Problematic Smartphone Use and Declining Spiritual Wellbeing and Hope

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This study examined the relationships between problematic smartphone use (PSU) and spiritual wellbeing among university students. Methods: This cross-sectional survey analyzed undergraduate students (n = 340) at a large private university in the United States. Participants were recruited from large-enrollment courses during the Winter semester of 2025. Two validated instruments of PSU were used, the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale and the Mobile Phone Addiction Scale. Spiritual wellbeing was measured using two validated instruments, the Spiritual Wellbeing Index (FACIT) and the Herth Hope Index (HHI). Linear regression models, controlling for sex, age, and socioeconomic status, were used to evaluate the associations between PSU and spiritual wellbeing. Results: Significant negative correlations were observed between both PSU measures and spiritual wellbeing and hope, indicating that higher levels of PSU were associated with lower scores on the wellbeing metrics. Conclusion: These results suggest that PSU may displace authentic spiritual practices and erode a sense of connection and purpose that contributes to wellbeing among emerging adults. problematic smartphone use spiritual wellbeing hope emerging adults university students social media addiction mobile phone addiction Background Problematic smartphone use (PSU) has emerged as a growing public health concern, particularly among young adults (Ndayambaje & Okereke, 2025 ). PSU refers to a pattern of excessive and dysregulated smartphone use characterized by impaired control, withdrawal symptoms, and functional interference that resembles behavioral addiction (Yang et al., 2021 ). One contributing factor to PSU is the increasing centrality of smartphones as a primary mode of social interaction, often replacing face-to-face engagement (Pew Research Center, 2023). This shift reflects a process of social displacement, in which time and attention devoted to digital interaction substitute for embodied and relational forms of connection (Hall & Liu, 2022 ). Beyond changes in social behavior, PSU has been associated with broader disruptions in psychological functioning. Digital displacement linked to problematic use has been shown to negatively affect attention, stress regulation, and emotional wellbeing (Elhai et al., 2017 ). These disruptions suggest that PSU may influence not only physical and mental health but also deeper psychosocial and existential dimensions of wellbeing. One such dimension is spiritual wellbeing. Spiritual wellbeing refers to a sense of meaning, peace, and connection to something greater than oneself and is widely regarded as a core component of holistic health (Muñoz et al., 2015 ). Scholars have noted that increased reliance on digital forms of engagement can displace embodied practices of participation and community that have traditionally supported spiritual life (Campbell & Evolvi, 2020 ). As a result, patterns of PSU may undermine experiences of meaning, connection, and transcendence that contribute to spiritual wellbeing. Spiritual wellbeing is particularly salient for college-age individuals, who undergo a developmental period marked by identity formation, value clarification, and the search for purpose (Arnett, 2000 ; Hill et al., 2016 ; Scales et al., 2016 ). During this life stage, spiritual wellbeing can serve as a critical source of resilience, guiding values, and life satisfaction (Leung & Pong, 2021 ). Disruptions to this domain may therefore have significant implications for overall adjustment and flourishing. In addition to spiritual wellbeing, hope represents a key psychosocial dimension that may be vulnerable to PSU. Hope is commonly conceptualized as a future-oriented and motivational construct that involves a sense of agency, goal-directed thinking, and perceived pathways toward desired outcomes (Herth, 1991 ; Herth, 1992 ; Snyder et al., 1991 ). This construct plays a central role in psychological resilience and overall wellbeing, particularly during emerging adulthood, a critical life period. The mechanism for this impact may relate to PSU eroding individuals' capacity to envision and pursue meaningful future possibilities (Yilmaz & Karaoglan Yilmaz, 2023 ). While strong documented associations exist between PSU and important dimensions of overall wellbeing, other psychosocial factors, such as spiritual wellbeing and hope, are less understood. This study investigates the association between PSU, spiritual wellbeing, and hope among university students, contributing to a growing body of research on how PSU intersects with different dimensions of wellbeing in young adults. Methods Study Design and Participants This study utilized a cross-sectional survey design to assess potential associations between PSU and spiritual wellbeing among university students. The institutional review board at Brigham Young University (IRB#: IRB2025-024) approved this study. Participants included undergraduate students 18 years of age and older enrolled in courses during the Winter Semester (January through April) 2025 at a large private university in the United States. Procedures The questionnaire was developed and then subjected to two rounds of pilot testing in November 2024 before being finalized. Courses of 50 or more students were randomly selected from a large college at the university. Participants from the randomly selected classes were then recruited via email and an in-class announcement. Both the email and in-class announcement included a QR code and hyperlink to the study questionnaire. Participants were offered inclusion in a drawing for a $ 25 Amazon gift card for their participation, with one-in-four participants receiving a gift card. The survey was active for two weeks following recruitment. Survey Administration The questionnaire was administered online using the Qualtrics platform (Seattle, WA, USA). Participants provided informed consent by answering 'yes' to the first questionnaire item. The questionnaire closed for participants who answered 'no' and thus did not consent to participation. Participation was voluntary and not connected to course grades, credit, or extra credit. Participant responses were also anonymous, as no identifying information was collected. In addition to basic demographic items, the questionnaire included multiple validated instruments related to social media engagement and general smartphone behavior as well as scales and indices related to health and wellbeing. Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale The Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) measures addictive behaviors related to social media use. The BSMAS includes six items: 1) I spend a lot of time thinking about social media or planning how to use it; 2) I feel an urge to use social media more and more; 3) I use social media in order to forget about personal problems; 4) I have tried to cut down on the use of social media without success; 5) I become restless or troubled if I am prohibited from using social media; and 6) I use social media so much that it has had a negative impact on my job/studies. Possible responses to each item include 'agree' (2 points), 'neutral' (1 point) and 'disagree' (0 points). Item scores are summed up with higher scores indicative of greater social media dependence (Cronbach's alpha = .79). Mobile Phone Addiction Scale The Mobile Phone Addiction Scale (MPAS) estimates the degree to which an individual is addicted to their mobile phone in a variety of situations. It seeks to measure the biological, psychosocial, and behavioral patterns associated with mobile phone usage that may be described as excessive. The scale includes a total of 20 statements scored using a three-point Likert scale consisting of 'agree' (2 points), 'neutral' (1 point), and 'disagree' (0 points). Item scores are summed up with higher scores indicative of greater probability of mobile phone addiction. Items include: 1) I usually check my notifications as soon as I receive them during the day; 2) I usually check notifications received while resting in light sleep; 3) I usually impulsively check for notifications while attending classes or studying at home; 4) I usually check my mobile phone for messages/gaming/surfing while attending classes; 5) I usually check my mobile phone for new messages or notifications right after waking up from sleep; 6) I constantly check my mobile phone so as not to miss conversations between friends/other people on social media; 7) I have a hard time concentrating in class, while doing assignments, or while working due to mobile use; 8) I prefer talking communicating through social media/smartphone to hanging out with real-life friends or family; 9) I usually check my mobile phone even while engaged in group participation; 10) I use my mobile phone longer than I had intended to; 11) I'm always thinking that I should shorten my mobile phone usage; 12) The people around me complain that I do not pay attention to them due to mobile phone use; 13) I get annoyed or shout if someone asks me to decrease the use of mobile phone; 14) I feel impatient and fretful when I am not holding my mobile phone; 15) I experience stress when I am not using my mobile phone; 16) I experience lightheadedness or blurred vision due to excessive mobile phone use; 17) I feel pain in my wrists or the back of my neck while using a mobile phone; 18) I feel tired and lack adequate sleep due to excessive mobile phone use; 19) I cannot imagine living without my mobile phone; and 20) I compulsively respond to calls or messages at places where it is dangerous to do so like driving or crossing the road (Cronbach's alpha = .84). FACIT – Spiritual Wellbeing Index The FACIT – Spiritual Wellbeing Index (FACIT) is designed to evaluate spiritual wellbeing (Muñoz et al., 2015 ). The FACIT's 12 items focus on perceptions of meaning, peace, and faith over the past week: 1) I feel peaceful; 2) I have a reason for living; 3) My life has been productive; 4) I have trouble feeling peace of mind; 5) I feel a sense of purpose in my life; 6) I am able to reach down deep into myself for comfort; 7) I feel a sense of harmony within myself; 8) My life lacks meaning and purpose; 9) I find comfort in my faith or spiritual beliefs; 10) I find strength in my faith or spiritual beliefs; 11) Difficult times have strengthened my faith or spiritual beliefs; and 12) Even during difficult times, I know that things will be okay. Responses to the FACIT were simplified to a three-point scale including 'agree' (2 points), 'neutral' (1 point) and 'disagree' (0 points) with items 4 and 8 reverse scored. Totals are summed up, with higher scores indicating greater spiritual wellbeing (Cronbach's alpha = .79). The mean score was 15.98 (SD = 5.12; range 0–22). Herth Hope Index The Herth Hope Index (HHI) was designed in 1991 to evaluate hope in young people with chronic illnesses (Herth, 1991 ). The HHI captures aspects such as positive outlook, connectedness, and goal-oriented thinking through 12 items: 1) I have a positive outlook toward life; 2) I have short and/or long range goals; 3) I feel all alone; 4) I can see possibilities in the midst of difficulties; 5) I have a faith that gives me comfort; 6) I feel scared about my future; 7) I can recall happy/joyful times; 8) I have deep inner strength; 9) I am able to give and receive care/love; 10) I have a sense of direction; 11) I believe that each day has potential; and 12) I feel like my life has value and worth. Measurement of the HHI typically includes a four-point Likert-type scale, but for consistency with other scales included in the current study, the HHI was simplified to a three-point scale including 'agree' (2 points), 'neutral' (1 point) and 'disagree' (0 points) with items 3 and 6 reverse scored. Higher scores indicate a greater level of hope (Cronbach's alpha = .71). The mean score was 20.27 (SD = 4.42; range 0–24). Data Analysis Only completed questionnaires were included in the statistical analysis. Data was imported from Qualtrics to STATA (College Station, TX) for analysis. Univariate analyses were conducted to describe the study sample. Linear regression analyses were used to explore the relationship between PSU and both FACIT and HHI. Regression models controlled for age, sex, and socioeconomic status. Results Demographics Approximately two-thirds of study participants were female (67.7%), while the median age for all participants was 22 years old (see Table 1 ). Most (75.6%) were never married. More than half (57.1%) reported their parental income as upper middle or upper, while few (1.2%) indicated their parents were low income. Table 1 Sample demographics Sex N (%) Female 230 (67.65) Male 110 (32.35) Age 18 13 (3.82) 19 23 (6.76) 20 31 (9.12) 21 70 (20.59) 22 82 (24.12) 23 52 (15.29) 24 139 (1.47) 25 or older 19 (5.59) Marital Status Never married 257 (75.59) Married 82 (24.12) Divorced 1 (0.29) Parent's Socioeconomic Status Upper 34 (10.00) Upper middle 160 (47.06) Middle 115 (33.82) Lower middle 27 (7.94) Lower 4 (1.18) Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale The mean score was 4.44 (SD = 3.35; range 0–12). The most agreed upon item from the BSMAS was "I use social media in order to forget about personal problems" (N = 124; 41.9%), while the least agreed upon item was "I become restless or troubled if I am prohibited from using social media" (N = 34; 11.5%) (see Table 2 ). Table 2 Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) I spend a lot of time thinking about social media or planning how to use it. Agree N (%) Neutral N (%) Disagree N (%) 40 (13.5) 75 (25.3) 181 (61.2) I feel an urge to use social media more and more. 80 (27.0) 70 (23.7) 146 (49.3) I use social media in order to forget about personal problems. 124 (41.9) 68 (23.0) 104 (35.1) I have tried to cut down on the use of social media without success. 109 (36.8) 76 (25.7) 111 (37.5) I become restless or troubled if I am prohibited from using social media. 34 (11.5) 61 (20.7) 200 (67.8) I use social media so much that it has had a negative impact on my job/studies. 57 (19.3) 78 (26.3) 161 (54.4) Results from linear regression modeling found the BSMAS to be significantly and negatively correlated (p < 0.001; Coeff. = -0.2489) with spiritual wellbeing as measured by the FACIT, indicating an association between social media dependence and poorer spiritual wellbeing. The BSMAS was also associated with the HHI (p < 0.001; Coeff. = -0.2348) such that as social media dependence increased, hope decreased. See Table 3 for complete results from linear regression modeling. Table 3 Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) and Measures of Spirituality Spiritual Wellbeing Index (FACIT) Coefficient Std. Error P-value 95% CI -0.2489 0.0553 p < 0.001* (-0.3579, -0.1399) Herth Hope Index -0.2348 0.0445 p < 0.001* (-0.3225, -0.1470) Linear regression models controlling for age, sex, and socioeconomic status Mobile Phone Addiction Scale The mean score was 14.69 (SD = 7.01; range 0–38). The most agreed upon items from the MPAS were "I usually check my mobile phone for new messages or notifications right after waking up from sleep" (N = 213; 72.2%) and "I use my mobile phone longer than I had intended to" (N = 193, 65.4%) (see Table 4 ). The least agreed upon item was "I get annoyed or shout if someone asks me to decrease the use of my mobile phone." (N = 8; 2.7%). Table 4 Mobile Phone Addiction Scale (MPAS) I usually check my notifications as soon as I receive them during the day. Agree N (%) Neutral N (%) Disagree N (%) 159 (53.7) 83 (28.0) 54 (18.3) I usually check notifications received while resting in light sleep. 47 (15.9) 41 (13.9) 207 (70.2) I usually impulsively check for notifications while attending classes or studying at home. 156 (53.1) 62 (21.1) 76 (25.8) I usually check my mobile phone for messages/gaming/surfing while attending classes. 134 (45.6) 73 (24.8) 87 (29.6) I usually check my mobile phone for new messages or notifications right after waking up from sleep. 213 (72.2) 41 (13.9) 41 (13.9) I constantly check my mobile phone so as not to miss conversations between friends/other people on social media. 73 (24.7) 87 (29.5) 135 (45.8) I have a hard time concentrating in class, while doing assignments, or while working due to mobile use. 68 (23.1) 80 (27.2) 146 (49.7) I prefer social media to hanging out with real-life friends or family. 12 (4.1) 23 (7.8) 260 (88.1) I usually check my mobile phone even while engaged in group participation. 47 (15.9) 96 (32.6) 152 (51.5) I use my mobile phone longer than I had intended to. 193 (65.4) 69 (23.4) 33 (11.2) I'm always thinking that I should shorten my mobile phone usage. 172 (58.3) 77 (26.1) 46 (15.6) The people around me complain that I do not pay attention to them due to my mobile phone use. 14 (4.7) 25 (8.5) 256 (86.8) I get annoyed or shout if someone asks me to decrease the use of my mobile phone. 8 (2.7) 21 (7.1) 265 (90.2) I feel impatient and fretful when I am not holding my mobile phone. 13 (4.4) 46 (15.7) 235 (79.9) I experience stress when I am not using my mobile phone. 11 (3.7) 32 (10.9) 251 (85.4) I experience lightheadedness or blurred vision due to excessive mobile phone use. 26 (8.8) 45 (15.3) 224 (75.9) I feel pain in my wrists or the back of my neck while using a mobile phone. 34 (11.5) 39 (13.3) 221 (75.2) I feel tired and lack adequate sleep due to excessive mobile phone use. 57 (19.5) 66 (22.5) 170 (58.0) I cannot imagine living without my mobile phone. 96 (32.5) 92 (31.2) 107 (36.3) I compulsively respond to calls or messages at places where it is dangerous to do so, like driving or crossing the road. 61 (20.7) 63 (21.4) 171 (58.0) Results from linear regression modeling revealed that the MPAS was significantly and negatively correlated (p < 0.001; Coeff. = -0.0994) with spiritual wellbeing, as measured by the FACIT, indicating an association between mobile phone addiction and reduced spiritual wellbeing (see Table 5 ). The MPAS was also associated with the HHI (p < 0.001; Coeff. = -0.1029) such that as mobile phone addiction increased, hope decreased. Table 5 Mobile Phone Addiction Scale (MPAS) and Measures of Spirituality Spiritual Wellbeing Scale (FACIT) Coefficient Std. Error P-value 95% CI -0.0994 0.0271 0.000* (-0.1528, -0.0460) Herth Hope Index -0.1029 0.0216 0.000* (-0.1455, -0.0604) Linear regression models controlling for age, sex, and socioeconomic status Discussion This study examined associations between PSU, spiritual wellbeing, and hope among a sample of university students. Across two different dimensions of PSU, social media addiction and mobile phone addiction, higher levels of PSU were consistently associated with lower levels of spiritual wellbeing and hope. These findings suggest that PSU may be meaningfully and negatively linked to core psychosocial factors that support resilience, purpose, positivity, motivation, and overall health during emerging adulthood. Spiritual wellbeing, as measured by the FACIT, captures central dimensions of meaning, peace, inner harmony, and faith-based strength. The observed negative associations between both PSU measures and FACIT scores indicate that higher engagement in smartphone and social media use is associated with lower perceived meaning and spiritual grounding. This pattern is consistent with theories of digital displacement, which posit that immersive and compulsive digital engagement can substitute for embodied, relational, and reflective practices that traditionally sustain spiritual life (Campbell & Evolvi, 2020 ; Hall & Liu, 2022 ). These findings also offer a supportive perspective on the value of young people forming purpose-oriented connections within communities characterized by shared rituals, roles, and mentorship (Hardy et al., 2019 ). Many now turn to apparently less meaningful digital substitutes to satisfy these same needs, displacing traditional structures, which may undermine spiritual wellbeing by eroding a person's sense of peace and purpose. Hope encompasses a future-oriented sense of agency, connection, and the perceived capacity to navigate toward meaningful goals. The consistent negative associations across both measures of PSU and hope suggest that unhealthy types and levels of smartphone and social media use may interfere with individuals' ability to remain oriented toward valued future possibilities and aspirations. From a theoretical perspective, the results presented here underscore the potential importance of Snyder's hope theory (2002), which emphasizes both agency and pathways as core components of hopeful thinking. Many of the behaviors captured by the PSU measures in the current study, such as compulsive checking, difficulty concentrating, and using digital media to escape personal problems, may erode both processes. Continuous digital distraction fragments attention, disrupts goal pursuit, and promotes avoidance rather than problem-solving, all of which may erode a person's sense of direction and self-efficacy (Chen & Lyu, 2024 ; Meier et al., 2023 ; Ohly & Bastin, 2023 ). Considered collectively, another possible explanation for the diminished spiritual wellbeing and hope observed among individuals with higher PSU is simply the persistent distraction created by this presumed digital dependence. Spiritual development and hopeful outlooks often require intentional stillness, reflection, and sustained focus, conditions that appear scarce in environments dominated by continuous notifications, multitasking, and algorithmically curated content (Newport, 2019 ). In such contexts, individuals may struggle to engage meaningfully in practices such as prayer, self-reflection, mindful attention, future-oriented thinking, meditation, reflective study, and contemplative attention, all of which likely support both spiritual wellbeing and hope (AlYousef et al., 2025 ; Galli et al., 2025 ; Johannes et al., 2018 ; Koessmeier & Büttner, 2021 ). This linkage is supported by somewhat positive evidence that reducing digital distractions can improve sustained attention, mental health, and subjective wellbeing, reinforcing the importance of uninterrupted cognitive and emotional space (Castelo et al., 2025 ; Ohly & Bastin, 2023 ). The results observed in this study are particularly concerning, given the developmental context of emerging adulthood. This life stage is marked by identity exploration, value formation, and the search for purpose and direction (Arnett, 2000 ; Hill et al., 2016 ). Spiritual wellbeing and hope are particularly significant during this period, and when PSU becomes normative during this window, it may overshadow the experiences that typically support these developmental processes. To this point, PSU may pose a greater developmental risk, potentially shaping how young adults perceive their spiritual worth and their future possibilities. Limitations Several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings of this study. First, although the measures of spiritual wellbeing and hope captured important existential and future-oriented dimensions of wellbeing, they did not assess the frequency, depth, or quality of specific religious or spiritual practices. Future research could examine whether certain forms of spiritual engagement, such as worship, private devotional practices, or mentorship-based religious involvement, moderate the relationship between PSU and spiritual wellbeing or hope. Second, the cross-sectional design limits the ability to infer causality or directionality. While higher levels of PSU were associated with lower spiritual wellbeing and hope, it is also possible that individuals experiencing diminished meaning, purpose, or optimism may be more likely to engage in problematic smartphone use. Longitudinal or experimental designs would help clarify temporal relationships and potential causal pathways. Third, the study sample was drawn from a single large private university, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to students attending public institutions or to non-student populations. Institutional culture, religious context, and demographic composition may influence both technology use and spiritual wellbeing. Lastly, voluntary participation may have introduced selection bias, as individuals with extreme patterns of smartphone use or low interest in spirituality may have been less likely to participate. Conclusions These findings contribute to a growing body of literature indicating that excessive or maladaptive digital engagement may displace in-person social interaction, reduce opportunities for mindfulness, and interfere with practices that cultivate meaning, resilience, and purpose. From a practical perspective, these results highlight the importance of incorporating spiritual wellbeing and hope into conversations surrounding digital health and technology use among young adults. Universities, clinicians, and health promotion initiatives may benefit from encouraging intentional technology use, fostering opportunities for reflection and community engagement, and supporting practices that nurture both spiritual health and future-oriented resilience. As digital technologies continue to shape daily life, understanding how they intersect with deeper dimensions of wellbeing will be essential for promoting holistic health in emerging adulthood. Abbreviations PSU Problematic Smartphone Use BSMAS Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale MPAS Mobile Phone Addiction Scale FACIT Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy – Spiritual Wellbeing Index HHI Herth Hope Index IRB Institutional Review Board Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Brigham Young University (IRB#: IRB2025-024). All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study prior to survey completion. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding No external funding was received for this study. Authors' contributions B.W., W.H., K.B., P.H., J.W., C.P., E.O.P., and B.C. contributed to study design, data collection, and manuscript preparation. B.C. and J.W. contributed to data analysis and manuscript review. B.C. supervised the study and was a major contributor in writing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements Not applicable. References AlYousef NH, Alhakeem FM, AlNasser KA, AlSinan ZH, AlEssa ZK, AlDawood FM, et al. Does social media addiction disrupt mindful attention of students in health colleges at a university in Saudi Arabia? J Fam Community Med. 2025;32(4):339–46. Arnett JJ. Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. Am Psychol. 2000;55(5):469–80. Campbell HA, Evolvi G. Contextualizing current digital religion research on emerging technologies. 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Snyder CR, Harris C, Anderson JR, Holleran SA, Irving LM, Sigmon ST, et al. The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1991;60(4):570–85. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.570 . Snyder CR, Rand KL, Sigmon DR. Hope theory. In: Snyder CR, Lopez SJ, editors. Handbook of positive psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2002. pp. 257–76. Yang H, Zhou N, Cao H, Chen J. Stress and problematic smartphone use severity: Smartphone use frequency and fear of missing out as mediators. Front Psychiatry. 2021;12:659288. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.659288 . Yilmaz R, Karaoglan Yilmaz FG. Problematic internet use in adults: The role of happiness, psychological resilience, dispositional hope, and self-control and self-management. J Ration Emot Cogn Behav Ther. 2023;41(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-022-00482-y . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 28 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 21 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 27 Mar, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 26 Mar, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 26 Mar, 2026 First submitted to journal 13 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9110244","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":631278533,"identity":"819b03aa-1b06-4e17-92ee-79197fcdefa0","order_by":0,"name":"Benny West","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Brigham Young University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Benny","middleName":"","lastName":"West","suffix":""},{"id":631278534,"identity":"5c34d8c0-7550-4120-b81d-225e5e267729","order_by":1,"name":"William Heath","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Brigham Young University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"William","middleName":"","lastName":"Heath","suffix":""},{"id":631278535,"identity":"1b0634cd-07ba-49b5-b2cd-3b9381432d07","order_by":2,"name":"Kensley Bird","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Brigham Young University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kensley","middleName":"","lastName":"Bird","suffix":""},{"id":631278536,"identity":"4c5f1fd3-d917-475c-8768-29238299929e","order_by":3,"name":"Parley Hall","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Brigham Young University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Parley","middleName":"","lastName":"Hall","suffix":""},{"id":631278537,"identity":"78cdd790-d0a5-41ea-9d71-8a75ac2cba77","order_by":4,"name":"Joshua West","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Brigham Young University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joshua","middleName":"","lastName":"West","suffix":""},{"id":631278538,"identity":"8d498a1f-afd7-4231-97f6-8dfe8f1c70fe","order_by":5,"name":"Clara Paz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad de Las Américas","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Clara","middleName":"","lastName":"Paz","suffix":""},{"id":631278539,"identity":"124ac6ab-fb8c-4163-bf62-ec20a04bb1ff","order_by":6,"name":"Esteban Ortiz-Prado","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad de Las Américas","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Esteban","middleName":"","lastName":"Ortiz-Prado","suffix":""},{"id":631278540,"identity":"c2ffdaa3-49e3-4aec-b295-029af1bbc08e","order_by":7,"name":"Benjamin Crookston","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABCUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAwiWgHIPgAjmY0gcIrQAWWxpBLUgAbAWHjO8WszZew8U/MyxyGNgP/vwwYczdXX80j3fHvO2Mcjx3UjAqsWy51yCYe82iWIGnnRjwxk3DktIzjm73RioxVgShxaDGzkGBrzbJBIbJNjYpHk+HJAwuJG7TRqoJXEDLi333xgY/kVoqQNqyXkG0lKPU8sNHgNjhC03mEFa2EBaEgxw+iXHwFgWqKWNJ43ZcMaZw5IzZ6SZG845J2E488wDHCF2xszw7ba6xH72Y4wPPhyr4+eXSH724E2ZjTzfcey2AAEbOG7YkIWYeOCRixUwY9rP+AOfhlEwCkbBKBhpAADf/1xcpRNWKAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Brigham Young University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Benjamin","middleName":"","lastName":"Crookston","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-13 04:54:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9110244/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9110244/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108491277,"identity":"caa18f69-79bc-4fe5-9dec-a174d6f154f3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 09:53:06","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":318773,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9110244/v1/86eb7e35-b3a4-43e5-a109-76499f922350.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Problematic Smartphone Use and Declining Spiritual Wellbeing and Hope","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eProblematic smartphone use (PSU) has emerged as a growing public health concern, particularly among young adults (Ndayambaje \u0026amp; Okereke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). PSU refers to a pattern of excessive and dysregulated smartphone use characterized by impaired control, withdrawal symptoms, and functional interference that resembles behavioral addiction (Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). One contributing factor to PSU is the increasing centrality of smartphones as a primary mode of social interaction, often replacing face-to-face engagement (Pew Research Center, 2023). This shift reflects a process of social displacement, in which time and attention devoted to digital interaction substitute for embodied and relational forms of connection (Hall \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond changes in social behavior, PSU has been associated with broader disruptions in psychological functioning. Digital displacement linked to problematic use has been shown to negatively affect attention, stress regulation, and emotional wellbeing (Elhai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). These disruptions suggest that PSU may influence not only physical and mental health but also deeper psychosocial and existential dimensions of wellbeing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne such dimension is spiritual wellbeing. Spiritual wellbeing refers to a sense of meaning, peace, and connection to something greater than oneself and is widely regarded as a core component of holistic health (Mu\u0026ntilde;oz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Scholars have noted that increased reliance on digital forms of engagement can displace embodied practices of participation and community that have traditionally supported spiritual life (Campbell \u0026amp; Evolvi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, patterns of PSU may undermine experiences of meaning, connection, and transcendence that contribute to spiritual wellbeing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpiritual wellbeing is particularly salient for college-age individuals, who undergo a developmental period marked by identity formation, value clarification, and the search for purpose (Arnett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Hill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Scales et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). During this life stage, spiritual wellbeing can serve as a critical source of resilience, guiding values, and life satisfaction (Leung \u0026amp; Pong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Disruptions to this domain may therefore have significant implications for overall adjustment and flourishing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to spiritual wellbeing, hope represents a key psychosocial dimension that may be vulnerable to PSU. Hope is commonly conceptualized as a future-oriented and motivational construct that involves a sense of agency, goal-directed thinking, and perceived pathways toward desired outcomes (Herth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Herth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Snyder et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). This construct plays a central role in psychological resilience and overall wellbeing, particularly during emerging adulthood, a critical life period. The mechanism for this impact may relate to PSU eroding individuals' capacity to envision and pursue meaningful future possibilities (Yilmaz \u0026amp; Karaoglan Yilmaz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile strong documented associations exist between PSU and important dimensions of overall wellbeing, other psychosocial factors, such as spiritual wellbeing and hope, are less understood. This study investigates the association between PSU, spiritual wellbeing, and hope among university students, contributing to a growing body of research on how PSU intersects with different dimensions of wellbeing in young adults.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Design and Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study utilized a cross-sectional survey design to assess potential associations between PSU and spiritual wellbeing among university students. The institutional review board at Brigham Young University (IRB#: IRB2025-024) approved this study. Participants included undergraduate students 18 years of age and older enrolled in courses during the Winter Semester (January through April) 2025 at a large private university in the United States.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProcedures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire was developed and then subjected to two rounds of pilot testing in November 2024 before being finalized. Courses of 50 or more students were randomly selected from a large college at the university. Participants from the randomly selected classes were then recruited via email and an in-class announcement. Both the email and in-class announcement included a QR code and hyperlink to the study questionnaire. Participants were offered inclusion in a drawing for a \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e25 Amazon gift card for their participation, with one-in-four participants receiving a gift card. The survey was active for two weeks following recruitment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSurvey Administration\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire was administered online using the Qualtrics platform (Seattle, WA, USA). Participants provided informed consent by answering 'yes' to the first questionnaire item. The questionnaire closed for participants who answered 'no' and thus did not consent to participation. Participation was voluntary and not connected to course grades, credit, or extra credit. Participant responses were also anonymous, as no identifying information was collected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to basic demographic items, the questionnaire included multiple validated instruments related to social media engagement and general smartphone behavior as well as scales and indices related to health and wellbeing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBergen Social Media Addiction Scale\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) measures addictive behaviors related to social media use. The BSMAS includes six items: 1) I spend a lot of time thinking about social media or planning how to use it; 2) I feel an urge to use social media more and more; 3) I use social media in order to forget about personal problems; 4) I have tried to cut down on the use of social media without success; 5) I become restless or troubled if I am prohibited from using social media; and 6) I use social media so much that it has had a negative impact on my job/studies. Possible responses to each item include 'agree' (2 points), 'neutral' (1 point) and 'disagree' (0 points). Item scores are summed up with higher scores indicative of greater social media dependence (Cronbach's alpha = .79).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMobile Phone Addiction Scale\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Mobile Phone Addiction Scale (MPAS) estimates the degree to which an individual is addicted to their mobile phone in a variety of situations. It seeks to measure the biological, psychosocial, and behavioral patterns associated with mobile phone usage that may be described as excessive. The scale includes a total of 20 statements scored using a three-point Likert scale consisting of 'agree' (2 points), 'neutral' (1 point), and 'disagree' (0 points). Item scores are summed up with higher scores indicative of greater probability of mobile phone addiction. Items include: 1) I usually check my notifications as soon as I receive them during the day; 2) I usually check notifications received while resting in light sleep; 3) I usually impulsively check for notifications while attending classes or studying at home; 4) I usually check my mobile phone for messages/gaming/surfing while attending classes; 5) I usually check my mobile phone for new messages or notifications right after waking up from sleep; 6) I constantly check my mobile phone so as not to miss conversations between friends/other people on social media; 7) I have a hard time concentrating in class, while doing assignments, or while working due to mobile use; 8) I prefer talking communicating through social media/smartphone to hanging out with real-life friends or family; 9) I usually check my mobile phone even while engaged in group participation; 10) I use my mobile phone longer than I had intended to; 11) I'm always thinking that I should shorten my mobile phone usage; 12) The people around me complain that I do not pay attention to them due to mobile phone use; 13) I get annoyed or shout if someone asks me to decrease the use of mobile phone; 14) I feel impatient and fretful when I am not holding my mobile phone; 15) I experience stress when I am not using my mobile phone; 16) I experience lightheadedness or blurred vision due to excessive mobile phone use; 17) I feel pain in my wrists or the back of my neck while using a mobile phone; 18) I feel tired and lack adequate sleep due to excessive mobile phone use; 19) I cannot imagine living without my mobile phone; and 20) I compulsively respond to calls or messages at places where it is dangerous to do so like driving or crossing the road (Cronbach's alpha = .84).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFACIT \u0026ndash; Spiritual Wellbeing Index\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe FACIT \u0026ndash; Spiritual Wellbeing Index (FACIT) is designed to evaluate spiritual wellbeing (Mu\u0026ntilde;oz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The FACIT's 12 items focus on perceptions of meaning, peace, and faith over the past week: 1) I feel peaceful; 2) I have a reason for living; 3) My life has been productive; 4) I have trouble feeling peace of mind; 5) I feel a sense of purpose in my life; 6) I am able to reach down deep into myself for comfort; 7) I feel a sense of harmony within myself; 8) My life lacks meaning and purpose; 9) I find comfort in my faith or spiritual beliefs; 10) I find strength in my faith or spiritual beliefs; 11) Difficult times have strengthened my faith or spiritual beliefs; and 12) Even during difficult times, I know that things will be okay. Responses to the FACIT were simplified to a three-point scale including 'agree' (2 points), 'neutral' (1 point) and 'disagree' (0 points) with items 4 and 8 reverse scored. Totals are summed up, with higher scores indicating greater spiritual wellbeing (Cronbach's alpha = .79). The mean score was 15.98 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.12; range 0\u0026ndash;22).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eHerth Hope Index\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Herth Hope Index (HHI) was designed in 1991 to evaluate hope in young people with chronic illnesses (Herth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). The HHI captures aspects such as positive outlook, connectedness, and goal-oriented thinking through 12 items: 1) I have a positive outlook toward life; 2) I have short and/or long range goals; 3) I feel all alone; 4) I can see possibilities in the midst of difficulties; 5) I have a faith that gives me comfort; 6) I feel scared about my future; 7) I can recall happy/joyful times; 8) I have deep inner strength; 9) I am able to give and receive care/love; 10) I have a sense of direction; 11) I believe that each day has potential; and 12) I feel like my life has value and worth. Measurement of the HHI typically includes a four-point Likert-type scale, but for consistency with other scales included in the current study, the HHI was simplified to a three-point scale including 'agree' (2 points), 'neutral' (1 point) and 'disagree' (0 points) with items 3 and 6 reverse scored. Higher scores indicate a greater level of hope (Cronbach's alpha = .71). The mean score was 20.27 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.42; range 0\u0026ndash;24).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly completed questionnaires were included in the statistical analysis. Data was imported from Qualtrics to STATA (College Station, TX) for analysis. Univariate analyses were conducted to describe the study sample. Linear regression analyses were used to explore the relationship between PSU and both FACIT and HHI. Regression models controlled for age, sex, and socioeconomic status.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDemographics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eApproximately two-thirds of study participants were female (67.7%), while the median age for all participants was 22 years old (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Most (75.6%) were never married. More than half (57.1%) reported their parental income as upper middle or upper, while few (1.2%) indicated their parents were low income.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample demographics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e230 (67.65)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110 (32.35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (3.82)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23 (6.76)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31 (9.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 (20.59)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (24.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52 (15.29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e139 (1.47)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 or older\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (5.59)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital Status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever married\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e257 (75.59)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (24.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDivorced\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (0.29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParent's Socioeconomic Status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34 (10.00)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper middle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160 (47.06)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115 (33.82)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower middle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27 (7.94)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (1.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eBergen Social Media Addiction Scale\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean score was 4.44 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.35; range 0\u0026ndash;12). The most agreed upon item from the BSMAS was \"I use social media in order to forget about personal problems\" (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;124; 41.9%), while the least agreed upon item was \"I become restless or troubled if I am prohibited from using social media\" (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;34; 11.5%) (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI spend a lot of time thinking about social media or planning how to use it.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgree N (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeutral N (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisagree N (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (13.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75 (25.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e181 (61.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI feel an urge to use social media more and more.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (27.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 (23.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e146 (49.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI use social media in order to forget about personal problems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e124 (41.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68 (23.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104 (35.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI have tried to cut down on the use of social media without success.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109 (36.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76 (25.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111 (37.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI become restless or troubled if I am prohibited from using social media.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34 (11.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61 (20.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200 (67.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI use social media so much that it has had a negative impact on my job/studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57 (19.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78 (26.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e161 (54.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults from linear regression modeling found the BSMAS to be significantly and negatively correlated (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; Coeff. = -0.2489) with spiritual wellbeing as measured by the FACIT, indicating an association between social media dependence and poorer spiritual wellbeing. The BSMAS was also associated with the HHI (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; Coeff. = -0.2348) such that as social media dependence increased, hope decreased. See Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e for complete results from linear regression modeling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) and Measures of Spirituality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpiritual Wellbeing Index (FACIT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoefficient\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStd. Error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.2489\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0553\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(-0.3579, -0.1399)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerth Hope Index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.2348\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0445\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026minus;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(-0.3225, -0.1470)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLinear regression models controlling for age, sex, and socioeconomic status\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMobile Phone Addiction Scale\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean score was 14.69 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.01; range 0\u0026ndash;38). The most agreed upon items from the MPAS were \"I usually check my mobile phone for new messages or notifications right after waking up from sleep\" (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;213; 72.2%) and \"I use my mobile phone longer than I had intended to\" (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;193, 65.4%) (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). The least agreed upon item was \"I get annoyed or shout if someone asks me to decrease the use of my mobile phone.\" (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8; 2.7%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMobile Phone Addiction Scale (MPAS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI usually check my notifications as soon as I receive them during the day.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgree N (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeutral N (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisagree N (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e159 (53.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83 (28.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54 (18.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI usually check notifications received while resting in light sleep.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47 (15.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41 (13.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e207 (70.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI usually impulsively check for notifications while attending classes or studying at home.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e156 (53.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62 (21.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76 (25.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI usually check my mobile phone for messages/gaming/surfing while attending classes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e134 (45.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73 (24.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87 (29.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI usually check my mobile phone for new messages or notifications right after waking up from sleep.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e213 (72.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41 (13.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41 (13.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI constantly check my mobile phone so as not to miss conversations between friends/other people on social media.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73 (24.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87 (29.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135 (45.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI have a hard time concentrating in class, while doing assignments, or while working due to mobile use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68 (23.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (27.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e146 (49.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI prefer social media to hanging out with real-life friends or family.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 (4.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23 (7.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e260 (88.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI usually check my mobile phone even while engaged in group participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47 (15.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96 (32.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e152 (51.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI use my mobile phone longer than I had intended to.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e193 (65.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69 (23.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33 (11.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI'm always thinking that I should shorten my mobile phone usage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e172 (58.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77 (26.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46 (15.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe people around me complain that I do not pay attention to them due to my mobile phone use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 (4.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 (8.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e256 (86.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI get annoyed or shout if someone asks me to decrease the use of my mobile phone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (2.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21 (7.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e265 (90.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI feel impatient and fretful when I am not holding my mobile phone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (4.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46 (15.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e235 (79.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI experience stress when I am not using my mobile phone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 (3.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32 (10.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e251 (85.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI experience lightheadedness or blurred vision due to excessive mobile phone use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26 (8.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 (15.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e224 (75.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI feel pain in my wrists or the back of my neck while using a mobile phone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34 (11.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39 (13.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e221 (75.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI feel tired and lack adequate sleep due to excessive mobile phone use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57 (19.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66 (22.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170 (58.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI cannot imagine living without my mobile phone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96 (32.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92 (31.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e107 (36.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI compulsively respond to calls or messages at places where it is dangerous to do so, like driving or crossing the road.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61 (20.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63 (21.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e171 (58.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults from linear regression modeling revealed that the MPAS was significantly and negatively correlated (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; Coeff. = -0.0994) with spiritual wellbeing, as measured by the FACIT, indicating an association between mobile phone addiction and reduced spiritual wellbeing (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The MPAS was also associated with the HHI (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; Coeff. = -0.1029) such that as mobile phone addiction increased, hope decreased.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMobile Phone Addiction Scale (MPAS) and Measures of Spirituality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpiritual Wellbeing Scale (FACIT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoefficient\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStd. Error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0994\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0271\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(-0.1528, -0.0460)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerth Hope Index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.1029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0216\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026minus;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(-0.1455, -0.0604)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLinear regression models controlling for age, sex, and socioeconomic status\u003c/h2\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined associations between PSU, spiritual wellbeing, and hope among a sample of university students. Across two different dimensions of PSU, social media addiction and mobile phone addiction, higher levels of PSU were consistently associated with lower levels of spiritual wellbeing and hope. These findings suggest that PSU may be meaningfully and negatively linked to core psychosocial factors that support resilience, purpose, positivity, motivation, and overall health during emerging adulthood.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpiritual wellbeing, as measured by the FACIT, captures central dimensions of meaning, peace, inner harmony, and faith-based strength. The observed negative associations between both PSU measures and FACIT scores indicate that higher engagement in smartphone and social media use is associated with lower perceived meaning and spiritual grounding. This pattern is consistent with theories of digital displacement, which posit that immersive and compulsive digital engagement can substitute for embodied, relational, and reflective practices that traditionally sustain spiritual life (Campbell \u0026amp; Evolvi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Hall \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These findings also offer a supportive perspective on the value of young people forming purpose-oriented connections within communities characterized by shared rituals, roles, and mentorship (Hardy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Many now turn to apparently less meaningful digital substitutes to satisfy these same needs, displacing traditional structures, which may undermine spiritual wellbeing by eroding a person's sense of peace and purpose.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHope encompasses a future-oriented sense of agency, connection, and the perceived capacity to navigate toward meaningful goals. The consistent negative associations across both measures of PSU and hope suggest that unhealthy types and levels of smartphone and social media use may interfere with individuals' ability to remain oriented toward valued future possibilities and aspirations. From a theoretical perspective, the results presented here underscore the potential importance of Snyder's hope theory (2002), which emphasizes both agency and pathways as core components of hopeful thinking. Many of the behaviors captured by the PSU measures in the current study, such as compulsive checking, difficulty concentrating, and using digital media to escape personal problems, may erode both processes. Continuous digital distraction fragments attention, disrupts goal pursuit, and promotes avoidance rather than problem-solving, all of which may erode a person's sense of direction and self-efficacy (Chen \u0026amp; Lyu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Meier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Ohly \u0026amp; Bastin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsidered collectively, another possible explanation for the diminished spiritual wellbeing and hope observed among individuals with higher PSU is simply the persistent distraction created by this presumed digital dependence. Spiritual development and hopeful outlooks often require intentional stillness, reflection, and sustained focus, conditions that appear scarce in environments dominated by continuous notifications, multitasking, and algorithmically curated content (Newport, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In such contexts, individuals may struggle to engage meaningfully in practices such as prayer, self-reflection, mindful attention, future-oriented thinking, meditation, reflective study, and contemplative attention, all of which likely support both spiritual wellbeing and hope (AlYousef et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Galli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Johannes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Koessmeier \u0026amp; B\u0026uuml;ttner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This linkage is supported by somewhat positive evidence that reducing digital distractions can improve sustained attention, mental health, and subjective wellbeing, reinforcing the importance of uninterrupted cognitive and emotional space (Castelo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Ohly \u0026amp; Bastin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results observed in this study are particularly concerning, given the developmental context of emerging adulthood. This life stage is marked by identity exploration, value formation, and the search for purpose and direction (Arnett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Hill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Spiritual wellbeing and hope are particularly significant during this period, and when PSU becomes normative during this window, it may overshadow the experiences that typically support these developmental processes. To this point, PSU may pose a greater developmental risk, potentially shaping how young adults perceive their spiritual worth and their future possibilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings of this study. First, although the measures of spiritual wellbeing and hope captured important existential and future-oriented dimensions of wellbeing, they did not assess the frequency, depth, or quality of specific religious or spiritual practices. Future research could examine whether certain forms of spiritual engagement, such as worship, private devotional practices, or mentorship-based religious involvement, moderate the relationship between PSU and spiritual wellbeing or hope.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, the cross-sectional design limits the ability to infer causality or directionality. While higher levels of PSU were associated with lower spiritual wellbeing and hope, it is also possible that individuals experiencing diminished meaning, purpose, or optimism may be more likely to engage in problematic smartphone use. Longitudinal or experimental designs would help clarify temporal relationships and potential causal pathways.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, the study sample was drawn from a single large private university, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to students attending public institutions or to non-student populations. Institutional culture, religious context, and demographic composition may influence both technology use and spiritual wellbeing. Lastly, voluntary participation may have introduced selection bias, as individuals with extreme patterns of smartphone use or low interest in spirituality may have been less likely to participate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThese findings contribute to a growing body of literature indicating that excessive or maladaptive digital engagement may displace in-person social interaction, reduce opportunities for mindfulness, and interfere with practices that cultivate meaning, resilience, and purpose. From a practical perspective, these results highlight the importance of incorporating spiritual wellbeing and hope into conversations surrounding digital health and technology use among young adults. Universities, clinicians, and health promotion initiatives may benefit from encouraging intentional technology use, fostering opportunities for reflection and community engagement, and supporting practices that nurture both spiritual health and future-oriented resilience. As digital technologies continue to shape daily life, understanding how they intersect with deeper dimensions of wellbeing will be essential for promoting holistic health in emerging adulthood.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePSU\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblematic Smartphone Use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eBSMAS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBergen Social Media Addiction Scale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMPAS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMobile Phone Addiction Scale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eFACIT\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFunctional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy \u0026ndash; Spiritual Wellbeing Index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eHHI\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerth Hope Index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eIRB\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstitutional Review Board\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Brigham Young University (IRB#: IRB2025-024). All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study prior to survey completion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo external funding was received for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB.W., W.H., K.B., P.H., J.W., C.P., E.O.P., and B.C. contributed to study design, data collection, and manuscript preparation. B.C. and J.W. contributed to data analysis and manuscript review. B.C. supervised the study and was a major contributor in writing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlYousef NH, Alhakeem FM, AlNasser KA, AlSinan ZH, AlEssa ZK, AlDawood FM, et al. Does social media addiction disrupt mindful attention of students in health colleges at a university in Saudi Arabia? J Fam Community Med. 2025;32(4):339\u0026ndash;46.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eArnett JJ. Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. Am Psychol. 2000;55(5):469\u0026ndash;80.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCampbell HA, Evolvi G. 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J Ration Emot Cogn Behav Ther. 2023;41(3). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-022-00482-y\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10942-022-00482-y\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"problematic smartphone use, spiritual wellbeing, hope, emerging adults, university students, social media addiction, mobile phone addiction","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9110244/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9110244/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmartphones play a significant role in shaping perceptions of wellbeing among young adults in the United States. This study examined the relationships between problematic smartphone use (PSU) and spiritual wellbeing among university students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis cross-sectional survey analyzed undergraduate students (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;340) at a large private university in the United States. Participants were recruited from large-enrollment courses during the Winter semester of 2025. Two validated instruments of PSU were used, the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale and the Mobile Phone Addiction Scale. Spiritual wellbeing was measured using two validated instruments, the Spiritual Wellbeing Index (FACIT) and the Herth Hope Index (HHI). Linear regression models, controlling for sex, age, and socioeconomic status, were used to evaluate the associations between PSU and spiritual wellbeing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificant negative correlations were observed between both PSU measures and spiritual wellbeing and hope, indicating that higher levels of PSU were associated with lower scores on the wellbeing metrics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results suggest that PSU may displace authentic spiritual practices and erode a sense of connection and purpose that contributes to wellbeing among emerging adults.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Problematic Smartphone Use and Declining Spiritual Wellbeing and Hope","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-30 12:29:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9110244/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"262915894848795956780238089528128706343","date":"2026-04-28T14:21:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-21T15:19:03+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-27T07:55:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-26T13:11:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-26T13:10:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Public Health","date":"2026-03-13T04:46:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e45b2881-7998-42ca-afa4-03ed30801475","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 30th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-30T12:29:06+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-30 12:29:06","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9110244","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9110244","identity":"rs-9110244","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}