)-rhamnoside, hinokifavone, afzelin, and quercitrin), lignans, sterols, and esters [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR35\" citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Of the six animals whose excrements were reportedly used by the respondents in this study, all except one (\u003cem\u003eCorcodylus niloticus\u003c/em\u003e) are herbivores. Since they feed on plants, these pharmacologically active principles in the excrements may be secondary metabolites some of which may exert therapeutic effects after undergoing metabolic changes in the animal [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. The top three most cited excrement used by the respondents in this study were from Dromedary camel (\u003cem\u003eCamelus dromedarius\u003c/em\u003e), Cow (Bos taurus) and African ground squirrel (\u003cem\u003eXerus\u003c/em\u003e spp). The use of Dromedary camel excrement has been reported in Sudan for arthritis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Also, the excrement of Cow (\u003cem\u003eBos taurus)\u003c/em\u003e has been found useful in the management of fever, epilepsy, catarrh, abscesses, urinary tract infections, food poisoning, limb pain, gout, diabetes, haemorrhoids, among others [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Although not among the top three, the excrement of the African elephant (\u003cem\u003eLoxodonta africanus\u003c/em\u003e) was of medicinal value to some of the respondents in this study. Dubost et al., (2021) found the use of elephant excrement in Xayaboury province, Lao PDR mainly for gastrointestinal and skin disorders while Friant et al., 2021 reported the use of alcoholic extraction of the faecal matter for the treatment of fevers [6,.39] The topical route seems to be the most applied route among the respondents in this study since only 4.8% of the respondents added dry excrement to a liquid or food for oral consumption. This is corroborated by several other studies that found that both topical and enteral routes are used depending on the condition or purpose of the use of the animal excrement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. For some persons, the thought of applying excrement onto their body or ingesting it is disgusting which influences their perception of or attitude towards the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine. This study found a statistically significant association between attitude towards the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine and some sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents such as age, religious affiliation, employment status, educational level and knowing some other user of the animal excrement. Generally, as a person ages, their disease burdens and their spiritual realization increase and this might account for the increasing desire to use animal excrement with those above 50 years being the top most users. The influence of the sector of employment and the educational status on the use of traditional medicine has been reported by several authors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR41\" citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Ameade et al., (2024) also reported the influence of religious affiliation on the use of traditional medicine and this has also been reflected in the significantly greater desire of followers of Traditional African Religion to patronise animal excrement for traditional medicine [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. According to Cherry (2023), a person\u0026rsquo;s attitude is dependent on experience, observation, as well as social factors so it is understandable that respondents who knew other users of animal excrement for traditional medicine would significantly patronize them than their counterparts who had no previous association with a user [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. The only predictors of the use of animal excrement in traditional medicine were age, knowing a user and religious affiliation. Those who know other users of animal excrement for traditional medicine were 6.6 times more likely to patronize it than those who do not know any users (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.6; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001) while believers in Traditional African Religion were 5.9 times more likely to resort to animal excrement than Christians. However, an overall attitude score of 51.8% on the use of animal excrement in healthcare is also not surprising because of the abhorrence people generally have towards the use of animal waste, especially that of humans even in Agriculture [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR45\" citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]). The disgust towards the use of human excreta was also observed in this study with just half (50.8%) unwilling to use human excreta if it has medicinal value. This attitude towards animal excrement in traditional medicine was significantly associated with the age of respondents, their religious affiliation, their educational attainment, ever used animal excrement or knowing a user. The reasons for these associations are similar to those that are responsible for the persons with certain characteristics using animal excrement for traditional medicine discussed earlier. Despite the average attitude scores, the use of animal excrement will be expected to continue since all the respondents in this study were satisfied or very satisfied with the outcome of the use of the excrement. Despite these findings, this study has some weaknesses which include the convenience sampling method used, and the fact that the study was conducted in only one city in Ghana so the results cannot be generalized. However, a careful search by the authors did not find any other publication which assessed the extent of use of animal excrement by a people and the attitudes towards it when used for therapeutic purposes. Similar studies could therefore be undertaken in other places to provide a more balance view about the use of and attitude towards animal excrement in healthcare.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eAnimal excrement is used in Ghana for traditional medicine especially that of Dromedary camel (\u003cem\u003eCamelus dromedarius\u003c/em\u003e) and cow (\u003cem\u003eBos taurus\u003c/em\u003e). Although some persons use animal excrement for spiritual or mystical purposes, they are mostly used for the management of physical disorders through topical application. Age, being a believer in Traditional African Religion and knowing a user of animal excrement are the significant predictors of their use in traditional medicine. The overall attitude towards the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine is average, but it is significantly influenced by the age of the respondents, their religious beliefs, educational status, and ever using or knowing some other person who used the animal excrement for traditional medicine. With users being satisfied with the outcome after use of the animal excrement, the use of this animal waste will continue into the future and there will be the need for more scientific researh since new orthodox medicnes could be discovered.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eRFC\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Relative Frequency of Citation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFc\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Number of respondents who reported using the\u0026nbsp;excrement\u0026nbsp;of a species in traditional medicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eN\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Number of participants in the survey\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSPSS\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Statistical Package for Social Sciences\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCOR\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Crude Odds Ratio\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAOR \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Adjusted Odds Ratio\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch4\u003eData Availability\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results presented are adequate to support the conclusion of this study. However, the lead author is available to provide extra data upon request.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funds were received\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical consideration and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were collected from participants only after they gave their informed consent to take part in the study. The Ethics Committee of the School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences of the University for Development Studies provided prior approval for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEPKA conceived the idea, designed the questionnaire, analyzed the data and drafted the manuscript. \u0026nbsp;SG designed the questionnaire, collected the data and curated the data. EA drafted the manuscript\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoshchina VV, Roshchina VD. The excretory function of higher plants. Springer Science \u0026amp; Business Media; 2012.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOzioma EOJ, Chinwe OAN. Herbal medicines in African traditional medicine. 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Afr J Sci Technol Innov Dev. 2017;9:85\u0026ndash;91.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Animal, excrement, scatology, traditional medicine, attitude, Ghana","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4305896/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4305896/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAnimal excrement although may be considered as a waste product, has since ancient days found use in the management of several physical disorders and sometimes for spiritual or mystical purposes. This study assessed the extent of use and the attitude towards the use of animal excrement in traditional medicine among the Ghanaian public. Data was collected from 399 persons in the Tamale metropolis of the Northern Region of Ghana using a semi-structured questionnaire. Data analysis involved the use of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, Version 26 and the results presented in the form of tables and charts. The multivariate logistic regression model was used to assess predictors. Using a confidence interval of 95%, an association between variables was assumed to be significant when p ≤ 0.05. Whereas 44 (11.6%) indicated a personal use of animal excrement for traditional medicine, up to 234 (58.6%) knew some other person who had ever used animal excrement as medicine. For users of animal excrements, the majority, 42 (97.7%) used them for therapeutic reasons with only 1 (2.3%) claiming to use them for spiritual or mystical purposes. The top two most cited excrements were from the Dromedary camel (\u003cem\u003eCamelus dromedarius\u003c/em\u003e) and the cow (\u003cem\u003eBos taurus\u003c/em\u003e). Statistically significant associations were found between the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine and respondents’ ages (p-value \u0026lt; 0.001), religious affiliation (p-value \u0026lt; 0.001), employment status (p-value = 0.018), highest educational attainment (p-value = 0.003) and knowing someone who used animal excrement (p-value \u0026lt; 0.001). The predictors of the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine were age, religious affiliation and knowing a user. The attitude towards the use of animal excrement for traditional medicine is barely average (51.8%) with the worst attitude towards the therapeutic use of human excreta. This attitude towards animal excrement in traditional medicine was significantly associated with the age of respondents, their religious affiliation, their educational attainment, ever used animal excrement or knowing a user.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Ethnozoological scatology: A situational report on the utilization of animal excrement in traditional medicine in Ghana","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-04-30 07:38:32","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4305896/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7b932347-ee2e-47d8-b0f3-2282246689bf","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 30th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-05-11T13:23:50+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-04-30 07:38:32","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4305896","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4305896","identity":"rs-4305896","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}