Bronze Production and Lead Resource Circulation in the Yuhuangmiao Culture of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty

Bronze Production and Lead Resource Circulation in the Yuhuangmiao Culture of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Bronze Production and Lead Resource Circulation in the Yuhuangmiao Culture of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty Tiancheng Zhou, Meng Hong, Jieyi Zuo, Wenrui Zhang, Yanxiang Li, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5456689/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 21 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences → Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The Yuhuangmiao Culture, an important archaeological culture, distributed in northern Hebei, dates from the Middle Spring and Autumn period to the Middle Warring States period. It is regarded as a key representative example of the Late Bronze Age in northern China. This paper presents findings from a project conducted by the Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, which re-evaluated artifacts excavated artefacts from significant Yuhuangmiao sites, particularly the Manzigou Cemetery and the Paotaishan Cemetery. The study focused on various bronze samples, which underwent multiple analytical techniques, including metallurgical microscopy, ultra-deep field microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS). These methods allowed for an in-depth analysis of bronze production of bronze and the origins of the lead materials used. The results indicate that the bronze artifacts from the Manzigou Cemetery display features akin to the Upper Xajiadian Culture during the early stages of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, although they still contain some copper arsenic. Interestingly, the lead sources differ from those in the Upper Xajiadian Culture. By the maturity phase of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, a casting system for a copper-tin-lead ternary alloy was established. However, there is no evidence of bronze production involving the complex copper-tin-arsenic-lead (and silver) coproducts typical of the Upper Xajiadian Culture, although signs of lead production are present. The evidence suggests that bronze production primarily utilized B lead, supplemented by C lead sources from the Central Plains. The influence of the Central Plains culture is particularly notable in the Paotaishan Cemetery from the Warring States period, where the varied lead materials demonstrate multiple sources highlight the substantial impact of Central Plains lead on local practices. Yuhuangmiao Culture Eastern Zhou Dynasty Bronze Production Lead Isotopes Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. Introduction The Spring and Autumn Period, along with the Warring States Period, marked a critical phase in the development of bronze metallurgy in ancient China. During this era, a comprehensive system for bronze production took shape, primarily focused on the casting of bronze ceremonial vessels in the Central Plains. Additionally, an interactive network emerged across the Eurasian continent, linking the eastern and western regions of the northern Eurasian steppe(Jaang 2015 ).The exchange of bronze technology and the movement of metal resources between these areas have become key areas of scholarly research. Northern Hebei Province, situated at the eastern fringe of these two regions, serves as a bridge connecting the Eurasian steppe to the northwest and the Central Plains to the south. This unique geographical context fosters a blending of various bronze production techniques from both areas, situating it within a metallurgical zone that encompasses Northern China and the Mongolian Plateau during the Bronze Age. Consequently, studying bronze metallurgy in this region ties into larger historical narratives, including East-West interactions, the evolution of the steppe, and the rise of the Xiongnu (Yang and Shao 2017 ). In the Late Bronze Age, the Yuhuangmiao Culture emerged as the leading archaeological culture in the region, garnering significant research attention and yielding numerous important studies over recent decades. However, the uneven distribution of published archaeological findings related to the Yuhuangmiao Culture across various regions has created substantial gaps that need further exploration. In response, the Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, along with other organizations, has launched a project to reassess artifacts from the Manzigou and Paotaishan cemeteries, key sites representing the Yuhuangmiao Culture. The findings presented in this paper stem from this initiative. By scientifically analyzing these excavated artifacts, we aim to deepen our understanding of the metallurgical technology of the Yuhuangmiao Culture and address questions surrounding the flow of metal resources in the region. 2. Archaeological framework 2.1 Archaeology The Yuhuangmiao Culture derives its name from the excavation of the Yuhuangmiao Cemetery, located in Jundu Mountain, Yanqing District, Beijing, which took place from 1985 to 1991 (Beijing Municipal Administration of Cultural Heritage 2007). Initial excavations in 1985 were conducted by the Beijing Institute of Cultural Relics conducted excavations at three cemeteries: Yuhuangmiao, Hulugou, and Xiliangguang (Jin 1989). The artifacts uncovered during these digs provided a crucial chronological framework for understanding the Yuhuangmiao Culture and established a typical dataset for this archaeological culture. Initially, some scholars referred to it as the Shanrong Culture by some scholars, including the excavators(Tian 1997; Jin and Wang 2002)，but after a thorough analysis of the artifacts, it was deemed more appropriate to designate it as the Yuhuangmiao Culture, a decision that the original excavators accepted (Lin 2002; Chen 1995; Yang 2000, 2003; Jin 2009). The academic community has built a foundational understanding of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, which spans from the middle Spring and Autumn Period to the middle Warring States Period. During its development, this culture absorbed a significant influence from the Upper Xiajiadian Culture and beyond, including interactions with grassland cultures outside of China (Ivanovich and Petrovich 2020; Quan and Yang 2021) and subsequent influences from the Yan Culture (Teng and Zhang 2014). The culture primarily occupies northern Hebei Province, which can be divided into eastern and western areas, with the Baihe River acting as a natural boundary. Key sites in the western area include Yuhuangmiao, Hulugou, Xiliangguang, and Baimiao, while significant sites in the east include Hanjiafen, Manzigou, Lishugou, and Fengning Wudougou, among others(Hong 2022). Most research has concentrated on the western area of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, especially the Yuhuangmiao Cemetery (Pak 1995; He et al. 2002; Jeong 2004; Hong 2014; Ivanovich and Mikhajlovich 2015; Shan 2016; Jeong 2018; Teng 2018; Jeong and Yang 2020). Conversely, the eastern area remains relatively understudied, primarily due to a lack of recent publications. Therefore, further investigation into the Manzigou Cemetery and the Paotaishan Cemeteries is crucial. The Manzigou Cemetery is situated in Manzigou, Datun Town, Luanping County, Hebei Province (40°59′58.2″N, 117°22′03.6″E), covering an area of approximately 20,000 square metres. Between 1976 and 1979, the Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics (subsequently renamed the Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology) and other units conducted an excavation of the cemetery over a period of four years. Excavation of the eastern part of the Manzigou Xishanpo was conducted in 1976, resulting in the discovery of burial number 76MMXX. The western part of the Manzigou Xishanpo was excavated in 1977, leading to the uncovering of burial number 77MMXX. In the same year, the Manzigou Heshangfen tomb, bearing the number 77HMXX, was also excavated. In 1978, the western part of the Manzigou Xishanpo (tomb number 78MMXX) was subjected to further excavation, while in the same year, in November, the south side of the Manzigou Huangtukeng (tomb number 78XMXX) was also opened up for examination. In 1979, the northern side of Huangtukeng was subjected to excavation, resulting in the discovery of burial number 79MMXX. A total of 81 tombs from the Eastern Zhou period were excavated over a four-year period(Zheng 1998; Zhang 2023). The Paotaishan Cemetery, located in Paotaishan, Hushiha Town, Luanping County, Hebei Province (40°52′32.0″N, 117°00′03.9″E), covers approximately 30,000 square meters. In 1979, excavations organized by the Hebei Provincial Research Institute of Cultural Relics uncovered 35 Eastern Zhou period tombs, yielding 561 artifacts of various types(Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology et al. 1983). 2.2 Materials A total of 34 bronze artifacts were selected from the excavations at Manzigou and Paotaishan, encompassing weapons, tools, decorations, and currency. Of these, 25 artifacts were excavated from the Manzigou Cemetery, while 9 came from the Paotaishan Cemetery. These samples reflect a variety of chronological and typological characteristics typical of the Yuhuangmiao Culture. The Manzigou Cemetery is divided into two distinct periods. The Manzigou Cemetery I dates to the early part of Late Spring and Autumn Period, where influences from the Upper Xiajiadian Culture can still be seen in items like the bronzes from this period, such as xiao-cutting saber (79MM24:5) and bronze arrowhead (79MM24:6) (Hong, 2019). In contrast, Manzigou Cemetery II represents the later phase of this period, showcasing the maturity of the Yuhuangmiao Culture. Notable artifacts from this phase include a dagger (77MM40:9, 78XM21:2, 77MM30:6) and a tiger-shaped ornament (76MM16:3), with the dagger (78XM21:2) dating to a slightly later period. The Paotaishan Cemetery marks the final phase of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, with its earliest artifacts dating to the Middle Warring States. This cemetery displays significant influences from the Yan Culture (Hong, 2014). Table 1 Samples from the Manzigou Cemetery and the Paotaishan Cemetery, chronological frameworks from(Hong 2014; Zhang 2023). Sample Reference Period Manzigou Cemetery I xiao-cutting saber 79MM24:5 Early part of Late Spring and Autumn arrowhead 79MM24:6 horse shaped ornament 79MM24:10 dagger 78XM7:1 bronze arrowhead 78XM7:7 deer shaped ornament 78XM7:8 double tiger shaped ornament 78XM7:9 frog shaped ornament 79MM9:6 ornament 78XM4:7 awl 79MM20:9 Manzigou Cemetery II xiao-cutting saber 78XM11:1 Late part of Late Spring and Autumn arrowhead 77MM40:8 dagger 77MM40:9 xiao-cutting saber 77MM40:12 ornament 77MM40:14 hanging pendant 76MM10:12 earring 76MM16:2 tiger shaped ornament 76MM16:3 axe 76MM16:5 bead shaped ornament 77MM43:3 dagger 78XM21:2 dagger 77MM30:6 bronze arrowhead 77MM30:9 ornament 79MM6:7 double bead shaped ornament 77HM15:3 Paotaishan Cemetery ornament HM5:4 Early-Middle Warring States xiao-cutting saber HM5:5 xiao-cutting saber HM11:7 axe HM11:12 bell HM11:16 arrowhead HM11:22 knife-shaped coin 79HM21:4 earring 79HM22:2 arrowhead 79HM27:7 Table 2 The calendar date of different stages of Eastern Zhou dynasty(Lam 2014). Period Abbreviation Calendar date Early Spring and Autumn ESA 770-665 BCE Middle Spring and Autumn MSA 664-559 BCE Late Spring and Autumn LSA 558-454 BCE Early Warring States EWS 453-377 BCE Middle Warring States MWS 376-300 BCE Late Warring States LWS 299-221 BCE 3. Methodology 3.1 Metallographic observation and detection After carefully examining and documenting the artefacts' physical characteristics of the artifacts, samples were selected for cutting and further analysis, focusing on those closest proximity to the substrate. An electric miniature fine steel toothless saw was used for this process. To reinforce the samples, we applied ERGO's 5400 low-viscosity glue. For samples with a porous connecting texture, we utilized vacuum inlay technology is employed to enhance their structure and reduce the risk of secondary contamination. The samples were then sanded using water sandpaper of various grits and polished with an appropriate polishing solution based on their texture. Observations were made with a Leica DM400M metallographic microscope, which underwent a pre-treatment with FeCl₃ hydrochloric acid alcohol etching. 3.2 Compositional structure SEM-EDS inspection After repolishing of the metallographic samples, a vacuum-sprayed carbon coating was applied to the metallographic samples. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS) detection were performed at the Materials Testing Centre of the School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing. We used a Zeiss LEO-1450 electron microscope paired with a Thermo Scientific NORAN-7 energy spectrum analyzer. The SEM-EDS analysis was conducted at a working voltage of 20 kV, with the beam current intensity adjusted as needed. Sampling and analysis of the semi-quantitative elemental analysis were carried out automatically, ensuring a minimum sampling time of 60 seconds to achieve reliable measurements while minimizing errors.. 3.3 Lead isotope Lead isotope analysis was conducted by the laboratory of Beijing Kehui Testing Technology Co., Ltd., using the Neptune Plus MC-ICP-MS from Thermo Fisher Scientific Co. The procedure began with weighing 50 mg of the sample was weighed in a 15mL Savillex dissolution tank, then adding 2mL of HF and 1 mL of HNO₃. The mixture was heated in a closed chamber for a period of 48 hours. After evaporation, concentrated HNO₃ was added before a final evaporation. The sample was reconstituted with 1 mL of 3.5mol/L HNO₃. Lead isotope separation utilized pre-cleaned Sr special effect resin, which was loaded and sequentially washed with 3.5 mol/L HNO₃, 8 mol/L HCl, and Milli-Q water. Following the washing, the sample was loaded onto the resin, which was rinsed several times before collecting the lead with 7mL of 3.5 mol/L HNO₃, and 4mL of Milli-Q water was added to drench the Sr. Add 5 mL of 8 mol/L HCl to receive Pb. The purified Pb solution was then evaporated to dryness, with concentrated nitric acid added to assist in further evaporation. A final volume of 1 mL of 2% HNO₃ was prepared for testing. After analysis, the concentration of Pb in the solution was carried out by taking a cursory measurement, and a standard solution of Tl solution was added to achieve Pb: Tl =1: 1. The lead isotope instrument was calibrated using the exponential equation for the fractionation, with the calibration value set at 203Tl/205Tl = 0.418922. 4. Results and discussion 4.1 Chemical composition of bronze Table 3 Chemical compositions of samples from Manzigou Cemetery and Paotaishan Cemetery Sample Reference Cu As Sn Pb O Manzigou Cemetery I xiao-cutting saber 79MM24:5 86.2 1.6 5.6 4.3 2.3 arrowhead 79MM24:6 82.8 12.6 4.1 horse shaped ornament 79MM24:10 69.7 10.6 13.5 4.1 dagger 78XM7:1 80.6 10.3 9.1 arrowhead 78XM7:7 89.7 10.0 deer shaped ornament 78XM7:8 71.2 16.6 11.8 double tiger shaped ornament 78XM7:9 77.9 1.2 9.7 6.0 5.2 frog shaped ornament 79MM9:6 70.8 1.6 12.5 3.5 11.6 ornament 78XM4:7 67.1 26.3 5.6 1.0 awl 79MM20:9 72.1 7.0 17.5 3.4 Manzigou Cemetery II xiao-cutting saber 78XM11:1 85.5 6.7 4.7 2.8 arrowhead 77MM40:8 88.1 8.7 2.9 dagger 77MM40:9 82.6 9.2 8.2 xiao-cutting saber 77MM40:12 84.9 13.3 1.4 ornament 77MM40:14 68.7 8.7 16.9 5.7 hanging pendant 76MM10:12 76.9 14.2 8.1 0.8 earring 76MM16:2 77.8 6.2 2.6 tiger shaped ornament 76MM16:3 17.9 23.6 37.1 14.8 axe 76MM16:5 76.3 11.6 10.4 bead shaped ornament 77MM43:3 44.7 19.0 16.9 18.7 dagger 78XM21:2 70.8 11.9 16.0 dagger 77MM30:6 66.7 15.3 17.6 bronze arrowhead 77MM30:9 80.9 13.9 5.2 ornament 79MM6:7 53.0 13.7 14.7 14.8 double bead shaped ornament 77HM15:3 67.3 9.7 14.5 8.6 Paotaishan Cemetery ornament HM5:4 91.3 4.8 0.9 3.0 xiao-cutting saber HM5:5 81.8 7.4 10.8 xiao-cutting saber HM11:7 82.1 15.3 1.9 axe HM11:12 85.5 14.5 bell HM11:16 83.7 10.6 3.9 1.6 arrowhead HM11:22 80.3 8.9 8.9 2.0 knife-shaped coin 79HM21:4 48.9 4.9 38.2 5.9 earring 79HM22:2 77.1 14.2 6.0 2.8 arrowhead 79HM27:7 83.8 8.7 4.3 3.2 The sample 78XM7:7 (10.0 wt% Sn) from Manzigou Cemetery I represents tin bronze, while other samples, including 79MM24:5 (5.6 wt% Sn, 4.3 wt% Pb, 1.6 wt% As), 78XM7:9 (9.7 wt% Sn, 6.0 wt% Pb, 1.2 wt% As), and 79MM9:6 (12.5 wt% Sn, 3.5 wt% Pb, 1.6 wt% As), contain minor amounts of arsenic. The remaining samples from this cemetery consist of lead-tin bronze. In Manzigou Cemetery I, weapons and tools have tin contents ranging from 7.0–12.6% and lead contents from 4.1–17.5%. Ornaments have tin contents between 10.6% and 26.3% and lead contents between 5.6% and 13.5%. Samples from Manzigou Cemetery II, by contrast, are all lead-tin bronze, with weapons and tools containing 6.7–13.9% tin and 1.4–16.0% lead. For ornaments, the tin content varies from 6.2–23.6% and lead content from 2.6–37.1%. In the bronzes unearthed from Paotaishan Cemetery, sample HM11:12 (14.5 wt% Sn) is the only example of tin bronze, with all other samples being lead-tin bronze. Lead content in Paotaishan bronzes, except for 79HM21:4 (4.9 wt% Sn, 38.2 wt% Pb), is generally lower than that in Manzigou samples. The tin content of weapons and tools from Paotaishan ranges from 7.4–15.3%, and lead content ranges from 1.9–10.8%. For ornaments, tin content ranges from 4.8–14.2%, while lead content ranges from 0.9–6.0%. Overall, the majority of bronzes from both Manzigou and Paotaishan cemeteries are lead-tin bronze, with only a few early samples containing arsenic, and a very limited number classified as tin bronze. This distribution suggests that the eastern Yuhuangmiao Culture primarily produced lead-tin bronze items. There is notable variation in the quality of these bronzes, especially across different artifact types. Bronze arrowheads, among weaponry, show stable composition over time, possibly due to the functional demands of hunting and combat. In contrast, the composition of the four daggers fluctuates considerably, particularly sample 77MM30:6, which contains 17.6% lead. This variation may indicate that daggers, unlike arrowheads, were more ceremonial than functional. Among the tools, with the exception of the awl (79MM20:9), axes and xiao-cutting sabers exhibit a consistent composition, indicating a need for durability similar to that of arrowheads. Ornaments exhibit the most variation in composition, often containing high levels of lead. Especially the tiger shaped ornament(76MM16:3), is a rare sample which the copper content is less than that of tin and lead, of course taking into account the issue of copper element loss due to corrosion. This suggests that ornaments in the Yuhuangmiao Culture did not require strong mechanical properties, and the high lead content enhanced casting fluidity while conserving copper and tin. The compositional differences in ornaments between the two cemeteries are also significant: Manzigou Cemetery items tend to have higher lead and tin content, while those from Paotaishan have lower levels of these metals. A particularly unusual item is the knife-shaped coin (79HM21:4) from Paotaishan, which likely originated from Yan during the Warring States period. This artifact represents one of the lowest-quality bronzes in the collection. 4.2 Microstructural composition of bronze The majority of the metallographic photographs reveal that the samples' microstructures contain Cu-Sn α solid solution dendrites, along with abundant (α + δ) eutectic formations. In some cases, these (α + δ) eutectic structures appear connected, forming a network-like pattern. SEM images further reveal varied distributions of lead particles: some samples show a diffuse distribution, while others display strip-like or large spherical lead formations. The presence of black voids in certain samples may be due to the detachment of lead particles. The xiao-cutting saber (HM5:5) and arrowhead (77MM40:8) metallographs serve as representative examples of the typical casting structures observed across these samples. Notably, a significant number of red copper particles are present in the arrowhead (77MM40:8), supporting the conclusion that the Yuhuangmiao Culture East Zone population frequently used straightforward casting methods for bronze production. However, evidence from the dagger (78XM7:1) and another xiao-cutting saber (HM11:7) suggests that some functional items were created through forging. The metallographic structure of dagger (78XM7:1) shows recrystallized copper-tin α grains with interwoven slip bands, indicating hot forging. Conversely, the xiao-cutting saber (HM11:7) underwent forging and subsequent heat treatment. A distinctive set of artifacts are the earrings (76MM16:2 and 77MM34:1) with culture-specific symbols from the Manzigou Cemetery. These were crafted by forging copper wires into fine twisted filaments. Similar earrings have been found in both the Upper Xiajiadian Culture and the Slate Tomb Culture, highlighting cultural connections across these groups.(Shao and Yang 2015 ). The Upper Xiajiadian Culture, widely acknowledged for its significant influence on the Yuhuangmiao Culture, utilized complex copper-tin-arsenic-lead (and occasionally silver) alloys in bronze production (Li et al. 2013 ). The presence of arsenic-containing bronzes in Manzigou Cemetery I suggests this influence on early Yuhuangmiao metallurgy. However, as the Yuhuangmiao Culture matured, it established a distinct bronze production system based on casting copper-tin-lead ternary alloys. Specialized compositional controls and processes were developed for different functional items, including forging techniques for utility items and specially shaped earrings. Similar developments in bronze production were observed in the western part of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, indicating a shared approach to bronze technology across the eastern and western regions (He et al. 2002 ). Although the Yuhuangmiao Culture borrowed cultural elements from the Upper Xiajiadian Culture, its bronze production techniques during its mature period became distinct, reflecting an independent technological evolution that diverged from Upper Xiajiadian practices. 4.3 Lead isotope of bronze Table 4 Lead isotope data of the samples from the cemeteries in Manzigou and Paotaishan Sample Reference 206 Pb/ 204 Pb 207 Pb/ 204 Pb 208 Pb/ 204 Pb 207 Pb/ 206 Pb 208 Pb/ 206 Pb Manzigou Cemetery I ornament with horse shaped 79MM24:10 18.3898 15.6445 38.6320 0.8507 2.1007 dagger 78XM7:1 18.2968 15.6479 38.6474 0.8552 2.1122 ornament with double tiger shaped 78XM7:9 18.3417 15.6354 38.6347 0.8524 2.1064 ornament with frog shaped 79MM9:6 18.3560 15.6366 38.6337 0.8519 2.1047 awl 79MM20:9 17.7906 15.5931 38.3531 0.8765 2.1558 Manzigou Cemetery II dagger 77MM40:9 18.5173 15.6889 38.8671 0.8473 2.0990 dagger 77MM30:6 18.1685 15.5963 38.3831 0.8584 2.1126 hanging pendant 76MM10:12 18.3294 15.6355 38.6356 0.8530 2.1078 ornament with tiger shaped 76MM16:3 18.2651 15.6239 38.5572 0.8554 2.1110 ornament with bead shaped 77MM43:3 18.3462 15.6329 38.6018 0.8521 2.1041 ornament with double bead shaped 77HM15:3 18.2885 15.6120 38.5554 0.8537 2.1082 Paotaishan Cemetery ornament HM5:4 17.6944 15.5771 38.1669 0.8803 2.1570 bronze arrowhead 79HM27:7 17.8330 15.6022 38.4141 0.8749 2.1541 knife-shaped coin 79HM21:4 18.0963 15.6199 38.7468 0.8632 2.1411 For lead isotope testing, fifteen samples were chosen: five from Manzigou Cemetery I, six from Manzigou Cemetery II, and three from Paotaishan Cemetery. The samples from the Manzigou Cemeteries were selected as representative artifacts of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, including seven ornaments, three daggers, and one awl. Due to the considerable influence of the Yan Culture on the Yuhuangmiao Culture during the Warring States period, the three samples from Paotaishan Cemetery, including a knife-shaped coin (79HM21:4) likely of Yan origin, were chosen with the possibility of foreign contact in mind. All fourteen samples tested contain more than 3% lead, suggesting that lead was intentionally added. This supports the assumption that the lead isotopes reflect the source of the lead material itself. The samples, characterized by 206Pb/204Pb ratios below 18.6, fall within the "common lead" category, with no "highly radiogenic" lead present. (Jin et al. 2017 ; Hsu et al. 2021 ). For the purposes of this discussion, the paper is based on(Zhang and Chen 2017 ; Zhang et al. 2020 , 2021 ), the 208 Pb/ 206 Pb vs 207 Pb/ 206 Pb mapping was conducted, and the region was divided by the empirical reference line l 0 : y = 1.6162x + 0.7288. This allowed the classification of common intervals of lead isotope ratios into three categories: with 207 Pb/ 206 Pb, category A intervals (0.860–0.875), category B intervals (0.840–0.860), and category C intervals (0.875-0.900). The lead isotopes from Manzigou Cemeteries I and II indicate that most samples contain B-type lead, which was widely used in the bronzes of the Middle Plains Vassal States during the Middle Spring and Autumn period (Nan 2018 ; Zhang et al. 2020 ). Given that the Manzigou Cemetery is dated primarily to the Late Spring and Autumn period, B-type lead likely entered northern Hebei province during this time. Notably, the copper awl (79MM20:9) shows an association with C-type lead, which became prevalent in the Central Plains during the Late Spring and Autumn period. This artifact, dated to the early Late Spring and Autumn, suggests that while C-type lead was dominant in the Central Plains, it had sporadically reached northern Hebei province. Additionally, the extensive use of B-type lead in Manzigou Cemetery suggests it may be a remnant material that entered the region even earlier. The lead materials used in the Manzigou bronzes are closely aligned with those from the Central Plains rather than with lead sources used by the Upper Xiajiadian Culture from the Dajing site (Li et al. 2013 , 2019 ). Combined with the distinct bronze production technologies between the two cultures, the difference in material sources may have been a significant factor. The lead isotope data for samples from Paotaishan Cemetery are sparse and widely dispersed, making it challenging to determine the lead source. One possibility is that the lead used in Paotaishan bronzes during the Warring States period came from diverse sources. Alternatively, the presence of numerous artifacts from other archaeological cultures, likely not locally produced, could explain the observed isotope dispersion. Nonetheless, there is evidence of C-type lead, as seen in ornament HM5:4. Noteworthy are the lead isotope results for samples from the Jinggouzi Cemetery. Most samples' lead materials relate to C-type lead, with a few associated with A-type or B-type lead. Jinggouzi Cemetery, considered an archaeological culture distinct from the Upper Xiajiadian Culture, dates later than Manzigou Cemetery, around the transition from the Spring and Autumn to the Warring States period (Li 2015 ). Li et al. ( 2015 ) investigated the sources of bronze materials at Jinggouzi Cemetery, finding that most were not sourced from the Dajing site. Together with the lead source analysis for Manzigou Cemetery, these findings suggest that the Central Plains’ lead supply network extended beyond the Central Plains during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. This network may indicate that northern Hebei began using Central Plains lead at least by the Late Spring and Autumn period, and western Liaoning followed around the transition from the Spring and Autumn to the Warring States period. 5. Conclusion The study of bronze artifacts unearthed at the Manzigou and Paotaishan Cemeteries, key sites in the eastern Yuhuangmiao Culture, has enriched our understanding of bronze technology and metal resource circulation in the border region between the Central Plains and the Eurasian steppe. The Yuhuangmiao Culture displays a marked influence from steppe cultures, integrating multiple cultural elements from the Upper Xiajiadian Culture and other steppe groups. However, there is no evidence that the Yuhuangmiao Culture engaged in the complex copper-tin-arsenic-lead (and silver) alloy production typical of the Upper Xiajiadian Culture. Instead, the Yuhuangmiao Culture developed a casting-based copper-tin-lead ternary alloy system. This bronze production approach was suited to its economy, which was centered on animal husbandry. Resource conservation, especially of valuable copper and tin, was achieved through careful composition control and process selection tailored to the functional requirements of each artifact type. The lead sources for bronzes from Manzigou Cemetery are primarily associated with B-type lead, widely used in the Central Plains during the Middle Spring and Autumn period, with occasional occurrences of C-type lead but no material linked to the Dajing site. In contrast, lead sources for bronzes from the later Jinggouzi Cemetery relate to C-type lead, which began to appear in the Central Plains in the Late Spring and Autumn period. This suggests that, at least from the Late Spring and Autumn to the Early-Middle Warring States period, a consistent type of lead material circulated widely in the Central Plains and was subsequently supplied to northern Hebei and western Liaoning. The scientific analysis of bronze artifacts from the Manzigou and Paotaishan Cemeteries reveals how Central Plains lead resources and Eurasian steppe cultural influences converged in the Yuhuangmiao Culture. The findings indicate a complex network of exchange and interaction between the Central Plains and the Eurasian steppe, shaped by the interplay of these two distinct cultural regions. Declarations Author Contribution Tiancheng Zhou and Meng Hong wrote the main manuscript text and Chenyuan Li prepared figures 1. All authors reviewed reviewed the manuscript. 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Cultural Relics Press, Beijing, pp 68–74(in Chinese) Hong M (2022) The Formation of Naming of Yuhuangmiao Cultture and Its Ethnicity. Journal of Hebei University(Philosophy and Social Science) 47:81–90(in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1005-6378.2002.05.010 Hong M (2014) Preliminary Study on Yuhuangmiao Culture. Ph.D., Jilin University(in Chinese) Hsu Y-K, O’Sullivan R, Li H (2021) Sources of Western Zhou lead: a new understanding of Chinese Bronze Age supply networks. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 13:30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01279-3 Ivanovich SP, Mikhajlovich KP (2015) Cemetery Yuhuangmiao in Northern China (the 7th-6th centuries B.C. ). Publishing department of the IAE SB RAS, Novosibirsk(in Russian) Ivanovich SP, Petrovich SD (2020) The cultures of the Early Iron Age in China as a part of the Scythian World. Proceedings in Archaeology and History of Ancient and Medieval Black Sea Region 111–147. https://doi.org/10.24411/2713-2021-2020-00004 Jaang L (2015) The Landscape of China’s Participation in the Bronze Age Eurasian Network. J World Prehist 28:179–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-015-9088-2 Jeong D-Y (2004) A Study of the Yuhuangmiao culture of the mountain area of northern Hebei in China. Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science 37:91–120(in Korean). https://doi.org/10.22755/kjchs.2004.37.91 Jeong D-Y (2018) A Study on the bronze articles of Yuhuangmiao Culture. Ph.D., Jilin University(in Chinese) Jeong D-Y, Yang J (2020) Two Distinct Types of Ornaments with Tiger-shaped in Yuhuangmiao Culture. Research of China’s Frontier Archaeology 147–157(in Chinese) Jin F (1989) Excavation of the Shanrong Cemetery in the Eastern Zhou period at Jundu Mount in Yanqing County, Beijing. Cultural Relics 17-35+43+97+100-102(in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.13619/j.cnki.cn11-1532/k.1989.08.003 Jin F (2009) On Yuhuang Temple Culture. In: The Collection of International Symposium on Ordos Bronze Wares. China Science Publishing, Beijing, pp 635–671(in Chinese) Jin F, Wang J (2002) A Study of the Yan Culture and the Central Plains Culture Elements in the Shanrong Culture. Chinese Archaeology 2:29–32. https://doi.org/10.1515/char.2002.2.1.29 Jin Z, Liu R, Rawson J, Pollard AM (2017) Revisiting lead isotope data in Shang and Western Zhou bronzes. Antiquity 91:1574–1587. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.149 Lam W (2014) EVERYTHING OLD IS NEW AGAIN? Rethinking the Transition to Cast Iron Production in the Central Plains of China. Journal of Anthropological Research 70:511–542 Li L (2015) Research on the bronze from the west cemetery in JingGouZi, Liaoxi ChiFeng Region. Ph.D., University of Science and Technology Beijing(in Chinese) Li Y, Dong L, Chen J, Zhu Y (2019) Study of the Dayingzi Smelting Site. Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology 31:1–9(in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.16334/j.cnki.cn31-1652/k.2019.01.001 Li Y, Li L, Dong L (2015) Lead Isotope Analysis of Bronze from West Cemetery of Jinggouzi Site of Linxi of Inner Mongolia. Nonferrous Metals Engineering 5:94–96(in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.2095-1744.2015.04.022 Li Y, Yang J, Zhu Y (2013) Research on the composition and metallographic organisation of copper objects excavated from Guandongche Site, Hexigten Qi. Cultural Relics of Central China 98–106(in Chinese) Lin Y (2002) A Talk on the Sharp-Head Knife Coins Excavated from a tomb in Bai Miao County, Zhang Jia Kou City. In: A Collection of Chinese Numismatic Theses. China Financial Publishing House, pp 110–121(in Chinese) Nan P (2018) Research on Bronze Technology of Jin Kingdom in Spring and Autumn Period. Ph.D., University of Science and Technology Beijing(in Chinese) Pak Y (1995) A study of the Bronze Age culture in the Northern Zone of China. Ph.D., Harvard University Quan Q, Yang J (2021) Cultural Interaction between Northern China and the Baikal Region during the Eastern Zhou Period. Research of China’s Frontier Archaeology 203–213(in Chinese) Shan Y (2016) The pattern of archaeological cultures in northern China during the Eastern Zhou Period to the Qin Dynasty – also on the interactions among the Rong, Di and Hu ethnic groups and the Central Plains. Chinese Archaeology 16:178–188. https://doi.org/10.1515/char-2016-0017 Shao H, Yang J (2015) The Steppe Metal Route Seen from the Bronzes of the Upper Xiajiadian Culture. Archaeology 85-99+2(in Chinese) Teng M (2018) The Arrangement of the Hulugou Cemetery in Yanqing, Beijing and Relevant Issues. Archaeology 82-90+2(in Chinese) Teng M, Zhang L (2014) The Cultural Elements from the Central Plains in Yuhuangmiao Cultrue Distributed in the Mountains Areas in Northern Hebei During the Eastern Zhou Period. Acta Archaeologica Sinica 481–518(in Chinese) Tian G (1997) A Cultural and Typological Study of the Northern Series Bronzes in China. In: Essays on Archaeological Culture 4. Cultural Relics Press, Beijing, pp 266–307(in Chinese) Yang J (2000) A Introduction to the Bronze Culture of the Zhou Dynasty in Northern Hebei Province. Cultural Relics of Central China 22–30(in Chinese) Yang J (2003) Revisiting the Yuhuangmiao Culture. Research of China’s Frontier Archaeology 154–163(in Chinese) Yang J, Shao H (2017) The Development of the Metal Road in the Eastern Eurasian Stepppes. Cultural Relics 60–74(in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.13619/j.cnki.cn11-1532/k.2017.06.005 Zhang H (2023) Collation and research on the burial remains of Manzigou. M.D., Hebei University(in Chinese) Zhang J, Chen J (2017) Preliminary Study on the Lead Isotope Ratio of Bronze in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Cultural Relics in Southern China 94–102(in Chinese) Zhang J, Gao X, Ding S, et al (2021) The Preliminary Reasearch on Copper Casting Technology and Metal Resources Changes of Guanzhuang Site, Xingyang, Henan Province. Cultural Relics in Southern China 162–173(in Chinese) Zhang J, Sun B, Hao D, Lyu C (2020) Chronological Research and Scientific Analysis on Bronzes Unearthed from Ancient City Site of the Xue State in Tengzhou, Shandong. Journal of National Museum of China 98–114(in Chinese) Zheng S (1998) Briefing on the Discovery of the Western Zhou-Spring and Autumn Period Shanrong Cemetery in Manzigou, Luanping County. In: Archaeological Research in the North 3. Zhongzhou Ancient Books Publishing House, Zhengzhou, pp 270–271(in Chinese) Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 21 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 27 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 10 Feb, 2025 Reviews received at journal 04 Feb, 2025 Reviews received at journal 01 Feb, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 21 Jan, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 21 Jan, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 20 Jan, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 20 Jan, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 15 Nov, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 15 Nov, 2024 First submitted to journal 14 Nov, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5456689","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":378478030,"identity":"022556be-f4e5-4a9c-b5eb-5a7daaa6e410","order_by":0,"name":"Tiancheng Zhou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Science and Technology Beijing","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tiancheng","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhou","suffix":""},{"id":378478031,"identity":"77b0badf-7919-4c1c-846e-6b7e4f51c2e1","order_by":1,"name":"Meng Hong","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hebei University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Meng","middleName":"","lastName":"Hong","suffix":""},{"id":378478032,"identity":"78aa9ace-7fb2-4577-a125-708115ad438c","order_by":2,"name":"Jieyi Zuo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hebei University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jieyi","middleName":"","lastName":"Zuo","suffix":""},{"id":378478034,"identity":"43fa172e-cada-45c2-8d06-33452bc1081f","order_by":3,"name":"Wenrui Zhang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wenrui","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhang","suffix":""},{"id":378478035,"identity":"ff307bbe-7ca4-47e7-b7fc-fc98970b8ef3","order_by":4,"name":"Yanxiang Li","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Science and Technology Beijing","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yanxiang","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":378478036,"identity":"647b1dca-0a98-4ac9-80aa-ea256f6e9daf","order_by":5,"name":"Chengyuan Li","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA6UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACPmYGNiiT+QCQAOEE/FrYEFrYgEoTiNHCANfCY0CkFnbmZw8+7jic2D+755vkzx93GPjZcwwYfu7A5zA2c8OZZw4nzrhzdps0T8IzBsmeNwaMvWfwaeFhk+ZtO5zYcCN3mzRDwmEGgxs5BsyMbQS0/AVqmX8j55nkD6AWe6K0MAK1bLiRwybBA7JFgqAWNjPJ3rZ044030oytedKe8UiceVZwsBePFn7+w88kfrZZy867kfzw5g+bO3L87ckbH/zEowUKmuEsHhBxgKAGBoY6ItSMglEwCkbBiAUAHHtOccmB2tMAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Science and Technology Beijing","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chengyuan","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-11-15 00:38:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5456689/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5456689/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-025-02273-9","type":"published","date":"2025-08-21T16:29:40+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":71307859,"identity":"6e6946dc-b3fd-403c-bd21-752f869ea9b8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-13 06:42:31","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":945171,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of showing sites mentioned in the text\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5456689/v1/9ddb47da4b8a9b2389006af8.png"},{"id":71308099,"identity":"e599fd95-000f-4a3c-8ee9-48059ba7fc5b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-13 06:50:31","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":359525,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImages of some samples from\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eManzigou Cemetery and Paotaishan Cemetery\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5456689/v1/307565f648e4da02462c0995.png"},{"id":71307862,"identity":"81c53045-1b27-4227-a926-402fa788a2a5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-13 06:42:31","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":58853,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparison of Pb/Cu vs Sn/Cu for the samples from Manzigou Cemetery and Paotaishan Cemetery\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5456689/v1/c19aba7ca3c5e394ae6228cf.png"},{"id":71307865,"identity":"480a1947-24bc-49ae-b12f-4fe49f4d5741","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-13 06:42:31","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1241728,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe metallographic and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5456689/v1/ea6fa245e643a45aeb2309ec.png"},{"id":71308761,"identity":"c5ca51f5-991a-4768-b49a-fde63b1eaad1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-13 06:58:32","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":72158,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLead isotope ratio. \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e, Manzigou Cemetery I, \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e, Manzigou Cemetery II, \u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e, Paotaishan Cemetery; \u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e, Jinggouzi, data from(Li et al. 2015) and corrected with the latest test data; \u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e, Wayaopo Cemetery in Shanxi province, Early part of Middle Spring and Autumn, \u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e, Wayaopo Cemetery in Shanxi province, Late part of Middle Spring and Autumn, \u003cstrong\u003eg\u003c/strong\u003e, Wayaopo Cemetery in Shanxi province, Late Spring and Autumn, data from(Nan 2018); \u003cstrong\u003eh\u003c/strong\u003e, Ancient City Site of the Xue State in Shandong province, Early part of Middle Spring and Autumn, \u003cstrong\u003eI\u003c/strong\u003e, Ancient City Site of the Xue State in Shandong province, Late part of Middle Spring and Autumn,\u003cstrong\u003e j\u003c/strong\u003e, Ancient City Site of the Xue State in Shandong province, Late Spring and Autumn, \u003cstrong\u003ek\u003c/strong\u003e, Ancient City Site of the Xue State in Shandong province, Early Warring States, data from(Zhang et al. 2020); \u003cstrong\u003el\u003c/strong\u003e, the ores and slag from the Dajing Sites, data from(Li et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5456689/v1/5a6202e0cc1b725be2e7db06.png"},{"id":89847363,"identity":"de62d077-8b45-4519-ac28-0936eea0445c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 16:43:20","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3934602,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5456689/v1/665860df-77bd-4ab6-b5a5-84ef2abecf01.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Bronze Production and Lead Resource Circulation in the Yuhuangmiao Culture of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Spring and Autumn Period, along with the Warring States Period, marked a critical phase in the development of bronze metallurgy in ancient China. During this era, a comprehensive system for bronze production took shape, primarily focused on the casting of bronze ceremonial vessels in the Central Plains. Additionally, an interactive network emerged across the Eurasian continent, linking the eastern and western regions of the northern Eurasian steppe(Jaang \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).The exchange of bronze technology and the movement of metal resources between these areas have become key areas of scholarly research. Northern Hebei Province, situated at the eastern fringe of these two regions, serves as a bridge connecting the Eurasian steppe to the northwest and the Central Plains to the south. This unique geographical context fosters a blending of various bronze production techniques from both areas, situating it within a metallurgical zone that encompasses Northern China and the Mongolian Plateau during the Bronze Age. Consequently, studying bronze metallurgy in this region ties into larger historical narratives, including East-West interactions, the evolution of the steppe, and the rise of the Xiongnu (Yang and Shao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Late Bronze Age, the Yuhuangmiao Culture emerged as the leading archaeological culture in the region, garnering significant research attention and yielding numerous important studies over recent decades. However, the uneven distribution of published archaeological findings related to the Yuhuangmiao Culture across various regions has created substantial gaps that need further exploration. In response, the Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, along with other organizations, has launched a project to reassess artifacts from the Manzigou and Paotaishan cemeteries, key sites representing the Yuhuangmiao Culture. The findings presented in this paper stem from this initiative. By scientifically analyzing these excavated artifacts, we aim to deepen our understanding of the metallurgical technology of the Yuhuangmiao Culture and address questions surrounding the flow of metal resources in the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Archaeological framework","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1 Archaeology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Yuhuangmiao Culture derives its name from the excavation of the Yuhuangmiao Cemetery, located in Jundu Mountain, Yanqing District, Beijing, which took place from 1985 to 1991 (Beijing Municipal Administration of Cultural Heritage 2007). Initial excavations in 1985 were conducted by the Beijing Institute of Cultural Relics conducted excavations at three cemeteries: Yuhuangmiao, Hulugou, and Xiliangguang (Jin 1989). The artifacts uncovered during these digs provided a crucial chronological framework for understanding the Yuhuangmiao Culture and established a typical dataset for this archaeological culture. Initially, some scholars referred to it as the Shanrong Culture by some scholars, including the excavators(Tian 1997; Jin and Wang 2002)，but after a thorough analysis of the artifacts, it was deemed more appropriate to designate it as the Yuhuangmiao Culture, a decision that the original excavators accepted\u0026nbsp;(Lin 2002; Chen 1995; Yang 2000, 2003; Jin 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe academic community has built a foundational understanding of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, which spans from the middle Spring and Autumn Period to the middle Warring States Period. During its development, this culture absorbed a significant influence from the Upper Xiajiadian Culture and beyond, including interactions with grassland cultures outside of China (Ivanovich and Petrovich 2020; Quan and Yang 2021) and subsequent influences from the Yan Culture (Teng and Zhang 2014). The culture primarily occupies northern Hebei Province, which can be divided into eastern and western areas, with the Baihe River acting as a natural boundary. Key sites in the western area include Yuhuangmiao, Hulugou, Xiliangguang, and Baimiao, while significant sites in the east include Hanjiafen, Manzigou, Lishugou, and Fengning Wudougou, among others(Hong 2022). Most research has concentrated on the western area of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, especially the Yuhuangmiao Cemetery (Pak 1995; He et al. 2002; Jeong 2004; Hong 2014; Ivanovich and Mikhajlovich 2015; Shan 2016; Jeong 2018; Teng 2018; Jeong and Yang 2020). Conversely, the eastern area remains relatively understudied, primarily due to a lack of recent publications. Therefore, further investigation into the Manzigou Cemetery and the Paotaishan Cemeteries is crucial.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Manzigou Cemetery is situated in Manzigou, Datun Town, Luanping County, Hebei Province (40\u0026deg;59\u0026prime;58.2\u0026Prime;N, 117\u0026deg;22\u0026prime;03.6\u0026Prime;E), covering an area of approximately 20,000 square metres. Between 1976 and 1979, the Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics (subsequently renamed the Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology) and other units conducted an excavation of the cemetery over a period of four years. Excavation of the eastern part of the Manzigou Xishanpo was conducted in 1976, resulting in the discovery of burial number 76MMXX. The western part of the Manzigou Xishanpo was excavated in 1977, leading to the uncovering of burial number 77MMXX. In the same year, the Manzigou Heshangfen tomb, bearing the number 77HMXX, was also excavated. In 1978, the western part of the Manzigou Xishanpo (tomb number 78MMXX) was subjected to further excavation, while in the same year, in November, the south side of the Manzigou Huangtukeng (tomb number 78XMXX) was also opened up for examination. In 1979, the northern side of Huangtukeng was subjected to excavation, resulting in the discovery of burial number 79MMXX. A total of 81 tombs from the Eastern Zhou period were excavated over a four-year period(Zheng 1998; Zhang 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Paotaishan Cemetery, located in Paotaishan, Hushiha Town, Luanping County, Hebei Province (40\u0026deg;52\u0026prime;32.0\u0026Prime;N, 117\u0026deg;00\u0026prime;03.9\u0026Prime;E), covers approximately 30,000 square meters. In 1979, excavations organized by the Hebei Provincial Research Institute of Cultural Relics uncovered 35 Eastern Zhou period tombs, yielding 561 artifacts of various types(Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology et al. 1983).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2 Materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 34 bronze artifacts were selected from the excavations at Manzigou and Paotaishan, encompassing weapons, tools, decorations, and currency. Of these, 25 artifacts were excavated from the Manzigou Cemetery, while 9 came from the Paotaishan Cemetery. These samples reflect a variety of chronological and typological characteristics typical of the Yuhuangmiao Culture.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Manzigou Cemetery is divided into two distinct periods. The Manzigou Cemetery I dates to the early part of Late Spring and Autumn Period, where influences from the Upper Xiajiadian Culture can still be seen in items like the bronzes from this period, such as xiao-cutting saber (79MM24:5) and bronze arrowhead (79MM24:6) (Hong, 2019). In contrast, Manzigou Cemetery II represents the later phase of this period, showcasing the maturity of the Yuhuangmiao Culture. Notable artifacts from this phase include a dagger (77MM40:9, 78XM21:2, 77MM30:6) and a tiger-shaped ornament (76MM16:3), with the dagger (78XM21:2) dating to a slightly later period. The Paotaishan Cemetery marks the final phase of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, with its earliest artifacts dating to the Middle Warring States. This cemetery displays significant influences from the Yan Culture (Hong, 2014).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e Samples from the Manzigou Cemetery and the Paotaishan Cemetery, chronological frameworks from(Hong 2014; Zhang 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"642\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReference\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePeriod\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"10\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eManzigou Cemetery I\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003exiao-cutting saber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM24:5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"10\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEarly part of Late Spring and Autumn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003earrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM24:6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehorse shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM24:10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edagger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM7:1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebronze arrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM7:7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edeer shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM7:8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edouble tiger shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM7:9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003efrog shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM9:6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM4:7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eawl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM20:9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 642px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"15\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eManzigou Cemetery II\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003exiao-cutting saber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM11:1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"15\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLate part of Late Spring and Autumn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003earrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM40:8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edagger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM40:9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003exiao-cutting saber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM40:12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM40:14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehanging pendant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76MM10:12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eearring\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76MM16:2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003etiger shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76MM16:3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eaxe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76MM16:5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebead shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM43:3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edagger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM21:2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edagger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM30:6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebronze arrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM30:9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM6:7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edouble bead shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77HM15:3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 642px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"9\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePaotaishan Cemetery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM5:4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"9\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEarly-Middle Warring States\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003exiao-cutting saber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM5:5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003exiao-cutting saber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM11:7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eaxe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM11:12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebell\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM11:16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003earrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM11:22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eknife-shaped coin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79HM21:4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eearring\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79HM22:2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 199px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003earrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79HM27:7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e The calendar date of different stages of Eastern Zhou dynasty(Lam 2014).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePeriod\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbbreviation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCalendar date\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEarly Spring and Autumn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eESA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e770-665 BCE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMiddle Spring and Autumn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMSA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e664-559 BCE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLate Spring and Autumn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLSA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e558-454 BCE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEarly Warring States\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEWS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e453-377 BCE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMiddle Warring States\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMWS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e376-300 BCE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLate Warring States\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLWS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e299-221 BCE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Metallographic observation and detection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter carefully examining and documenting the artefacts' physical characteristics of the artifacts, samples were selected for cutting and further analysis, focusing on those closest proximity to the substrate. An electric miniature fine steel toothless saw was used for this process. To reinforce the samples, we applied ERGO's 5400 low-viscosity glue. For samples with a porous connecting texture, we utilized vacuum inlay technology is employed to enhance their structure and reduce the risk of secondary contamination. The samples were then sanded using water sandpaper of various grits and polished with an appropriate polishing solution based on their texture. Observations were made with a Leica DM400M metallographic microscope, which underwent a pre-treatment with FeCl₃ hydrochloric acid alcohol etching.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 Compositional structure SEM-EDS inspection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter repolishing of the metallographic samples, a vacuum-sprayed carbon coating was applied to the metallographic samples. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS) detection were performed at the Materials Testing Centre of the School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing. We used a Zeiss LEO-1450 electron microscope paired with a Thermo Scientific NORAN-7 energy spectrum analyzer. The SEM-EDS analysis was conducted at a working voltage of 20 kV, with the beam current intensity adjusted as needed. Sampling and analysis of the semi-quantitative elemental analysis were carried out automatically, ensuring a minimum sampling time of 60 seconds to achieve reliable measurements while minimizing errors..\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 Lead isotope\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLead isotope analysis was conducted by the laboratory of Beijing Kehui Testing Technology Co., Ltd., using the Neptune Plus MC-ICP-MS from Thermo Fisher Scientific Co. The procedure began with weighing 50 mg of the sample was weighed in a 15mL Savillex dissolution tank, then adding 2mL of HF and 1 mL of HNO₃. The mixture was heated in a closed chamber for a period of 48 hours. After evaporation, concentrated HNO₃ was added before a final evaporation. The sample was reconstituted with 1 mL of 3.5mol/L HNO₃. Lead isotope separation utilized pre-cleaned Sr special effect resin, which was loaded and sequentially washed with 3.5 mol/L HNO₃, 8 mol/L HCl, and Milli-Q water. Following the washing, the sample was loaded onto the resin, which was rinsed several times before collecting the lead with 7mL of 3.5 mol/L HNO₃, and 4mL of Milli-Q water was added to drench the Sr. Add 5 mL of 8 mol/L HCl to receive Pb. The purified Pb solution was then evaporated to dryness, with concentrated nitric acid added to assist in further evaporation. A final volume of 1 mL of 2% HNO₃ was prepared for testing. After analysis, the concentration of Pb in the solution was carried out by taking a cursory measurement, and a standard solution of Tl solution was added to achieve Pb: Tl =1: 1. The lead isotope instrument was calibrated using the exponential equation for the fractionation, with the calibration value set at 203Tl/205Tl = 0.418922.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Chemical composition of bronze\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChemical compositions of samples from Manzigou Cemetery and Paotaishan Cemetery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eManzigou Cemetery I\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003exiao-cutting saber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM24:5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003earrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM24:6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehorse shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM24:10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edagger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM7:1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003earrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM7:7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edeer shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM7:8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edouble tiger shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM7:9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003efrog shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM9:6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM4:7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eawl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM20:9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"15\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eManzigou Cemetery II\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003exiao-cutting saber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM11:1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003earrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM40:8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edagger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM40:9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003exiao-cutting saber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM40:12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM40:14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehanging pendant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76MM10:12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eearring\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76MM16:2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003etiger shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76MM16:3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eaxe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76MM16:5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebead shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM43:3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edagger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM21:2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edagger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM30:6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebronze arrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM30:9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM6:7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edouble bead shaped ornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77HM15:3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePaotaishan Cemetery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM5:4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003exiao-cutting saber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM5:5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003exiao-cutting saber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM11:7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eaxe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM11:12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebell\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM11:16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003earrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM11:22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eknife-shaped coin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79HM21:4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eearring\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79HM22:2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003earrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79HM27:7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe sample 78XM7:7 (10.0 wt% Sn) from Manzigou Cemetery I represents tin bronze, while other samples, including 79MM24:5 (5.6 wt% Sn, 4.3 wt% Pb, 1.6 wt% As), 78XM7:9 (9.7 wt% Sn, 6.0 wt% Pb, 1.2 wt% As), and 79MM9:6 (12.5 wt% Sn, 3.5 wt% Pb, 1.6 wt% As), contain minor amounts of arsenic. The remaining samples from this cemetery consist of lead-tin bronze. In Manzigou Cemetery I, weapons and tools have tin contents ranging from 7.0\u0026ndash;12.6% and lead contents from 4.1\u0026ndash;17.5%. Ornaments have tin contents between 10.6% and 26.3% and lead contents between 5.6% and 13.5%. Samples from Manzigou Cemetery II, by contrast, are all lead-tin bronze, with weapons and tools containing 6.7\u0026ndash;13.9% tin and 1.4\u0026ndash;16.0% lead. For ornaments, the tin content varies from 6.2\u0026ndash;23.6% and lead content from 2.6\u0026ndash;37.1%.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn the bronzes unearthed from Paotaishan Cemetery, sample HM11:12 (14.5 wt% Sn) is the only example of tin bronze, with all other samples being lead-tin bronze. Lead content in Paotaishan bronzes, except for 79HM21:4 (4.9 wt% Sn, 38.2 wt% Pb), is generally lower than that in Manzigou samples. The tin content of weapons and tools from Paotaishan ranges from 7.4\u0026ndash;15.3%, and lead content ranges from 1.9\u0026ndash;10.8%. For ornaments, tin content ranges from 4.8\u0026ndash;14.2%, while lead content ranges from 0.9\u0026ndash;6.0%.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall, the majority of bronzes from both Manzigou and Paotaishan cemeteries are lead-tin bronze, with only a few early samples containing arsenic, and a very limited number classified as tin bronze. This distribution suggests that the eastern Yuhuangmiao Culture primarily produced lead-tin bronze items. There is notable variation in the quality of these bronzes, especially across different artifact types.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBronze arrowheads, among weaponry, show stable composition over time, possibly due to the functional demands of hunting and combat. In contrast, the composition of the four daggers fluctuates considerably, particularly sample 77MM30:6, which contains 17.6% lead. This variation may indicate that daggers, unlike arrowheads, were more ceremonial than functional. Among the tools, with the exception of the awl (79MM20:9), axes and xiao-cutting sabers exhibit a consistent composition, indicating a need for durability similar to that of arrowheads.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrnaments exhibit the most variation in composition, often containing high levels of lead. Especially the tiger shaped ornament(76MM16:3), is a rare sample which the copper content is less than that of tin and lead, of course taking into account the issue of copper element loss due to corrosion. This suggests that ornaments in the Yuhuangmiao Culture did not require strong mechanical properties, and the high lead content enhanced casting fluidity while conserving copper and tin. The compositional differences in ornaments between the two cemeteries are also significant: Manzigou Cemetery items tend to have higher lead and tin content, while those from Paotaishan have lower levels of these metals.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA particularly unusual item is the knife-shaped coin (79HM21:4) from Paotaishan, which likely originated from Yan during the Warring States period. This artifact represents one of the lowest-quality bronzes in the collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Microstructural composition of bronze\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe majority of the metallographic photographs reveal that the samples\u0026apos; microstructures contain Cu-Sn \u0026alpha; solid solution dendrites, along with abundant (\u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;\u0026delta;) eutectic formations. In some cases, these (\u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;\u0026delta;) eutectic structures appear connected, forming a network-like pattern. SEM images further reveal varied distributions of lead particles: some samples show a diffuse distribution, while others display strip-like or large spherical lead formations. The presence of black voids in certain samples may be due to the detachment of lead particles.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe xiao-cutting saber (HM5:5) and arrowhead (77MM40:8) metallographs serve as representative examples of the typical casting structures observed across these samples. Notably, a significant number of red copper particles are present in the arrowhead (77MM40:8), supporting the conclusion that the Yuhuangmiao Culture East Zone population frequently used straightforward casting methods for bronze production. However, evidence from the dagger (78XM7:1) and another xiao-cutting saber (HM11:7) suggests that some functional items were created through forging. The metallographic structure of dagger (78XM7:1) shows recrystallized copper-tin \u0026alpha; grains with interwoven slip bands, indicating hot forging. Conversely, the xiao-cutting saber (HM11:7) underwent forging and subsequent heat treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA distinctive set of artifacts are the earrings (76MM16:2 and 77MM34:1) with culture-specific symbols from the Manzigou Cemetery. These were crafted by forging copper wires into fine twisted filaments. Similar earrings have been found in both the Upper Xiajiadian Culture and the Slate Tomb Culture, highlighting cultural connections across these groups.(Shao and Yang \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Upper Xiajiadian Culture, widely acknowledged for its significant influence on the Yuhuangmiao Culture, utilized complex copper-tin-arsenic-lead (and occasionally silver) alloys in bronze production (Li et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of arsenic-containing bronzes in Manzigou Cemetery I suggests this influence on early Yuhuangmiao metallurgy. However, as the Yuhuangmiao Culture matured, it established a distinct bronze production system based on casting copper-tin-lead ternary alloys. Specialized compositional controls and processes were developed for different functional items, including forging techniques for utility items and specially shaped earrings. Similar developments in bronze production were observed in the western part of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, indicating a shared approach to bronze technology across the eastern and western regions (He et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Although the Yuhuangmiao Culture borrowed cultural elements from the Upper Xiajiadian Culture, its bronze production techniques during its mature period became distinct, reflecting an independent technological evolution that diverged from Upper Xiajiadian practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Lead isotope of bronze\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLead isotope data of the samples from the cemeteries in Manzigou and Paotaishan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e204\u003c/sup\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e207\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e204\u003c/sup\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e208\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e204\u003c/sup\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e207\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e208\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eManzigou Cemetery I\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament with horse shaped\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM24:10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.3898\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.6445\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.6320\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8507\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edagger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM7:1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.2968\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.6479\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.6474\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8552\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1122\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament with double tiger shaped\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78XM7:9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.3417\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.6354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.6347\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8524\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament with frog shaped\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM9:6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.3560\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.6366\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.6337\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8519\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1047\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eawl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79MM20:9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.7906\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.5931\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.3531\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8765\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1558\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eManzigou Cemetery II\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edagger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM40:9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.5173\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.6889\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.8671\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8473\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.0990\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edagger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM30:6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.1685\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.5963\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.3831\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8584\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1126\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehanging pendant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76MM10:12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.3294\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.6355\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.6356\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8530\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1078\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament with tiger shaped\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76MM16:3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.2651\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.6239\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.5572\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8554\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament with bead shaped\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77MM43:3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.3462\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.6329\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.6018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8521\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1041\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament with double bead shaped\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77HM15:3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.2885\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.6120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.5554\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8537\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1082\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePaotaishan Cemetery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eornament\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHM5:4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.6944\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.5771\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.1669\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8803\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1570\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebronze arrowhead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79HM27:7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.8330\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.6022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.4141\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8749\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1541\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eknife-shaped coin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79HM21:4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.0963\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.6199\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.7468\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8632\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1411\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor lead isotope testing, fifteen samples were chosen: five from Manzigou Cemetery I, six from Manzigou Cemetery II, and three from Paotaishan Cemetery. The samples from the Manzigou Cemeteries were selected as representative artifacts of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, including seven ornaments, three daggers, and one awl. Due to the considerable influence of the Yan Culture on the Yuhuangmiao Culture during the Warring States period, the three samples from Paotaishan Cemetery, including a knife-shaped coin (79HM21:4) likely of Yan origin, were chosen with the possibility of foreign contact in mind.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll fourteen samples tested contain more than 3% lead, suggesting that lead was intentionally added. This supports the assumption that the lead isotopes reflect the source of the lead material itself. The samples, characterized by 206Pb/204Pb ratios below 18.6, fall within the \u0026quot;common lead\u0026quot; category, with no \u0026quot;highly radiogenic\u0026quot; lead present. (Jin et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Hsu et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor the purposes of this discussion, the paper is based on(Zhang and Chen \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), the \u003csup\u003e208\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb vs \u003csup\u003e207\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb mapping was conducted, and the region was divided by the empirical reference line l\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e: y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.6162x\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;0.7288. This allowed the classification of common intervals of lead isotope ratios into three categories: with \u003csup\u003e207\u003c/sup\u003ePb/\u003csup\u003e206\u003c/sup\u003ePb, category A intervals (0.860\u0026ndash;0.875), category B intervals (0.840\u0026ndash;0.860), and category C intervals (0.875-0.900).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe lead isotopes from Manzigou Cemeteries I and II indicate that most samples contain B-type lead, which was widely used in the bronzes of the Middle Plains Vassal States during the Middle Spring and Autumn period (Nan \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Given that the Manzigou Cemetery is dated primarily to the Late Spring and Autumn period, B-type lead likely entered northern Hebei province during this time. Notably, the copper awl (79MM20:9) shows an association with C-type lead, which became prevalent in the Central Plains during the Late Spring and Autumn period. This artifact, dated to the early Late Spring and Autumn, suggests that while C-type lead was dominant in the Central Plains, it had sporadically reached northern Hebei province. Additionally, the extensive use of B-type lead in Manzigou Cemetery suggests it may be a remnant material that entered the region even earlier. The lead materials used in the Manzigou bronzes are closely aligned with those from the Central Plains rather than with lead sources used by the Upper Xiajiadian Culture from the Dajing site (Li et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Combined with the distinct bronze production technologies between the two cultures, the difference in material sources may have been a significant factor.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe lead isotope data for samples from Paotaishan Cemetery are sparse and widely dispersed, making it challenging to determine the lead source. One possibility is that the lead used in Paotaishan bronzes during the Warring States period came from diverse sources. Alternatively, the presence of numerous artifacts from other archaeological cultures, likely not locally produced, could explain the observed isotope dispersion. Nonetheless, there is evidence of C-type lead, as seen in ornament HM5:4.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNoteworthy are the lead isotope results for samples from the Jinggouzi Cemetery. Most samples\u0026apos; lead materials relate to C-type lead, with a few associated with A-type or B-type lead. Jinggouzi Cemetery, considered an archaeological culture distinct from the Upper Xiajiadian Culture, dates later than Manzigou Cemetery, around the transition from the Spring and Autumn to the Warring States period (Li \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Li et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) investigated the sources of bronze materials at Jinggouzi Cemetery, finding that most were not sourced from the Dajing site. Together with the lead source analysis for Manzigou Cemetery, these findings suggest that the Central Plains\u0026rsquo; lead supply network extended beyond the Central Plains during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. This network may indicate that northern Hebei began using Central Plains lead at least by the Late Spring and Autumn period, and western Liaoning followed around the transition from the Spring and Autumn to the Warring States period.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study of bronze artifacts unearthed at the Manzigou and Paotaishan Cemeteries, key sites in the eastern Yuhuangmiao Culture, has enriched our understanding of bronze technology and metal resource circulation in the border region between the Central Plains and the Eurasian steppe. The Yuhuangmiao Culture displays a marked influence from steppe cultures, integrating multiple cultural elements from the Upper Xiajiadian Culture and other steppe groups. However, there is no evidence that the Yuhuangmiao Culture engaged in the complex copper-tin-arsenic-lead (and silver) alloy production typical of the Upper Xiajiadian Culture. Instead, the Yuhuangmiao Culture developed a casting-based copper-tin-lead ternary alloy system. This bronze production approach was suited to its economy, which was centered on animal husbandry. Resource conservation, especially of valuable copper and tin, was achieved through careful composition control and process selection tailored to the functional requirements of each artifact type.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lead sources for bronzes from Manzigou Cemetery are primarily associated with B-type lead, widely used in the Central Plains during the Middle Spring and Autumn period, with occasional occurrences of C-type lead but no material linked to the Dajing site. In contrast, lead sources for bronzes from the later Jinggouzi Cemetery relate to C-type lead, which began to appear in the Central Plains in the Late Spring and Autumn period. This suggests that, at least from the Late Spring and Autumn to the Early-Middle Warring States period, a consistent type of lead material circulated widely in the Central Plains and was subsequently supplied to northern Hebei and western Liaoning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe scientific analysis of bronze artifacts from the Manzigou and Paotaishan Cemeteries reveals how Central Plains lead resources and Eurasian steppe cultural influences converged in the Yuhuangmiao Culture. The findings indicate a complex network of exchange and interaction between the Central Plains and the Eurasian steppe, shaped by the interplay of these two distinct cultural regions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTiancheng Zhou and Meng Hong wrote the main manuscript text and Chenyuan Li prepared figures 1. All authors reviewed reviewed the manuscript. Tiancheng Zhou and Meng Hong contributed equally to this work and should be considered co-first authors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBeijing Municipal Administration of Cultural Heritage (2007) Jundu Mount Cemetery: Yuhuangmiao. Cultural Relics Press, Beijing (in Chinese)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eChen P (1995) A Brief Discussion on the Ethnicity of the \u0026lsquo;Shanrong Culture\u0026rsquo; and Related Issues. Huaxia Archaeology 63\u0026ndash;76(in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.16143/j.cnki.1001-9928.1995.03.005\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHe T, Jin F, Wang J (2002) A preliminary study on the bronze alloy technology of the Shanrong Culture at Jundu Mount in Yanqing County, Beijing. 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Zhongzhou Ancient Books Publishing House, Zhengzhou, pp 270\u0026ndash;271(in Chinese)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"archaeological-and-anthropological-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aasc","sideBox":"Learn more about [Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences](http://link.springer.com/journal/12517)","snPcode":"12520","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12520/3","title":"Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Yuhuangmiao Culture, Eastern Zhou Dynasty, Bronze Production, Lead Isotopes","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5456689/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5456689/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe Yuhuangmiao Culture, an important archaeological culture, distributed in northern Hebei, dates from the Middle Spring and Autumn period to the Middle Warring States period. It is regarded as a key representative example of the Late Bronze Age in northern China. This paper presents findings from a project conducted by the Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, which re-evaluated artifacts excavated artefacts from significant Yuhuangmiao sites, particularly the Manzigou Cemetery and the Paotaishan Cemetery.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study focused on various bronze samples, which underwent multiple analytical techniques, including metallurgical microscopy, ultra-deep field microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS). These methods allowed for an in-depth analysis of bronze production of bronze and the origins of the lead materials used. The results indicate that the bronze artifacts from the Manzigou Cemetery display features akin to the Upper Xajiadian Culture during the early stages of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, although they still contain some copper arsenic. Interestingly, the lead sources differ from those in the Upper Xajiadian Culture. By the maturity phase of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, a casting system for a copper-tin-lead ternary alloy was established. However, there is no evidence of bronze production involving the complex copper-tin-arsenic-lead (and silver) coproducts typical of the Upper Xajiadian Culture, although signs of lead production are present.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe evidence suggests that bronze production primarily utilized B lead, supplemented by C lead sources from the Central Plains. The influence of the Central Plains culture is particularly notable in the Paotaishan Cemetery from the Warring States period, where the varied lead materials demonstrate multiple sources highlight the substantial impact of Central Plains lead on local practices.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Bronze Production and Lead Resource Circulation in the Yuhuangmiao Culture of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-12-13 06:42:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5456689/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-05-27T22:03:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-02-10T14:46:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-02-04T10:30:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-02-01T05:51:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"311148191273554222387041933261283422074","date":"2025-01-21T11:38:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"323107900599431327393208256371665089627","date":"2025-01-21T08:08:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"56949374530357134144267792533671948107","date":"2025-01-20T19:35:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-01-20T17:49:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-11-15T08:23:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-11-15T05:21:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences","date":"2024-11-15T00:26:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"archaeological-and-anthropological-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aasc","sideBox":"Learn more about [Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences](http://link.springer.com/journal/12517)","snPcode":"12520","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12520/3","title":"Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e003afe6-9f40-476d-90ee-a523274ee52d","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 13th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-25T16:37:32+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5456689","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-025-02273-9","journal":{"identity":"archaeological-and-anthropological-sciences","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences"},"publishedOn":"2025-08-21 16:29:40","publishedOnDateReadable":"August 21st, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-12-13 06:42:26","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s12520-025-02273-9","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-025-02273-9","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5456689","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5456689","identity":"rs-5456689","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}