Teachers and technology: a systematic review of their level of digital competence

Teachers and technology: a systematic review of their level of digital competence | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review Teachers and technology: a systematic review of their level of digital competence Inmaculada Aznar-Díaz, Santiago Alonso-García, Manuel-Enrique Lorenzo-Martín, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6351911/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Digitalisation has transformed education, requiring teachers to acquire Digital Teaching Competence (DTC). This study analyses their current level and the factors affecting it, such as age, gender and education. It also identifies good practices to improve the integration of ICT in teaching. Through a systematic review, it aims to provide key information to design effective training programmes and improve the digital competence of teachers in different educational contexts. We conducted a systematic review based on PRISMA, collecting 2024 studies in English and open access. Variables such as self-perception of DTC, ICT use and level of digital literacy were analysed. Studies that were not accessible or in other languages were discarded. Data collection considered attitudes, training and access to technological resources. Teachers have an intermediate level (B1) of DTC, with a positive disposition towards ICT, but face a lack of training and resources. Younger teachers show greater technological acceptance. There are discrepancies about the influence of gender on DTC. Institutional digitalisation influences its development. Good practices such as active methodologies are highlighted, although their implementation is limited. The digital divide and unequal access to technology affect the acquisition of these competences. Although teachers value the importance of ICT, their integration in the classroom is deficient due to lack of training and resources. Specific training and innovative methodologies such as Flipped Learning are needed. More qualitative research is recommended to better understand the factors affecting DTC. Teacher digital literacy is essential to improve teaching in an ever-changing technological world. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. INTRODUCTION We are currently immersed in an increasingly digitalised society, where technology is continuously transforming all areas of our lives, including education. Likewise, following Covid19, education has also undergone a profound digitisation (Romero-Rodríguez et al., 2022 ), which has opened up new opportunities for education and the personalisation of learning. It is therefore essential for teachers to have an adequate level of digital competence in order to carry out an effective teaching-learning process. Digital Teaching Competence (DTC) refers to the set of skills, knowledge and attitudes (Suárez et al., 2019 ) that teachers must have in order to use technologies effectively in the classroom. Furthermore, according to the LOMLOE (2020) this concept implies the use of digital technologies in a safe, healthy, sustainable, critical and responsible way, across different areas and subjects in a cross-cutting manner. In recent years, this topic has become the subject of research and study, driven by constant technological progress and the emergence of new digital trends, such as Artificial Intelligence (AI). In this sense, as pointed out by Palacios-Rodríguez et al. ( 2025 ), there has been a significant increase in the number of scientific publications, both nationally and internationally, which is evidence of the exponential growth of research in this field. In short, it is considered essential to analyse the general level of DTC, as well as the different factors that significantly affect its development. Therefore, this systematic review aims to collect the necessary data to detect the level of digital literacy of teachers at different educational stages at an international level, which can serve as a guide to design more effective training programmes. Analysing the studies that have been published in English in recent years allows us to have a global perspective, comparing the educational contexts of different countries. Consequently, this will allow us to identify good practices that have been or are being implemented. Furthermore, the study also aims to contribute to the field of knowledge by analysing the current level of digital competence of teachers, thus identifying strengths and weaknesses that will serve as a basis for decision-making at the policy and training level. The main objective of this study is therefore to analyse the existing literature on the level of digital competence that teachers currently have. To this end, a series of specific objectives are set out, among which the following stand out: To compare the levels of teachers' digital competence according to educational context and teaching level. To identify the main factors influencing teachers' digital competence, such as gender, age or level of education. Identify good practices that have contributed to teachers achieving an optimal level of digital competence. 2. METHOD A systematic review was carried out to achieve the proposed objectives, which involved an in-depth analysis of those articles published in 2024 in relation to DTC. The protocol and recommendations of the PRISMA statement (Page et al., 2021 ) were also taken into account. To this end, a search string was created using keywords, establishing inclusion and exclusion criteria to select relevant documents. In addition, a flowchart was created that reflects and highlights the process carried out (see Fig. 1 ). 2.1 Literature search The literature search was carried out in January 2025, with the aim of collecting research published in English in 2024 on digital competence in teaching. For this purpose, the databases Dialnet, Research Gate and Google Scholar were consulted. The search equation used to carry out the specific selection of articles was ‘digital competence for teachers’, ‘digital competence’ AND ‘teachers’ AND ‘education’. Filters were also applied to limit the results to relevant research from the year 2024, selecting only journal articles and empirical studies related to digital competence for teachers. In addition, priority was given to open access publications whose full text was available online. 2.2 Selection process After searching by title, abstract and keywords using the search equation detailed above, a total of 60 articles were found. The references were then exported to a document to compile all the files and discard duplicates. After eliminating them, from the remaining 44, a total of 29 articles were selected which were indexed in JCR and SJR Q1 and Q2 journals. In addition, it should be noted that the following inclusion and exclusion criteria were established to select relevant articles: In relation to the year of publication, those that had been published within the last year, i.e. 2024, were included. In relation to language, only those published in English were chosen. In relation to access, journal articles on digital competence in teaching that were in open access and those that were accessible in full text were accepted. However, some exclusion criteria were taken into account: Studies whose year of publication was not 2024 were rejected. Studies published in languages other than English were excluded, even though their abstracts were in English. Articles that were not fully accessible were rejected. Publications that were not journal articles, i.e. systematic reviews and intervention programmes, as well as trials or studies on technology unrelated to the DTC, were discarded. A flow chart illustrating the selection process is presented below for a better understanding of the selection process. 2.3 Data collection process The data collection took place after a detailed analysis of a total of 12 articles, which are listed in Table 1 . Accordingly, information was collected regarding the name of the authors, year of publication, country, objectives, sample, variables, instruments and results found. Table 1 Selected articles Aldhaen, E. ( 2024 ). The influence of digital competence of academicians on student’s engagement at university level: moderating effect of the pandemic outbreak. Competitiveness Review, 34 (1), 57–71. Alonso-García, S., Victoria-Maldonado, J., Martínez-Domingo, J., & Berral-Ortiz, B. ( 2024 ). Analysis of self-perceived digital competences in future educators: A study at the university of Granada. Journal of Technology and Science Education, 14 (1), 4–15. Balamoti, E. ( 2024 ). Teacher’s perceptions in greece about the information and communication technologies (ICT) in intercultural education. EDMETIC , 13 (2), 1–17. García-Sampedro, M., Rodríguez-Olay, L., & Peña-Suárez, E. ( 2024 ). Implementation of ICT tools in post-pandemic schools in Spain: Language teachers’ perceptions. Revista de Investigación Educativa , 42 (1), 223–239. Heredia-Ponce, H., Romero-Oliva, M., & Trigo-Ibáñez, E. ( 2024 ). Towards digital competence from the conception of students in language instruction: A study within the master's degree in teaching in Andalusia. Journal of Technology and Science Education, 14 (1), 45–60. Kiryakova, G., & Kozhuharova, D. ( 2024 ). The Digital Competences Necessary for the Successful Pedagogical Practice of Teachers in the Digital Age. Education Sciences , 14 (5). Merjovaara, O., Eklund, K., Nousiainen, T., Karjalainen, S., Koivula, M., Mykkänen, A., & Hämäläinen, R. (2024). Early childhood pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards digital technologies and their relation to digital competence. Education and Information Technologies, 29 , 14647–14662. Molina-Torres, M. ( 2024 ). Flipped classroom to teach digital skills during Covid-19. Journal of Technology and Science Education, 14 (1), 158–168. Momdjian L., Manegre M., & Gutiérrez-Cólon M. ( 2024 ). Digital competences of teachers in Lebanon: a comparison of teachers’ competences to educational standards. Research in Learning Technology , 32. Reyes, W., & Gurubel-Tec, N. E. (2024). Digital competence of teachers in the Mayan region of Mexico: Results of a preliminary research in secondary education. International Journal of Instruction, 17 (2), 617–634. Sjöberg, J., Hoveskog, M., Tell, J., & Cherni, W. ( 2024 ). Unveiling University Students’ Perceptions on Their Teachers’ Digital Competence. Education Sciences , 14 (8), 891. Xin, Y., Tang, Y., & Mou, X. ( 2024 ). An empirical study on the evaluation and influencing factors of digital competence of Chinese teachers for TVET. PLoS ONE 19 (9). 3. RESULTS Table 2 Characteristics of selected articles Authors Country Objectives Sample Variables Instruments Results Aldhaen, 2024 Bahrain To investigate how the DTC influences student participation in the Covid19 outbreak. 442 lecturers from universities in Bahrain who were not familiar with online teaching before the arrival of Covid19. -DTC level -Online student engagement -Perception of threat from Covid19 Adaptation of already validated scales such as Dixon's (2015), and the questionnaires of Barragán-Sánchez et al., (2020) and Pérez-Fuentes et al., (2020). -Significant influence of the DTC in relation to student participation. Alonso-García et al., 2024 Spain To identify the self-perceived digital competences of trainee teachers at the University of Granada and the factors that influence them. 419 students from the Faculty of Educational Sciences at the University of Granada. -Gender -Level of education -Grade -Resources provided by the university DigCompEdu questionnaire validated by Mora-Cantallops et al. (2022). -Influence of gender on self-perception of digital competence, being perceived better by males. -Lack of resources for the development of the DTC provided by the university. Balamoti, 2024 Greece To evaluate the use and utilisation of ICT in the teaching process of intercultural education in the Greek educational system. 356 teachers from all over Greece, from various specialisations and educational stages. -Frequency of use of ICT designed for intercultural education in teaching practice. -Opinion on the pedagogical contribution of ICTs Questionnaire of closed questions with a Likert scale consisting of 35 items designed by the researcher. -Teachers consider that ICT favour social progress and encourage student participation. -Lack of training and lack of resources. García-Sampedro et al., 2024 Spain To find out the trainee teachers' perceptions of their digital competences and their degree of satisfaction with online teaching, as well as to identify their attitudes towards a future implementation of ICT. 700 language teachers from all over Spain from different fields and educational stages. -Teaching experience -Satisfaction and self-perception about DTC -Willingness to use ICT in the future. -Teachers' post-pandemic opinion on ICT Ad hoc online questionnaire designed and implemented for this purpose. -Low perception of DTC, although they say they will continue to use it in the future. -Average satisfaction with online teaching. -Younger and more digitally literate teachers show greater acceptance of ICT. Heredia-Ponce et al., 2024 Spain To describe the conceptions of future educators about the integration of social networks and smartphones in the educational process. 139 students enrolled in the speciality of Spanish Language and Literature and Foreign Languages in the Master's Degree in Teaching at Andalusian universities. -Genre -Specialisations in language teaching -Qualification leading to Master's degree -Age -University Questionnaire adapted from Fandos-Igado et al., (2022) on Utility of Social Networks and Smartphones for Educational Action (CURSAE). -Positive evaluation of the use of smartphones and social networks in the classroom. -Greater acceptance by young students and specialisation in Spanish Language and Literature. Kiryakova y Kozhuharova, 2024 Bulgaria To analyse teachers' views on the possibilities of using technology to achieve educational objectives and to determine the extent to which they integrate it into their teaching activities. 92 teachers from various schools. -Level of use of technologies -DTC needed for teaching success -Opinion on university training in DTC New questionnaire elaborated with questions grouped by themes. -Bulgarian teachers' daily use of ICT in their teaching activities. -Identification of key elements for the development of the DTC. -Insufficient university training to acquire the necessary DTC. Merjovaara et al., 2024 Finland To examine the attitudes of teachers' attitudes towards ICT and self-perception of the DTC. 304 students in the first year of Early Childhood Education from three Finnish universities. -Attitude towards technologies -Self-perception of DTC TPACK Scale by Schmidt et al., (2009) to measure trainee teachers' self-beliefs. -Positive attitudes towards ICT on the part of prospective teachers. -Different levels of perceived DTC. -DTC is related to attitudes and perceived ease of use. Molina-Torres, 2024 Spain To analyse trainee teachers' perceptions of the acquisition of DTC. 172 students of the subject Didactics of Social Sciences in the Bilingual English Programme of the Primary Education Degree at the University of Cordoba. -Impact of the Flipped Learning method on professional development. -Students' perceptions of the level of DTC acquired with Flipped Learning. Ad hoc questionnaire based on the work of Tashakkori et al., (2021). -Active methodologies promote digital literacy and enhance good teaching practices. -Evidence of lack of digital literacy training. Momdjian et al., 2024 Lebanon To examine teachers' digital competences and their alignment with Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MEHE) standards. 170 teachers from Lebanese schools of different stages and subjects. -Frequency of competence use -Complexity of the DTC DigCompEdu CheckIn questionnaire consisting of 22 competences organised in six areas corresponding to those of the DigCompEdu framework. -Teachers' practice meets all the MEHE indicators. -Need for training in digital tools and resources to promote collaboration in the learning process. Reyes y Gurubel-Tec, 2024 Mexico To identify the DTC level of secondary school teachers in the Mayan region of Mexico and to analyse whether there are differences between them. 462 secondary school teachers. -Digital competence in teaching -Area of residence -Level of studies -Social networks and class hours DigCompEdu Check-In Questionnaire (Cabrero-Almenara and Palacios-Rodríguez, 2020). -Intermediate DTC level of 45.2% of teachers. -Differences between rural and urban areas. -Positive correlation between variables and DTC level. Sjöberg et al., 2024 Sweden To assess students' perceptions of digital integration in their education and the level of DTC of their teachers. 175 students from a Swedish university, belonging to different degrees. -Use of digital tools by teachers. -Students' perceived confidence and knowledge of digital tools. 22-item survey designed by one of the faculties in collaboration with the university's Centre for Educational Development. -DTC varies across disciplines. -Students showed limited knowledge of existing digital functionalities. Xin et al., 2024 China To describe Chinese VET teachers' self-awareness of digital competence. 2514 VET teachers from different regions of China. -Digital mindset and attitudes -Digital skills and competences Chinese TVET teachers' digital competence self-assessment questionnaire. -Different factors other than gender have different degrees of influence on the DTC. -The DTC depends on the level of digitisation of the institution itself. The results of the above-mentioned articles showed that there was a lack of training in terms of teachers' digital competence. However, despite the different levels detected, it was possible to estimate that the overall level of digital competence was around an intermediate level (B1). However, both in-service and trainee teachers showed a positive attitude towards the use and integration of ICT in the classroom, valuing its multiple benefits, including increased student participation. Furthermore, in addition to the lack of training, a lack of resources was highlighted, which hinders the proper acquisition of digital competence in teaching. Therefore, although many teachers have a positive attitude towards ICT, they lack the necessary training and resources to implement them effectively in the classroom. On the other hand, several factors were identified as influencing the use and integration of digital tools in teaching practices, such as teachers' attitudes, the perceived ease of use of these technologies and the degree of digitalisation of educational institutions. Young teachers and teachers in training were more likely to value, accept and use ICT in their teaching activities than those at an older age. Finally, some discrepancies were identified in relation to the gender variable. While Xin's study (2024) indicated that there was no direct relationship between gender and level of digital competence, others pointed out that men showed a better perception of their digital skills (Alonso-García et al., 2024 ), or that it was women who used ICT more frequently (Balamoti, 2024 ). Following the analysis of the above articles to stipulate the level of DTC, it should be noted that other variables such as attitude, opinion and commitment to ICT in the learning process, as well as teachers' use of ICT in their pedagogical practice, were also assessed and analysed. Therefore, the variables studied to establish the relationship with the DTC can be seen in Table 3 below. Table 3 Factors studied related to DTC Factor Frequency Age 5 Gender 5 Educational level 4 Professional field 4 Level of digitisation of the institution 2 Self-perception 4 Use of ICT in teaching practice 5 Leve lof digital training 2 Attitude, opinión and commitment to ICT in the learning process 8 Despite having made a selection of articles published in English with the aim of obtaining an international view, we found that a large part of the research carried out that met the established requirements for inclusion was carried out in Spain. However, the rest of the studies carried out in other countries provided us with a global vision to understand the situation in these countries with regard to the level of digital competence of teachers. The distribution by country is shown in Fig. 2 below. 4. DISCUSSION The aim of this systematic review was to analyse the level of teachers' digital competence in different countries. The results, in line with other research, indicate that the DTC level is intermediate (Romero-Tena et al., 2024 ) at around B1, which is an inadequate level to teach knowledge effectively to students, as stated by Palacios-Rodríguez et al. ( 2025 ). However, there are exceptions where some teachers exceed this level, reaching advanced competences, while others are below, at a basic or elementary level. Another objective was to identify the factors that have a significant influence on the development of Digital Competence in Teaching (DCT). Among these, age was found to be a determining factor, with younger teachers and trainee teachers showing higher levels of digital competence and greater technological acceptance compared to older teachers. In this sense, Pozo-Sánchez et al. ( 2020 ) point out that this difference could be explained by the greater familiarity and exposure to technology that characterises more recent generations. Similarly, the education received is another important factor, as pointed out by Moya and Vásquez ( 2022 ). Surprisingly, gender, unlike other factors, does not seem to be a determining factor in the acquisition of greater or lesser digital competence. Moreover, this level is also influenced by other variables such as attitude, perceived ease of use or institutional support (Robles, 2025 ), although these may interact in different ways depending on the educational and cultural context in which teachers find themselves. Finally, in relation to the final objective, it can be affirmed that the adoption of good practices favours greater digital literacy among teachers. These include the implementation of active methodologies, such as Flipped Learning, which promote greater student participation and engagement by making them the protagonists of their learning process (Rodrigo and Ibarra, 2022 ). This approach contrasts with traditional methods, where the student assumes a passive role, which reduces their level of motivation. Likewise, there is a need to design and promote continuous training programmes that are specific and adapted to the educational context, enabling teachers to develop and consolidate the required level of digital competence (García et al., 2022 ). In this sense, our results show that, although the level of teachers' digital competence is mostly at an intermediate level, its development is conditioned by a series of key factors that shape these competences. It is therefore essential to design and promote good practices that favour a more comprehensive and effective digital literacy in education. In this way, both teachers and students will be able to take full advantage of the benefits offered by digital technologies, thus optimising the teaching-learning process. 5. CONCLUSIONS Although many teachers value the use of digital tools in the classroom, few integrate them into their teaching practices on a regular basis. Moreover, a large proportion of teachers perceive their digital competence as limited, with digital competence generally being higher among young teachers, who are more adaptable and familiar with these technologies. However, lack of training remains a key obstacle, leading to insecurity in the use of certain tools and, consequently, limiting their application in the classroom. Similarly, other variables also influence this level of integration, such as the scarcity of resources provided and the low level of digitisation of the institutions themselves. However, some of the most determining factors seem to be the personal attitude that each teacher adopts towards these resources, as well as the perceived ease of use in handling them. This systematic review using the PRISMA methodology has allowed us to compile a collection of different national and international studies to analyse the level of digital competence of teachers in different countries. However, there were also some limitations. By focusing only on the articles established through the inclusion criteria, we are leaving out or excluding some that may also be interesting or provide relevant data. Furthermore, there are also limitations in terms of the year or language, as well as the methodology used in the selected articles, all of which use the questionnaire or scale as an instrument for collecting information. For this reason, for future lines of research, we propose the need to collect data with qualitative instruments, such as interviews or discussion groups, which will allow us to have a richer and deeper vision of the reality under study. Similarly, there is still a need to analyse the level of digital competence of teachers in a world that is becoming increasingly digitalised, which is why reviews of research from the current year, i.e. 2025, could be carried out. This could be done on a country-specific or stage-specific basis, or compared internationally. In short, the level of digital competence of teachers is generally low, so it is necessary to reinforce the competences offered during their training period, and it is even necessary to restructure certain curricula that have become obsolete and do not meet the needs and demands of 21st century society. Equipping teachers with the necessary skills and resources to enable them to carry out an effective teaching-learning process is crucial in an increasingly technological society. This work is aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 4 of the 2030 Agenda proposed by the United Nations ( 2015 ), which seeks to ensure quality education for all. Technological advances are constant and, as teachers, we must evolve in parallel, preparing and raising our students' awareness of the challenges of contemporary society. References Aldhaen E (2024) The influence of digital competence of academicians on student’s engagement at university level: moderating effect of the pandemic outbreak. 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Bordón Revista de Pedagogía 76(2):45–63. https://doi.org/10.13042/10.13042/Bordon.2024.100427 Sjöberg J, Hoveskog M, Tell J, Cherni W (2024) Unveiling University Students’ Perceptions on Their Teachers’ Digital Competence. Educ Sci 14(8):891. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14080891 Suárez S, Flórez J, y, Peláez A (2019) Las competencias digitales docentes y su importancia en ambientes virtuales de aprendizaje. Revista Reflexiones y Saberes , (10), 33–41. https://revistavirtual.ucn.edu.co/index.php/RevistaRyS/article/view/1069 United Nations (2015) Sustainable Development Goals . https://sdgs.un.org/goals Xin Y, Tang Y, Mou X (2024) An empirical study on the evaluation and influencing factors of digital competence of Chinese teachers for TVET. PLoS ONE 19(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310187 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. 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INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe are currently immersed in an increasingly digitalised society, where technology is continuously transforming all areas of our lives, including education. Likewise, following Covid19, education has also undergone a profound digitisation (Romero-Rodr\u0026iacute;guez et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), which has opened up new opportunities for education and the personalisation of learning. It is therefore essential for teachers to have an adequate level of digital competence in order to carry out an effective teaching-learning process. Digital Teaching Competence (DTC) refers to the set of skills, knowledge and attitudes (Su\u0026aacute;rez et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) that teachers must have in order to use technologies effectively in the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, according to the LOMLOE (2020) this concept implies the use of digital technologies in a safe, healthy, sustainable, critical and responsible way, across different areas and subjects in a cross-cutting manner. In recent years, this topic has become the subject of research and study, driven by constant technological progress and the emergence of new digital trends, such as Artificial Intelligence (AI). In this sense, as pointed out by Palacios-Rodr\u0026iacute;guez et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), there has been a significant increase in the number of scientific publications, both nationally and internationally, which is evidence of the exponential growth of research in this field. In short, it is considered essential to analyse the general level of DTC, as well as the different factors that significantly affect its development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTherefore, this systematic review aims to collect the necessary data to detect the level of digital literacy of teachers at different educational stages at an international level, which can serve as a guide to design more effective training programmes. Analysing the studies that have been published in English in recent years allows us to have a global perspective, comparing the educational contexts of different countries. Consequently, this will allow us to identify good practices that have been or are being implemented. Furthermore, the study also aims to contribute to the field of knowledge by analysing the current level of digital competence of teachers, thus identifying strengths and weaknesses that will serve as a basis for decision-making at the policy and training level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe main objective of this study is therefore to analyse the existing literature on the level of digital competence that teachers currently have. To this end, a series of specific objectives are set out, among which the following stand out:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo compare the levels of teachers' digital competence according to educational context and teaching level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo identify the main factors influencing teachers' digital competence, such as gender, age or level of education.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIdentify good practices that have contributed to teachers achieving an optimal level of digital competence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"2. METHOD","content":"\u003cp\u003eA systematic review was carried out to achieve the proposed objectives, which involved an in-depth analysis of those articles published in 2024 in relation to DTC. The protocol and recommendations of the PRISMA statement (Page et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) were also taken into account. To this end, a search string was created using keywords, establishing inclusion and exclusion criteria to select relevant documents. In addition, a flowchart was created that reflects and highlights the process carried out (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Literature search\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe literature search was carried out in January 2025, with the aim of collecting research published in English in 2024 on digital competence in teaching. For this purpose, the databases Dialnet, Research Gate and Google Scholar were consulted. The search equation used to carry out the specific selection of articles was \u0026lsquo;digital competence for teachers\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;digital competence\u0026rsquo; AND \u0026lsquo;teachers\u0026rsquo; AND \u0026lsquo;education\u0026rsquo;. Filters were also applied to limit the results to relevant research from the year 2024, selecting only journal articles and empirical studies related to digital competence for teachers. In addition, priority was given to open access publications whose full text was available online.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Selection process\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter searching by title, abstract and keywords using the search equation detailed above, a total of 60 articles were found. The references were then exported to a document to compile all the files and discard duplicates. After eliminating them, from the remaining 44, a total of 29 articles were selected which were indexed in JCR and SJR Q1 and Q2 journals. In addition, it should be noted that the following inclusion and exclusion criteria were established to select relevant articles:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn relation to the year of publication, those that had been published within the last year, i.e. 2024, were included.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn relation to language, only those published in English were chosen.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn relation to access, journal articles on digital competence in teaching that were in open access and those that were accessible in full text were accepted.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHowever, some exclusion criteria were taken into account:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudies whose year of publication was not 2024 were rejected.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudies published in languages other than English were excluded, even though their abstracts were in English.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArticles that were not fully accessible were rejected.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePublications that were not journal articles, i.e. systematic reviews and intervention programmes, as well as trials or studies on technology unrelated to the DTC, were discarded.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA flow chart illustrating the selection process is presented below for a better understanding of the selection process.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Data collection process\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe data collection took place after a detailed analysis of a total of 12 articles, which are listed in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Accordingly, information was collected regarding the name of the authors, year of publication, country, objectives, sample, variables, instruments and results found.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSelected articles\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAldhaen, E. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The influence of digital competence of academicians on student\u0026rsquo;s engagement at university level: moderating effect of the pandemic outbreak. \u003cem\u003eCompetitiveness Review, 34\u003c/em\u003e(1), 57\u0026ndash;71.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlonso-Garc\u0026iacute;a, S., Victoria-Maldonado, J., Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Domingo, J., \u0026amp; Berral-Ortiz, B. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Analysis of self-perceived digital competences in future educators: A study at the university of Granada. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Technology and Science Education, 14\u003c/em\u003e(1), 4\u0026ndash;15.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBalamoti, E. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Teacher\u0026rsquo;s perceptions in greece about the information and communication technologies (ICT) in intercultural education. \u003cem\u003eEDMETIC\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(2), 1\u0026ndash;17.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGarc\u0026iacute;a-Sampedro, M., Rodr\u0026iacute;guez-Olay, L., \u0026amp; Pe\u0026ntilde;a-Su\u0026aacute;rez, E. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Implementation of ICT tools in post-pandemic schools in Spain: Language teachers\u0026rsquo; perceptions. \u003cem\u003eRevista de Investigaci\u0026oacute;n Educativa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e42\u003c/em\u003e(1), 223\u0026ndash;239.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHeredia-Ponce, H., Romero-Oliva, M., \u0026amp; Trigo-Ib\u0026aacute;\u0026ntilde;ez, E. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Towards digital competence from the conception of students in language instruction: A study within the master\u0026apos;s degree in teaching in Andalusia. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Technology and Science Education, 14\u003c/em\u003e(1), 45\u0026ndash;60.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKiryakova, G., \u0026amp; Kozhuharova, D. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The Digital Competences Necessary for the Successful Pedagogical Practice of Teachers in the Digital Age. \u003cem\u003eEducation Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(5).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMerjovaara, O., Eklund, K., Nousiainen, T., Karjalainen, S., Koivula, M., Mykk\u0026auml;nen, A., \u0026amp; H\u0026auml;m\u0026auml;l\u0026auml;inen, R. (2024). Early childhood pre-service teachers\u0026rsquo; attitudes towards digital technologies and their relation to digital competence. \u003cem\u003eEducation and Information Technologies, 29\u003c/em\u003e, 14647\u0026ndash;14662.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMolina-Torres, M. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Flipped classroom to teach digital skills during Covid-19. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Technology and Science Education, 14\u003c/em\u003e(1), 158\u0026ndash;168.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMomdjian L., Manegre M., \u0026amp; Guti\u0026eacute;rrez-C\u0026oacute;lon M. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Digital competences of teachers in Lebanon: a comparison of teachers\u0026rsquo; competences to educational standards. \u003cem\u003eResearch in Learning Technology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e32.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReyes, W., \u0026amp; Gurubel-Tec, N. E. (2024). Digital competence of teachers in the Mayan region of Mexico: Results of a preliminary research in secondary education. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Instruction, 17\u003c/em\u003e(2), 617\u0026ndash;634.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSj\u0026ouml;berg, J., Hoveskog, M., Tell, J., \u0026amp; Cherni, W. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Unveiling University Students\u0026rsquo; Perceptions on Their Teachers\u0026rsquo; Digital Competence. \u003cem\u003eEducation Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(8), 891.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eXin, Y., Tang, Y., \u0026amp; Mou, X. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). An empirical study on the evaluation and influencing factors of digital competence of Chinese teachers for TVET. \u003cem\u003ePLoS ONE 19\u003c/em\u003e(9).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCharacteristics of selected articles\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAuthors\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCountry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eObjectives\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInstruments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResults\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAldhaen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBahrain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo investigate how the DTC influences student participation in the Covid19 outbreak.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e442 lecturers from universities in Bahrain who were not familiar with online teaching before the arrival of Covid19.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-DTC level\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Online student engagement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Perception of threat from Covid19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdaptation of already validated scales such as Dixon\u0026apos;s (2015), and the questionnaires of Barrag\u0026aacute;n-S\u0026aacute;nchez et al., (2020) and P\u0026eacute;rez-Fuentes et al., (2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Significant influence of the DTC in relation to student participation.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlonso-Garc\u0026iacute;a et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo identify the self-perceived digital competences of trainee teachers at the University of Granada and the factors that influence them.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e419 students from the Faculty of Educational Sciences at the University of Granada.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Gender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Level of education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Grade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Resources provided by the university\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDigCompEdu questionnaire validated by Mora-Cantallops et al. (2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Influence of gender on self-perception of digital competence, being perceived better by males.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Lack of resources for the development of the DTC provided by the university.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBalamoti, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGreece\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the use and utilisation of ICT in the teaching process of intercultural education in the Greek educational system.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e356 teachers from all over Greece, from various specialisations and educational stages.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Frequency of use of ICT designed for intercultural education in teaching practice.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Opinion on the pedagogical contribution of ICTs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuestionnaire of closed questions with a Likert scale consisting of 35 items designed by the researcher.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Teachers consider that ICT favour social progress and encourage student participation.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Lack of training and lack of resources.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGarc\u0026iacute;a-Sampedro et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo find out the trainee teachers\u0026apos; perceptions of their digital competences and their degree of satisfaction with online teaching, as well as to identify their attitudes towards a future implementation of ICT.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e700 language teachers from all over Spain from different fields and educational stages.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Teaching experience\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Satisfaction and self-perception about DTC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Willingness to use ICT in the future.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Teachers\u0026apos; post-pandemic opinion on ICT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAd hoc online questionnaire designed and implemented for this purpose.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Low perception of DTC, although they say they will continue to use it in the future.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Average satisfaction with online teaching.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Younger and more digitally literate teachers show greater acceptance of ICT.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHeredia-Ponce et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo describe the conceptions of future educators about the integration of social networks and smartphones in the educational process.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e139 students enrolled in the speciality of Spanish Language and Literature and Foreign Languages in the Master\u0026apos;s Degree in Teaching at Andalusian universities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Genre\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Specialisations in language teaching\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Qualification leading to Master\u0026apos;s degree\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Age\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-University\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuestionnaire adapted from Fandos-Igado et al., (2022) on Utility of Social Networks and Smartphones for Educational Action (CURSAE).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Positive evaluation of the use of smartphones and social networks in the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Greater acceptance by young students and specialisation in Spanish Language and Literature.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKiryakova y Kozhuharova, 2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulgaria\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo analyse teachers\u0026apos; views on the possibilities of using technology to achieve educational objectives and to determine the extent to which they integrate it into their teaching activities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92 teachers from various\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eschools.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Level of use of technologies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-DTC needed for teaching success\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Opinion on university training in DTC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew questionnaire elaborated with questions grouped by themes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Bulgarian teachers\u0026apos; daily use of ICT in their teaching activities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Identification of key elements for the development of the DTC.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Insufficient university training to acquire the necessary DTC.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMerjovaara et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFinland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo examine the attitudes of\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eteachers\u0026apos; attitudes towards\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eICT and self-perception of\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ethe DTC.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e304 students in the first year of Early Childhood Education from three Finnish universities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Attitude towards technologies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Self-perception of DTC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTPACK Scale by Schmidt et al., (2009) to measure trainee teachers\u0026apos; self-beliefs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Positive attitudes towards ICT on the part of prospective teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Different levels of perceived DTC.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-DTC is related to attitudes and perceived ease of use.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMolina-Torres, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo analyse trainee teachers\u0026apos; perceptions of the acquisition of DTC.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e172 students of the subject Didactics of Social Sciences in the Bilingual English Programme of the Primary Education Degree at the University of Cordoba.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Impact of the Flipped Learning method on professional development.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Students\u0026apos; perceptions of the level of DTC acquired with Flipped Learning.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAd hoc questionnaire based on the work of Tashakkori et al., (2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Active methodologies promote digital literacy and enhance good teaching practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Evidence of lack of digital literacy training.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMomdjian et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLebanon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo examine teachers\u0026apos; digital competences and their alignment with Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MEHE) standards.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e170 teachers from Lebanese schools of different stages and subjects.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Frequency of competence use\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Complexity of the DTC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDigCompEdu CheckIn questionnaire consisting of 22 competences organised in six areas corresponding to those of the DigCompEdu framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Teachers\u0026apos; practice meets all the MEHE indicators.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Need for training in digital tools and resources to promote collaboration in the learning process.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReyes y Gurubel-Tec, 2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMexico\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo identify the DTC level of secondary school teachers in the Mayan region of Mexico and to analyse whether there are differences between them.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e462 secondary school teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Digital competence in teaching\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Area of residence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Level of studies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Social networks and class hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDigCompEdu Check-In Questionnaire (Cabrero-Almenara and Palacios-Rodr\u0026iacute;guez, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Intermediate DTC level of 45.2% of teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Differences between rural and urban areas.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Positive correlation between variables and DTC level.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSj\u0026ouml;berg et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSweden\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo assess students\u0026apos; perceptions of digital integration in their education and the level of DTC of their teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e175 students from a Swedish university, belonging to different degrees.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Use of digital tools by teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Students\u0026apos; perceived confidence and knowledge of digital tools.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22-item survey designed by one of the faculties in collaboration with the university\u0026apos;s Centre for Educational Development.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-DTC varies across disciplines.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Students showed limited knowledge of existing digital functionalities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eXin et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo describe Chinese VET teachers\u0026apos; self-awareness of digital competence.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2514 VET teachers from different regions of China.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Digital mindset and attitudes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Digital skills and competences\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChinese TVET teachers\u0026apos; digital competence self-assessment questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Different factors other than gender have different degrees of influence on the DTC.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-The DTC depends on the level of digitisation of the institution itself.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of the above-mentioned articles showed that there was a lack of training in terms of teachers\u0026apos; digital competence. However, despite the different levels detected, it was possible to estimate that the overall level of digital competence was around an intermediate level (B1). However, both in-service and trainee teachers showed a positive attitude towards the use and integration of ICT in the classroom, valuing its multiple benefits, including increased student participation. Furthermore, in addition to the lack of training, a lack of resources was highlighted, which hinders the proper acquisition of digital competence in teaching. Therefore, although many teachers have a positive attitude towards ICT, they lack the necessary training and resources to implement them effectively in the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, several factors were identified as influencing the use and integration of digital tools in teaching practices, such as teachers\u0026apos; attitudes, the perceived ease of use of these technologies and the degree of digitalisation of educational institutions. Young teachers and teachers in training were more likely to value, accept and use ICT in their teaching activities than those at an older age. Finally, some discrepancies were identified in relation to the gender variable. While Xin\u0026apos;s study (2024) indicated that there was no direct relationship between gender and level of digital competence, others pointed out that men showed a better perception of their digital skills (Alonso-Garc\u0026iacute;a et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), or that it was women who used ICT more frequently (Balamoti, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing the analysis of the above articles to stipulate the level of DTC, it should be noted that other variables such as attitude, opinion and commitment to ICT in the learning process, as well as teachers\u0026apos; use of ICT in their pedagogical practice, were also assessed and analysed. Therefore, the variables studied to establish the relationship with the DTC can be seen in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e below.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"char\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFactors studied related to DTC\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFactor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducational level\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProfessional field\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLevel of digitisation of the institution\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-perception\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUse of ICT in teaching practice\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeve lof digital training\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAttitude, opini\u0026oacute;n and commitment to ICT in the learning process\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite having made a selection of articles published in English with the aim of obtaining an international view, we found that a large part of the research carried out that met the established requirements for inclusion was carried out in Spain. However, the rest of the studies carried out in other countries provided us with a global vision to understand the situation in these countries with regard to the level of digital competence of teachers. The distribution by country is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2 below.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this systematic review was to analyse the level of teachers' digital competence in different countries. The results, in line with other research, indicate that the DTC level is intermediate (Romero-Tena et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) at around B1, which is an inadequate level to teach knowledge effectively to students, as stated by Palacios-Rodr\u0026iacute;guez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). However, there are exceptions where some teachers exceed this level, reaching advanced competences, while others are below, at a basic or elementary level.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother objective was to identify the factors that have a significant influence on the development of Digital Competence in Teaching (DCT). Among these, age was found to be a determining factor, with younger teachers and trainee teachers showing higher levels of digital competence and greater technological acceptance compared to older teachers. In this sense, Pozo-S\u0026aacute;nchez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) point out that this difference could be explained by the greater familiarity and exposure to technology that characterises more recent generations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, the education received is another important factor, as pointed out by Moya and V\u0026aacute;squez (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Surprisingly, gender, unlike other factors, does not seem to be a determining factor in the acquisition of greater or lesser digital competence. Moreover, this level is also influenced by other variables such as attitude, perceived ease of use or institutional support (Robles, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), although these may interact in different ways depending on the educational and cultural context in which teachers find themselves.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, in relation to the final objective, it can be affirmed that the adoption of good practices favours greater digital literacy among teachers. These include the implementation of active methodologies, such as Flipped Learning, which promote greater student participation and engagement by making them the protagonists of their learning process (Rodrigo and Ibarra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This approach contrasts with traditional methods, where the student assumes a passive role, which reduces their level of motivation. Likewise, there is a need to design and promote continuous training programmes that are specific and adapted to the educational context, enabling teachers to develop and consolidate the required level of digital competence (Garc\u0026iacute;a et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this sense, our results show that, although the level of teachers' digital competence is mostly at an intermediate level, its development is conditioned by a series of key factors that shape these competences. It is therefore essential to design and promote good practices that favour a more comprehensive and effective digital literacy in education. In this way, both teachers and students will be able to take full advantage of the benefits offered by digital technologies, thus optimising the teaching-learning process.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eAlthough many teachers value the use of digital tools in the classroom, few integrate them into their teaching practices on a regular basis. Moreover, a large proportion of teachers perceive their digital competence as limited, with digital competence generally being higher among young teachers, who are more adaptable and familiar with these technologies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, lack of training remains a key obstacle, leading to insecurity in the use of certain tools and, consequently, limiting their application in the classroom. Similarly, other variables also influence this level of integration, such as the scarcity of resources provided and the low level of digitisation of the institutions themselves. However, some of the most determining factors seem to be the personal attitude that each teacher adopts towards these resources, as well as the perceived ease of use in handling them.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis systematic review using the PRISMA methodology has allowed us to compile a collection of different national and international studies to analyse the level of digital competence of teachers in different countries. However, there were also some limitations. By focusing only on the articles established through the inclusion criteria, we are leaving out or excluding some that may also be interesting or provide relevant data. Furthermore, there are also limitations in terms of the year or language, as well as the methodology used in the selected articles, all of which use the questionnaire or scale as an instrument for collecting information.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor this reason, for future lines of research, we propose the need to collect data with qualitative instruments, such as interviews or discussion groups, which will allow us to have a richer and deeper vision of the reality under study. Similarly, there is still a need to analyse the level of digital competence of teachers in a world that is becoming increasingly digitalised, which is why reviews of research from the current year, i.e. 2025, could be carried out. This could be done on a country-specific or stage-specific basis, or compared internationally.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn short, the level of digital competence of teachers is generally low, so it is necessary to reinforce the competences offered during their training period, and it is even necessary to restructure certain curricula that have become obsolete and do not meet the needs and demands of 21st century society. Equipping teachers with the necessary skills and resources to enable them to carry out an effective teaching-learning process is crucial in an increasingly technological society. This work is aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 4 of the 2030 Agenda proposed by the United Nations (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), which seeks to ensure quality education for all. Technological advances are constant and, as teachers, we must evolve in parallel, preparing and raising our students' awareness of the challenges of contemporary society.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAldhaen E (2024) The influence of digital competence of academicians on student\u0026rsquo;s engagement at university level: moderating effect of the pandemic outbreak. 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PLoS ONE 19(9). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310187\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0310187\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6351911/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6351911/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eDigitalisation has transformed education, requiring teachers to acquire Digital Teaching Competence (DTC). This study analyses their current level and the factors affecting it, such as age, gender and education. It also identifies good practices to improve the integration of ICT in teaching. Through a systematic review, it aims to provide key information to design effective training programmes and improve the digital competence of teachers in different educational contexts. We conducted a systematic review based on PRISMA, collecting 2024 studies in English and open access. Variables such as self-perception of DTC, ICT use and level of digital literacy were analysed. Studies that were not accessible or in other languages were discarded. Data collection considered attitudes, training and access to technological resources. Teachers have an intermediate level (B1) of DTC, with a positive disposition towards ICT, but face a lack of training and resources. Younger teachers show greater technological acceptance. There are discrepancies about the influence of gender on DTC. Institutional digitalisation influences its development. Good practices such as active methodologies are highlighted, although their implementation is limited. The digital divide and unequal access to technology affect the acquisition of these competences. Although teachers value the importance of ICT, their integration in the classroom is deficient due to lack of training and resources. Specific training and innovative methodologies such as Flipped Learning are needed. More qualitative research is recommended to better understand the factors affecting DTC. Teacher digital literacy is essential to improve teaching in an ever-changing technological world.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Teachers and technology: a systematic review of their level of digital competence","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-02 07:53:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6351911/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f7029ba2-efd2-43d3-b426-ca14b3d0e1cd","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 2nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-04-02T07:53:06+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-02 07:53:06","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6351911","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6351911","identity":"rs-6351911","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}