Early Adolescent Sexual Behaviors: Peer Pressure, Body Image, Psychopathology, Self-Esteem, and Family Dynamics

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Previous studies highlight the role of peer norms, body image, and self-esteem in shaping sexual initiation, yet few have examined their combined effects alongside family functioning and emotional adjustment in preadolescent girls. The present study aimed to explore the relationships among peer pressure, body image, psychopathological symptoms, self-esteem, and family dynamics in predicting the age of sexual initiation. Method A cross-sectional study was conducted with 254 female students aged 11–16 years attending public middle schools. Participants completed standardized self-report measures assessing perceived peer pressure, body image satisfaction, psychopathological functioning, self-esteem, and family relationships. Correlational analyses and structural equation modeling (SEM) were employed to test both direct and mediated effects, with self-esteem and family functioning examined as key mediators. Results Peer pressure and psychopathological symptoms were positively associated with earlier sexual initiation, whereas higher self-esteem and positive family functioning were protective. Body image satisfaction positively influenced self-esteem and indirectly delayed sexual initiation. SEM indicated that psychopathology had both direct and indirect effects (via self-esteem and family functioning) on the timing of sexual behaviors. The model showed an acceptable fit to the data, explaining a substantial portion of the variance in age of initiation. Conclusion Early sexual behaviors among adolescent girls are shaped by a constellation of psychosocial and familial factors. Peer influence and emotional difficulties accelerate sexual onset, whereas strong self-esteem and cohesive family relationships exert protective effects. Interventions promoting self-worth, emotional regulation, and family communication may contribute to healthier developmental trajectories and delayed sexual initiation. " } { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement": [ { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "1", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/", "name": "Home" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "2", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/browse/articles", "name": "Browse" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "3", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/14-1169", "name": "Early Adolescent Sexual Behaviors: Peer Pressure, Body Image, Psychopathology,..." } } ] } Home Browse Early Adolescent Sexual Behaviors: Peer Pressure, Body Image, Psychopathology,... ALL Metrics - Views Downloads Get PDF Get XML Cite How to cite this article Cimino S and Cerniglia L. Early Adolescent Sexual Behaviors: Peer Pressure, Body Image, Psychopathology, Self-Esteem, and Family Dynamics [version 1; peer review: 1 approved] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1169 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168670.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Research Article Early Adolescent Sexual Behaviors: Peer Pressure, Body Image, Psychopathology, Self-Esteem, and Family Dynamics [version 1; peer review: 1 approved] Silvia Cimino 1 , Luca Cerniglia 2 Silvia Cimino 1 , Luca Cerniglia 2 PUBLISHED 27 Oct 2025 Author details Author details 1 Department of Dynamic, Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy 2 Faculty of Psychology, Uninettuno International Telematic University, Rome, Lazio, Italy Silvia Cimino Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Luca Cerniglia Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS This article is included in the Developmental Psychology and Cognition gateway. Abstract Background Early adolescent sexual behavior has become an increasing concern in developmental psychopathology due to its complex interplay with psychosocial, familial, and individual factors. Previous studies highlight the role of peer norms, body image, and self-esteem in shaping sexual initiation, yet few have examined their combined effects alongside family functioning and emotional adjustment in preadolescent girls. The present study aimed to explore the relationships among peer pressure, body image, psychopathological symptoms, self-esteem, and family dynamics in predicting the age of sexual initiation. Method A cross-sectional study was conducted with 254 female students aged 11–16 years attending public middle schools. Participants completed standardized self-report measures assessing perceived peer pressure, body image satisfaction, psychopathological functioning, self-esteem, and family relationships. Correlational analyses and structural equation modeling (SEM) were employed to test both direct and mediated effects, with self-esteem and family functioning examined as key mediators. Results Peer pressure and psychopathological symptoms were positively associated with earlier sexual initiation, whereas higher self-esteem and positive family functioning were protective. Body image satisfaction positively influenced self-esteem and indirectly delayed sexual initiation. SEM indicated that psychopathology had both direct and indirect effects (via self-esteem and family functioning) on the timing of sexual behaviors. The model showed an acceptable fit to the data, explaining a substantial portion of the variance in age of initiation. Conclusion Early sexual behaviors among adolescent girls are shaped by a constellation of psychosocial and familial factors. Peer influence and emotional difficulties accelerate sexual onset, whereas strong self-esteem and cohesive family relationships exert protective effects. Interventions promoting self-worth, emotional regulation, and family communication may contribute to healthier developmental trajectories and delayed sexual initiation. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Early Adolescence; Sexual Behavior; Peer Pressure; Body Image; Self-Esteem Corresponding Author(s) Silvia Cimino ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Silvia Cimino Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Copyright: © 2025 Cimino S and Cerniglia L. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Cimino S and Cerniglia L. Early Adolescent Sexual Behaviors: Peer Pressure, Body Image, Psychopathology, Self-Esteem, and Family Dynamics [version 1; peer review: 1 approved] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1169 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168670.1 ) First published: 27 Oct 2025, 14 :1169 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168670.1 ) Latest published: 27 Oct 2025, 14 :1169 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168670.1 ) Introduction The issue of young adolescents engaging in early sexual activities has attracted significant attention recently due to its potential long-term effects on individual health and well-being. Early adolescence, occurring typically between ages 10 to 14, is a critical developmental phase during which adolescents explore their emerging sexuality. 1 While curiosity and exploration are natural parts of adolescent development, engaging in sexual behaviors at this stage raises concerns about physical, emotional, and social risks. 2 It has been suggested that young people face peer pressure, are influenced by prevailing social norms, and that adolescents are greatly influenced by their peers and often feel pressured to conform to perceived social norms related to sexual activity. 3 The need to fit in or gain peer approval can lead some adolescents to engage in sexual behaviors prematurely. Peer pressure significantly impacts human behavior, especially during adolescence and young adulthood when individuals are particularly sensitive to social acceptance and conformity. In the context of sexual behaviors, peer pressure can take various forms, such as encouraging casual sexual encounters or normalizing promiscuity within a peer group. Research indicates that individuals who experience peer pressure to conform to specific sexual behaviors are more likely to engage in early activities. This pressure can come from close friends, romantic partners, or even acquaintances who promote the idea that casual sex is socially acceptable or desirable. 4 Yielding to this pressure can result in a pattern of promiscuity as individuals seek validation and acceptance from their peers. Social norms, the unspoken guidelines shaping behavior within a society, play a pivotal role in influencing sexual conduct. These norms impact promiscuous behaviors directly and indirectly. In societies where casual sex is normalized and socially acceptable, individuals are more likely to engage in promiscuous activities. Moreover, media platforms, such as television, movies, and online content, often depict casual sex as a typical and desirable behavior. 5 These portrayals perpetuate promiscuity by endorsing the notion that such conduct is not only acceptable but also anticipated. The rise in explicit sexual content accessible through media and the internet has raised significant concerns, particularly regarding its impact on young adolescents. With smartphones, tablets, and computers becoming ubiquitous, young people are increasingly exposed to explicit sexual content that can profoundly shape their views on sexual behavior and relationships. 6 One primary issue linked to this exposure is the potential distortion of adolescents’ understanding of appropriate sexual behaviors and ideals. Media and online content often present hypersexualized and unrealistic scenarios, creating impractical expectations and pressuring young individuals to conform to adult-like sexual norms. This pressure can result in negative outcomes, including premature sexual experimentation, risky behaviors, and heightened susceptibility to exploitation. 7 Additionally, the widespread availability of explicit sexual content can impede the development of healthy attitudes and communication about sexuality. Adolescents might struggle to differentiate between fiction and reality, leading to confusion and misunderstandings regarding consent, boundaries, and respectful sexual conduct. 8 Premature sexual behaviors among early adolescents are a multifaceted and alarming concern, influenced by family dynamics as well. 9 Dysfunctional family environments, characterized by limited parental involvement or poor communication, profoundly impact adolescents’ emotional well-being and their choices regarding sexual behaviors. Limited parental engagement often stems from factors like busy work schedules, single-parent households, or parental disinterest. When adolescents perceive a lack of emotional support and attention at home, they may seek validation and connection elsewhere, including through premature sexual encounters. 10 Engaging in such behaviors can offer a temporary sense of closeness or affirmation absent in their families. When parents and caregivers fail to engage in open discussions about relationships, sex education, and emotional well-being, adolescents may turn to peers, media, or the internet for information. 11 Unfortunately, this alternative source can present distorted or unrealistic views of sexuality, leading to risky behaviors. Adolescence is marked by significant emotional changes, and some may turn to sexual activity to address academic pressures, family issues, social challenges, and/or psychological distress seeking temporary relief and pleasure. 12 Emotional connections and intimacy are vital, leading some to believe that sexual activity can bring them closer to peers or partners, prompting multiple relationships in search of intimacy. For certain early adolescents, sexual activity becomes an escape from emotional difficulties like depression, loneliness, or low self-esteem. 13 These encounters provide fleeting validation and self-worth, driving repeated promiscuous behaviors in an attempt to recreate these experiences. Engaging in such behaviors can lead to emotional distress among early adolescents, who might lack the emotional maturity needed for handling the complexities of sexual relationships. 14 Emotional turmoil, including regret, guilt, anxiety, and depression, often accompanies early sexual experiences. Regret arises when adolescents feel pressured into sexual activities, leading to self-blame. Guilt surfaces when actions conflict with personal values, contributing to low self-esteem. Anxiety stems from fears of consequences, such as unintended pregnancies. 15 Additionally, fluctuating emotions within relationships can lead to depression, loneliness, and feelings of emptiness. Trust issues may develop, as doubts about partners’ fidelity or commitment arise, hindering the establishment of meaningful, long-term relationships based on trust and emotional intimacy. 16 Communication challenges within relationships can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts. The transient nature of promiscuous encounters often results in short-lived and unsatisfying relationships, leaving adolescents unfulfilled. Emotional detachment from partners due to a lack of emotional intimacy further complicates the establishment of lasting connections. In conclusion, promiscuous sexual behaviors among early adolescents represent a complex issue influenced by a multitude of societal, familial, and individual factors. In short, while early engagement in sexual behaviors is not inherently problematic, 17 research indicates that early starters are typically more vulnerable to potential risks, although different studies have shown conflicting results. This research aims to contribute to the study of this important topic by verifying if a series of variables have an influence on the onset of the first sexual experience in early adolescents. In particular, based on the above considerations, we will evaluate if impulsivity, sensitivity to peer pressure, psychopathological distress, self-esteem, and maladaptive familial functioning have a role in predicting precocity of sexual intercourses. Methods Sample and procedure We utilized a consecutive snowball sampling method to assemble a sample from the general population via social media platforms like Facebook and announcements on online psychology research websites. The inclusion criteria were: (1) no psychiatric diagnosis in the participants; and (2) not undergoing any medical or psychological treatment. We recruited 281 female adolescents aged 11–16 years. We excluded from the sample: adolescents who did not consent to participate (N = 13); adolescents whose parents denied consent (N = 11); and adolescents with a psychiatric diagnosis (N = 3). Consequently, the final sample comprised 254 female adolescents. The majority were Caucasian (98.1%) and 85% of their families had an annual household income between EUR 28,000 and 55,000 (average socio-economic status). Additionally, 85.6% of the participants were from intact family groups. The authors confirm that all procedures adhered to the ethical standards of the relevant national and institutional committees on human experimentation and the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2008. All procedures involving human subjects were approved by the Ethical Committee of La Sapienza, University of Rome, prior to the study (protocol code 0000809 of 09/10/2020). All parents or guardians of the participants provided written informed consent. Anonymity and privacy of personal information were assured. Participants completed a series of self-report measures and a specifically prepared questionnaire to collect socio-demographic information and the age of their first sexual experience. Measures Peer pressure Peer Pressure Scale (PPS). 18 This scale was designed by the authors. The concept was operationalized by asking the extent to which friends of respondents value beauty, appearance, slenderness, muscularity and the like (nine statements, range; 1 = completely disagree, 7 = completely agree). An example item is “My friends think it is important to be slender.” The total score can range from 9 to 63 (Cronbach’s α = .85). The questions of this scale are included in the Appendix. A higher score indicates higher perceived peer pressure. Body image Body satisfaction was measured at all points with the Physical Appearance subscale of the revised version of the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents. 19 , 20 The scale consists of five items: “I am not satisfied with my appearance,” “I wish my body was different,” “I wish I looked different,” “I think I look good,” and “I like my appearance very much.” Each item was evaluated on a scale from (1) Does not correspond at all to (4) Corresponds very well. A high mean score indicates high body satisfaction (Cronbach’s alpha was .86, .89, .90, and .90 at T1, T2, T3, and T4, respectively). Self-esteem Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). Developed by Rosenberg 21 and adapted into Turkish by Cuhadaroglu 22 , the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale has 12 subscales and 63 items. This study used the Self-Esteem subscale, which consists 10 items. It is a four-point Likert-type scale including the ratings of “Strongly Disagree” (1 point), “Disagree” (2 points), “Agree” (3 points) and “Strongly Agree” (4 points). The possible scores range from 10 to 40 points, with a higher score indicating high self-esteem for that individual. In the test-retest that was done four weeks after, the correlation between the two measurements was found to be r = 0.71. In this study, the internal consistency coefficient was found to be 0.84. Family functioning The Family Assessment Device (FAD) 23 , 24 is a 60-item self-report questionnaire that was developed to measure various aspects of family functioning. Items are evaluated on a 4-point scale (from 1 = “strongly agree” to 4 = “strongly disagree”) and allow measuring six dimensions of the McMaster Model of Family Functioning: (1) Problem Solving (PS), which addresses the family’s ability to solve problems (e.g., “We resolve most emotional upsets that come up”); (2) Communication (COM), which evaluates whether communication between the family members is clear and direct or vague and indirect (e.g., “We are frank with each other”); (3) Roles, which addresses the issue of how roles and responsibilities are allocated among the family members (e.g., “We discuss who is to do household jobs”); (4) Affective Responsiveness (AR), which addresses ability of the family members to respond to a range of situations with appropriate quality and amount of emotion (e.g., “We do not show our love for each other”); (5) Affective Involvement (AI), which assesses how family members experience interest and involvement with each other (e.g., “If someone is in trouble, the others become involved too”); and (6) Behavioral Control (BC), which evaluates whether the family has norms or standards governing individual behavior and responses to emergency situations (e.g., “We have rules about hitting people”). Psychometric properties showed a good validity, reliability, and internal consistency. In this study, the internal consistency of the six subscales was also adequate (Cronbach’s alpha was 0.79). Psychopathological symptoms The Youth Self-Report (YSR) 25 , 26 is a self-report questionnaire designed to assess behavioral and emotional problems over the past six months. It includes 112 problem items, each rated on a 3-point scale (0 = not true, 1 = somewhat or sometimes true, 2 = very or often true). The YSR comprises nine syndrome subscales: Withdrawn, Somatic Complaints, Anxious/Depressed, Social Problems, Thought Problems, Attention Problems, Delinquent Behavior, Aggressive Behavior, and Self-destruct Identity. The Withdrawn, Somatic Complaints, and Anxious/Depressed subscales form a broad ‘Internalizing’ dimension (31 items), while the Delinquent and Aggressive Behaviors subscales make up the ‘Externalizing’ dimension (32 items). Higher scores on these scales indicate greater maladaptive functioning. Additionally, some YSR items are included in the “Other Problems” subscale (32 items). In this study, Cronbach’s alpha was .87. Analyses plan Before conducting the analyses, the distributions of the variables were examined and found to be normal. Starting from a conceptual model ( Figure 1 ), structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed for data analysis to elucidate the relationships among the study variables. SEM offers several advantages over other methods, as it can test and model intricate relationship patterns, incorporate multiple mediators, and simultaneously evaluate multiple outcome variables. To evaluate the fit of the structural models, the comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) were used. According to Quintana and Maxwell, 27 CFI and TLI values above 0.95 and RMSEA values below 0.05 indicate a close fit between the model and the data. The full information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimation was applied to estimate missing parameters within the model. FIML procedures do not impute data but rather use the expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm to estimate the model’s parameters and standard errors. 28 Figure 1. Conceptual model. Results Preliminary analyses Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations for all study variables are provided in Table 1 . Descriptive results indicated that 26% of the sample had sexual intercourse before the age of 15 years. Early sexual intercourse was defined as intercourse initiated before the age of 15 years as proposed by the WHO. We then conducted SEM. Table 1. Means, standard deviations, correlations for all study variables. Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Peer pressure — 2. Body image -.28 — 3. Psychopathology .46 -.25 — 4. Self-esteem -.25 .09 -.31 — 5. Family functioning -.23 .21 -.29 .24 — 6. Age of intercourse .35 -.28 .28 -.23 -.32 — Means 2.25 2.13 3.49 2.06 2.46 14.21 SD 1.07 .75 .67 .62 .85 2.44 The fit indexes suggested that overall data fit the model well for the girls in our sample ( Figure 2 ; only significant relations), CFI = 1.00, TLI = 1.00, RMSEA = 0.01. As per indirect paths, the analyses showed that: a) self-esteem mediated the relation between peer pressure, body image and psychopathology with age of intercourse; b) body image was also related to family functioning, although the latter did not serve as a mediator for the age of intercourse; c) psychopathology showed an indirect relationship with the age of intercourse through the mediator role both of self-esteem and of family functioning, however it also showed a strong direct link with the age of intercourse. In sum, early intercourse was predicted by peer pressure and body image, but only when mediated by self- esteem. If self-esteem was higher, it served as a protective factor against early sexual intercourse. Psychopathology distress also had an important role in predicting early intercourse, both with the mediator role of self-esteem and family functioning, and through a direct link. Figure 2. Significant relations. Discussion The findings of this study highlight the multifaceted nature of promiscuous sexual behaviors among early adolescents, underscoring the interplay between individual, familial, and social factors. The structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis provided a comprehensive understanding of the relationships between peer pressure, body image, psychopathological symptoms, self-esteem, and family functioning in predicting early sexual intercourse. The interconnections between these variables and their predictive value in fostering at-risk behaviors during adolescence have been extensively explored in the literature. Numerous studies underscored the significant influence of peer pressure on adolescent behavior, demonstrating how the desire for social acceptance can lead to risky behaviors, including early sexual activity. 18 Additionally, concerns about body image are closely linked with self-esteem and mental health issues, such as eating disorders and depression, which further predispose adolescents to engage in at-risk behaviors. Moreover, family functioning is another critical factor in adolescent development. Dysfunctional family environments, characterized by poor communication and lack of emotional support, are associated with higher levels of psychopathological symptoms and lower self-esteem in adolescents, thus increasing the likelihood of risky behaviors. 29 , 30 Positive family dynamics, conversely, can mitigate the adverse effects of peer pressure and body image issues, fostering better mental health and reducing the incidence of at-risk behaviors. 31 , 32 Despite the extensive literature exploring the connections between peer pressure, body image, psychopathological symptoms, self-esteem, and family functioning in predicting at-risk behaviors during adolescence, recent studies focusing specifically on sexual behaviors among adolescents using an integrated model like the one applied in this article are scarce. Most research to date has addressed these factors in isolation or through simpler frameworks. For example, studies have consistently shown that peer pressure significantly influences early sexual behavior 33 and that body image concerns are closely related to self-esteem and mental health issues such as depression and eating disorders. 34 Moreover, family functioning’s role in adolescent behavior has been well-documented, highlighting its impact on mental health and risk behaviors. 35 The interplay between family dynamics and adolescent outcomes is critical, as evidenced by the substantial research linking family support with reduced psychological distress and healthier behavioral choices. 36 However, there is a noticeable gap in recent literature that integrates these various elements into a comprehensive model to specifically analyze adolescent sexual behaviors. However, utilizing such an integrated approach is crucial for a more nuanced understanding of the multifaceted factors influencing early sexual activity among adolescents as this approach can lead to more effective interventions designed to promote healthy development and mitigate risky sexual behaviors. Therefore, this research aimed to contributing to fill the gap in literature. Our results showed that the significant impact of peer pressure on early sexual behaviors aligns with existing literature, emphasizing the influential role of social acceptance and conformity during adolescence. 15 Adolescents who perceive higher levels of peer pressure are more likely to engage in early sexual activities, often seeking validation and acceptance from their peers. This finding reinforces the need for interventions that address peer influence and promote healthy decision-making skills among adolescents. The influence of peer pressure on early sexual behaviors among adolescents is well-documented in existing literature, with numerous studies supporting the notion that adolescents who perceive higher levels of peer pressure are more likely to engage in early sexual activities. Widman et al. 37 conducted a study that demonstrated the significant role of peer influence on adolescent sexual behavior. Their research revealed that 78% of the youth participants provided more risky responses in a simulated peer influence scenario compared to a private pretest, indicating a substantial susceptibility to peer pressure. The study also found gender differences, with boys being more susceptible to peer influence than girls, underscoring the influential role of social acceptance and conformity during adolescence. Similarly, a meta-analysis by van de Bongardt et al. 38 examined the associations between peer norms and adolescent sexual behavior. The study found that descriptive norms, or the sexual behaviors of peers, had a stronger association with adolescent sexual activity than injunctive norms (peer sexual attitudes) or direct peer pressure to have sex. This meta-analysis supports the idea that adolescents’ perceptions of their peers’ behaviors significantly influence their own sexual activities. In contrast, Selikow et al. 39 explored how peer pressure increases high-risk sexual behavior among young adolescents in Cape Town, South Africa. Their qualitative study highlighted that peer pressure undermines healthy social norms and HIV prevention messages, encouraging early sexual debut and risky sexual behaviors. This study emphasizes the need for targeted interventions that address peer influence to promote healthier sexual decision-making among adolescents. These findings collectively reinforce the critical role of peer influence in shaping adolescent sexual behaviors and underline the necessity for interventions aimed at mitigating negative peer pressure and promoting healthy decision-making skills among young individuals. Body image also emerged as a significant predictor of early sexual intercourse, mediated by self-esteem. Adolescents with poor body image are more susceptible to engaging in early sexual behaviors, possibly as a means of gaining affirmation and acceptance. 40 This pathway highlights the importance of fostering positive body image and self-esteem in adolescence to mitigate the risks associated with premature sexual activities. Interventions focusing on body positivity and self-worth could be particularly effective in reducing the incidence of early sexual intercourse. The relationship between body image, self-esteem, and early sexual intercourse in adolescents is complex and significant. Multiple studies have highlighted the critical role of body image as a predictor of early sexual behaviors, often mediated by self-esteem 41 found that satisfaction with appearance can change after first intercourse, with males generally becoming more satisfied and females less so, suggesting that initial sexual experiences can impact body image and self-esteem differently based on gender. Further, Clay, Vignoles, and Dittmar 42 observed that exposure to unrealistic media images significantly lowers body satisfaction and self-esteem among adolescent girls, establishing a direct link between sociocultural factors and body image-related self-esteem issues. This decline in self-esteem can make adolescents more vulnerable to engaging in early sexual activities as a means of seeking affirmation and acceptance. Additionally, a study by Morin et al. 43 employed longitudinal data to examine the stability and interrelation of self-esteem and body image across adolescence. They found that higher levels of body image positively influenced self-esteem over time, which in turn affected adolescents’ decision-making regarding sexual behaviors. Moreover, Spencer et al. 44 demonstrated that self-esteem serves as a significant predictor of coitus initiation, with higher self-esteem in girls correlating with a delay in sexual debut. This suggests that interventions aimed at improving self-esteem could be effective in reducing early sexual activities. The direct link between psychopathology and early intercourse suggests that adolescents experiencing emotional distress may turn to sexual activities as a coping mechanism. Additionally, the mediating roles of self-esteem and family functioning indicate that adolescents with higher self-esteem and better family dynamics are less likely to engage in early sexual behaviors, even if they experience psychopathological symptoms. These findings underscore the necessity of addressing mental health issues and enhancing familial support to prevent premature sexual activities. The direct link between psychopathology and early intercourse suggests that adolescents experiencing emotional distress may turn to sexual activities as a coping mechanism. Donenberg et al. 45 explored the social and personal characteristics related to early sexual debut among adolescents in psychiatric care, finding that externalizing problems, negative peer influence, and parental hostile control were significant predictors of early sexual activity. This study underscores the importance of mental health in understanding early sexual behaviors among adolescents. Furthermore, family functioning and self-esteem play crucial mediating roles. Boden and Horwood 46 examined the relationship between self-esteem and risky sexual behaviors in a New Zealand birth cohort, highlighting that lower self-esteem at age 15 was associated with a higher risk of engaging in unprotected sex. However, the influence of family dynamics and socioeconomic background mitigated these risks, suggesting that better family functioning can buffer against the adverse effects of low self-esteem. Similarly, Krug et al. 47 found that dysfunctional family affective involvement partially mediated the relationship between parental depression and adolescents’ self-esteem, illustrating the critical role of family dynamics in the psychological well-being of adolescents. This study implies that enhancing family support can help mitigate the impact of psychopathology on early sexual behaviors. Family functioning plays a crucial role in the sexual behaviors of adolescents. Dysfunctional family environments, characterized by poor communication and limited emotional support, significantly contribute to the likelihood of early sexual intercourse. 17 Adolescents from such backgrounds may seek emotional connection and validation through sexual activities. Enhancing family communication and involvement through family-based interventions could mitigate these risks and promote healthier adolescent development. Adolescents with higher self-esteem are better equipped to resist peer pressure and make healthier decisions regarding their sexual behaviors. This finding suggests that programs aimed at boosting self-esteem could be effective in reducing the incidence of early sexual activities among adolescents. Family functioning plays a crucial role in the sexual behaviors of adolescents. Dysfunctional family environments, characterized by poor communication and limited emotional support, significantly contribute to the likelihood of early sexual intercourse. Adolescents from such backgrounds often seek emotional connection and validation through sexual activities. For instance, Whitbeck et al. 48 found that adolescents with emotionally distant parents were more likely to exhibit depressive symptoms, which in turn were associated with sexually permissive attitudes and having sexually active friends. This indicates that poor family support can indirectly influence sexual behaviors through its impact on adolescents’ mental health and peer relationships. Furthermore, enhancing family communication and involvement through family-based interventions could mitigate these risks and promote healthier adolescent development. Studies have shown that better family functioning is associated with reduced risk behaviors in adolescents. For example, it has been demonstrated that family dysfunction was linked to negative peer influence, which increased the likelihood of sexual experience among adolescents in therapeutic day schools. This underscores the importance of fostering positive family dynamics to reduce early sexual activities. 45 Adolescents with higher self-esteem are better equipped to resist peer pressure and make healthier decisions regarding their sexual behaviors. Tegegne found that first-year university students with higher self-esteem were less likely to engage in premarital sex, suggesting that boosting self-esteem can effectively reduce early sexual activities. This indicates that self-esteem plays a protective role against engaging in risky sexual behaviors. 49 Programs aimed at boosting self-esteem could therefore be effective in reducing the incidence of early sexual activities among adolescents. Interventions that focus on enhancing self-esteem and family functioning, such as family therapy and self-esteem building activities, could significantly contribute to healthier sexual behaviors and overall adolescent well-being. In conclusion, this study contributes to the understanding of early sexual behaviors among adolescents by elucidating the complex interplay between peer pressure, body image, psychopathological symptoms, self-esteem, and family functioning. The findings highlight the need for multifaceted interventions that address these various factors to promote healthy adolescent development and prevent premature sexual activities. Future research should continue to explore these relationships in diverse populations and settings to further refine and expand the understanding of adolescent sexual behaviors. Addressing the identified risk factors through targeted interventions could significantly reduce the incidence of early sexual intercourse and its associated risks, ultimately fostering better health and well-being among adolescents. While this study provides valuable insights into the multifaceted nature of early sexual behaviors among early adolescents, it is not without limitations. Firstly, the reliance on self-reported data may introduce bias, as participants might underreport or exaggerate their behaviors due to social desirability or recall issues. Additionally, the cross-sectional design of the study limits the ability to establish causality between the examined variables and early sexual intercourse. Longitudinal studies would be more effective in determining the directionality and temporal sequence of these relationships. Moreover, the sample used in this study may not be representative of all adolescent populations, as it might lack diversity in terms of socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and geographical location. This limits the generalizability of the findings to broader adolescent groups. Furthermore, the integrated model applied in this study, while comprehensive, may still overlook other potential factors influencing early sexual behaviors, such as cultural influences, educational interventions, and access to sexual health resources. Finally, while the structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis provided a robust framework for understanding the relationships among the studied variables, it is essential to note that SEM relies on theoretical assumptions and model specifications that may not capture the full complexity of real-world dynamics. Future research should aim to replicate these findings using diverse samples and longitudinal designs, and consider additional variables to further refine our understanding of the factors influencing adolescent sexual behaviors. Data availability statement Raw data are visible at OSF repository: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/SX7Q9 . 49 This project contains following datasets: 1. Consenso_Informato_UTIU.doc 2. Dataset_Early sexuality.xlsx 3. FAD.pdf 4. Peer Pressure.pdf 5. rosenberg-self-esteem.pdf 6. Self_Perception_Adolescent.docx 7. YSR11-18.pdf Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0). References 1. 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Publisher Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 27 Oct 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Department of Dynamic, Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy 2 Faculty of Psychology, Uninettuno International Telematic University, Rome, Lazio, Italy Silvia Cimino Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Luca Cerniglia Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Article Versions (1) version 1 Published: 27 Oct 2025, 14:1169 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168670.1 Copyright © 2025 Cimino S and Cerniglia L. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Cimino S and Cerniglia L. Early Adolescent Sexual Behaviors: Peer Pressure, Body Image, Psychopathology, Self-Esteem, and Family Dynamics [version 1; peer review: 1 approved] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1169 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168670.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 27 Oct 2025 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Adaramoye TO. Reviewer Report For: Early Adolescent Sexual Behaviors: Peer Pressure, Body Image, Psychopathology, Self-Esteem, and Family Dynamics [version 1; peer review: 1 approved] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1169 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.185861.r441608 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-1169/v1#referee-response-441608 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 30 Dec 2025 Toyin Olanike Adaramoye , Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.185861.r441608 Summary of the Article This study investigates the interplay between peer pressure, body image, psychopathological symptoms, self-esteem, and family functioning in predicting the timing of first sexual intercourse among early adolescent girls. Using a cross-sectional design and structural equation ... Continue reading READ ALL Summary of the Article This study investigates the interplay between peer pressure, body image, psychopathological symptoms, self-esteem, and family functioning in predicting the timing of first sexual intercourse among early adolescent girls. Using a cross-sectional design and structural equation modeling (SEM), the authors examine both direct and indirect pathways influencing early sexual initiation. The study addresses an important and sensitive developmental issue and contributes to the literature by integrating multiple psychosocial and familial factors into a single explanatory model. General Evaluation Overall, the manuscript is thoughtfully designed, methodologically sound, and grounded in relevant literature. The use of SEM is appropriate and allows for a nuanced understanding of mediating mechanisms, particularly the protective role of self-esteem and family functioning. The topic is timely and has clear implications for prevention and intervention. However, several areas would benefit from refinement to improve clarity. Evaluation of key review criteria 1. Clarity of presentation and use of current literature – Partly The manuscript is generally well written and cites a substantial body of relevant literature, but some of the literature cited is not recent. Also, some sections, especially the introduction and discussion, are somehow lengthy and repetitive. Streamlining these sections and adding some recent empirical studies would improve them. Additionally, adopting more neutral, scientific language in place of terms that may appear moralistic would strengthen the academic tone. 2. Appropriateness and technical soundness of the study design - Yes The cross-sectional design is appropriate for the stated aims, and the analytical approach is technically sound. The rationale for using SEM is clear, and the overall conceptual model is well justified. 3. Sufficiency of methodological detail for replication – Partly The authors provide detailed descriptions of the measures used, most of which are well-validated instruments. However, additional clarification is needed regarding the sampling strategy, particularly the use of snowball sampling through social media, recruitment procedures, and data handling processes. It is suggested that a brief justification for snowball sampling be provided. Also, clarify how participants were initially recruited online and how consent was obtained digitally. 4. Appropriateness of statistical analysis and interpretation – Yes The statistical analyses are appropriate, and interpretations are generally consistent with the results. The SEM model shows excellent fit; however, the reporting could be strengthened. Standardized path coefficients, confidence intervals, and effect sizes can be reported. 5. Availability of source data for reproducibility – No There is a link given for the used data, but when it was clicked on, it kept saying DOI not found. Include the real data source and a statement clarifying whether the dataset can be shared, probably upon reasonable request, or explaining any restrictions due to ethical considerations. 6. Support of conclusions by the results – Yes The conclusions are well supported by the findings and are appropriately cautious, with clear acknowledgment of limitations such as the cross-sectional design and reliance on self-report measures. Overall Recommendation The manuscript makes a valuable contribution to the field and is scientifically sound. Addressing the points above particularly those related to methodological transparency and data availability, will further strengthen its quality, clarity, and impact. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Yes Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? No Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: My expertise is in adolescent and counselling psychology, with a focus on adolescent sexual behaviour, self-esteem, peer influence, family functioning, and mental health. I am well qualified to evaluate the theoretical framework, literature, measurement tools, and interpretation of findings in this manuscript. My review of the statistical analysis is limited to assessing conceptual appropriateness and interpretation rather than advanced statistical modeling. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Adaramoye TO. Reviewer Report For: Early Adolescent Sexual Behaviors: Peer Pressure, Body Image, Psychopathology, Self-Esteem, and Family Dynamics [version 1; peer review: 1 approved] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1169 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.185861.r441608 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-1169/v1#referee-response-441608 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 27 Oct 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 Version 1 27 Oct 25 read Toyin Olanike Adaramoye , Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Adaramoye T. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 30 Dec 2025 | for Version 1 Toyin Olanike Adaramoye , Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria 0 Views copyright © 2026 Adaramoye T. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Summary of the Article This study investigates the interplay between peer pressure, body image, psychopathological symptoms, self-esteem, and family functioning in predicting the timing of first sexual intercourse among early adolescent girls. Using a cross-sectional design and structural equation modeling (SEM), the authors examine both direct and indirect pathways influencing early sexual initiation. The study addresses an important and sensitive developmental issue and contributes to the literature by integrating multiple psychosocial and familial factors into a single explanatory model. General Evaluation Overall, the manuscript is thoughtfully designed, methodologically sound, and grounded in relevant literature. The use of SEM is appropriate and allows for a nuanced understanding of mediating mechanisms, particularly the protective role of self-esteem and family functioning. The topic is timely and has clear implications for prevention and intervention. However, several areas would benefit from refinement to improve clarity. Evaluation of key review criteria 1. Clarity of presentation and use of current literature – Partly The manuscript is generally well written and cites a substantial body of relevant literature, but some of the literature cited is not recent. Also, some sections, especially the introduction and discussion, are somehow lengthy and repetitive. Streamlining these sections and adding some recent empirical studies would improve them. Additionally, adopting more neutral, scientific language in place of terms that may appear moralistic would strengthen the academic tone. 2. Appropriateness and technical soundness of the study design - Yes The cross-sectional design is appropriate for the stated aims, and the analytical approach is technically sound. The rationale for using SEM is clear, and the overall conceptual model is well justified. 3. Sufficiency of methodological detail for replication – Partly The authors provide detailed descriptions of the measures used, most of which are well-validated instruments. However, additional clarification is needed regarding the sampling strategy, particularly the use of snowball sampling through social media, recruitment procedures, and data handling processes. It is suggested that a brief justification for snowball sampling be provided. Also, clarify how participants were initially recruited online and how consent was obtained digitally. 4. Appropriateness of statistical analysis and interpretation – Yes The statistical analyses are appropriate, and interpretations are generally consistent with the results. The SEM model shows excellent fit; however, the reporting could be strengthened. Standardized path coefficients, confidence intervals, and effect sizes can be reported. 5. Availability of source data for reproducibility – No There is a link given for the used data, but when it was clicked on, it kept saying DOI not found. Include the real data source and a statement clarifying whether the dataset can be shared, probably upon reasonable request, or explaining any restrictions due to ethical considerations. 6. Support of conclusions by the results – Yes The conclusions are well supported by the findings and are appropriately cautious, with clear acknowledgment of limitations such as the cross-sectional design and reliance on self-report measures. Overall Recommendation The manuscript makes a valuable contribution to the field and is scientifically sound. Addressing the points above particularly those related to methodological transparency and data availability, will further strengthen its quality, clarity, and impact. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Yes Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? No Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise My expertise is in adolescent and counselling psychology, with a focus on adolescent sexual behaviour, self-esteem, peer influence, family functioning, and mental health. I am well qualified to evaluate the theoretical framework, literature, measurement tools, and interpretation of findings in this manuscript. My review of the statistical analysis is limited to assessing conceptual appropriateness and interpretation rather than advanced statistical modeling. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Adaramoye TO. Peer Review Report For: Early Adolescent Sexual Behaviors: Peer Pressure, Body Image, Psychopathology, Self-Esteem, and Family Dynamics [version 1; peer review: 1 approved] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1169 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.185861.r441608) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-1169/v1#referee-response-441608 Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved - the paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations - A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved - fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Adjust parameters to alter display View on desktop for interactive features Includes Interactive Elements View on desktop for interactive features Competing Interests Policy Provide sufficient details of any financial or non-financial competing interests to enable users to assess whether your comments might lead a reasonable person to question your impartiality. 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