The intergenerational transmission of low height growth in sub-Saharan Africa

The intergenerational transmission of low height growth in sub-Saharan Africa | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The intergenerational transmission of low height growth in sub-Saharan Africa Bernard Dembele This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6563475/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Despite the decline of child stunting worldwide, levels are still subjects of concern, with about one in five children under five-year-old that is under his growth potential. Sub-Saharan Africa is even more affected. To curb the multi-faceted impact on the population, analyses have been carried out to identify the underlying factors. They show that already at this age, children benefit from their parents' health potential. The aim of this study is to estimate the extent of the impact and the factors associated with maternal and paternal stature on the risk of offspring stunting in sub-Saharan Africa. To this end, datasets from demographic and health surveys conducted in 13 countries that included anthropometric measurements of both parents and their children were used. Using the pooled data from 24,148 under five year-old children, we obtained a stunting prevalence of 29.7%, with a higher level for boys (31.6% versus 27.7%). The adjusted effects of mother's height and nutritional status were twice those of father. However, the effects of the parents' characteristics are similar for child's sex. Thus, interventions to anticipate child growth should be undertaken earlier at adolescence of the ascendants themselves to interrupt the vicious cycle of stunting. 1. Introduction Mother’s stature has an impact on her offspring height growth. Maternal stature is largely the result of the mother's own previous intrauterine and/or infant growth retardation (Vaivada et al. 2020 ). Maternal short stature contributes to the birth of children who are also at risk of stunting (Zeba 2012). Children issued from short mothers ( 160 cm) (Özaltin 2010 ). Once established, it would take at least two generations to eliminate the effects of this transmission of stunted growth (Falkner, Holzgreve, et Schloo 1994). This transmission may even persist over several generations (Delisle 2008 ). In India, the mothers of stunted children were most likely to have had mothers or grandmothers of below-average height themselves (Sumarsono et Irwanto 2022). This confirms that stunting is a condition that is passed on to the next generation unless health and nutritional conditions improve. In an analysis of cohort data from five countries, Yaw et al. ( 2013 ) showed that maternal height affects both height and weight growth from the age of two, but also adult height. Coly et al. ( 2006 ) quantify this effect by showing that stunted growth at 2 years of age leads to a reduction in adult height of 6 cm for females and 9 cm for males. Maternal height therefore serves as a proxy for both genetic potential and the intergenerational effect of maternal growth at birth (which determines adult height) on the stature growth of the child (Prado et al. 2019 ). A study in India assessed the association between parental height and childhood stunting using nationally representative data on 28,975 children under five years of age in 2015-16. In multivariate analysis, maternal height emerged as the strongest predictor of child stunting, with an adjusted risk of 2.85 for the lowest quintile compared with the highest quintile (Gupta, Cleland, et Sekher 2022). A pooled analysis of maternal height and offspring growth was also conducted using 7,630 mother-child pairs from five birth cohorts (Brazil, Guatemala, India, Philippines and South Africa). Based on linear regression, maternal height was found to be associated with birth weight and height at each age. The strongest associations were found between adult height and child height at age 2. In fact, a 1 cm increase in maternal height predicted a 0.024 (CI=[0.021; 0.028]) standard deviation (SD) increase in the offspring's birth weight, a 0.037 (CI=[0.033; 0.040]) SD increase in height at age 2, and 0.044 (CI=[0.040; 0.048]) SD increase in adult height. Mothers of short stature (< 150.1 cm) were more likely to have a child with stunted growth at 2 years and in adulthood (Yaw et al. 2013 ). Maternal height was also significantly associated with offspring birth weight and all postnatal measures of height attained (Yaw et al. 2013 ). The risk of stunted growth in children was doubled if the mother's waist-to-hip ratio was around 1, compared to mothers with a mean value of 0.65 (Barquera et al. 2007 ). A similar result was found in Burkina Faso using the Cormic index (Zeba 2012). Using data from India's 2005-6 National Family Health Survey, Subramanian et al. ( 2009 ) found that 1 cm increase in maternal height was associated with 0.97 reduction in the adjusted relative risk of stunting. Most of the studies tended to focus on the effect of maternal height and rarely considered the effect of paternal height, or the combination of both ascendants’ height on offspring growth. The few studies that have compared the results of both parents suggest that, in general, maternal height has an effect on the height of the child, but that paternal height has a smaller effect (Martin et al. 2020). Thus, maternal height is more strongly associated with stunted growth in children than paternal height. However, the effect of paternal height remains strong and is of the same magnitude as that of household wealth (Gupta, Cleland, et Sekher 2022). Although these parental heights have been shown to affect child growth, they have unfortunately been very poorly assessed in African countries. The same is true for parental weight status, which has also been poorly studied. To address this gap, we decided to focus specifically on sub-Saharan Africa. For this purpose, we consider all African countries in this region that have conducted Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) and have collected these anthropometric measures in at least one round of their survey series. In addition to the effects of parents as a whole, we tried to capture any differential effects according to the sex of parents and children, adjusted for confounding factors of child growth. 2. Methods The analysis uses data from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) conducted in 13 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The choice of survey passages in these countries is based on the prerequisite of anthropometry for women, their husbands and their children under five. In addition, in countries where there were more than one passage containing the anthropometric measurements, only the most recent one has been considered. This was done to avoid over-representation of every country. On this principle, we have built up a dataset of 24,148 father-mother-child triplets (Table 1 ). All these DHS surveys used a standardised sampling design. It consists of a two-stage stratified sample. The sampling frame used is usually the most recent population census conducted in the country. The process is designed to provide estimates of key indicators for the country as a whole, for urban and rural areas separately, and for each of the regions. For this purpose, each region is stratified into urban and rural areas. Samples of enumeration areas (EAs) are selected independently from each stratum in two stages. In the first stage, EAs are drawn in proportion to their size in terms of the number of households in each stratum. Next, households are enumerated in all the selected EAs. The lists of households obtained are used for the selection of households in the second stage. If some of the selected EAs are too large, they are reduced by segmentation. A single segment is then selected for the survey with a probability proportional to the size of the segment. The list of households is drawn up only in the selected segment. In the second sampling stage, a fixed number of households per cluster (varying between 20 and 30) are selected with equal probability by systematic sampling from the updated list of households. In half of the selected households, all women were eligible for the anthropometric module, as were their spouses and children aged 0–59 months. All female and male permanent residents in the selected households are then interviewed. While the age range for women was 15–49, that of men varied by country. In most cases, it is 15–59 years that is chosen to take account of the age difference between spouses. In some surveys, the interval is restricted to 15–49 years in order to ensure comparability between indicators for both sexes. Table 1 Characteristics of the surveys included Year of data collection Country Father sample /Coverage rate Mother sample /Coverage rate Children sample /Coverage rate Household sample /Coverage rate Number of two parents and child measured 2016 South Africa 3 618 / 72.5 8 514 / 86.2 2 024 / 73.4 83.4% 5 477 / 83.1 238 2016 Ethiopia 12 688 / 85.8 15 683 / 94.6 10 752 / 88.0 16 650 / 97.6 5 673 2019-21 Gabon 5 566 / 93.3 9 507 / 95.9 6 997 / 95.0 7 713 / 98.7 1 521 2014 Ghana 4 388 / 95.2 9 396 / 97.3 2 992 / 97.5 11 835 / 98.5 1 656 2014 Lesotho 2 931 / 93.6 6 621 / 97.1 1 972 / 97.5 9 402 / 98.5 401 2013 Namibia 4 481 / 85.0 9 176 / 92.3 2 840 / 94.6 9 849 / 96.9 626 2016 Uganda 5 336 / 94.0 18 506 / 97.0 5 418/ 95.0 19 588 / 98.2 2 675 2010 Rwanda 6 329 / 98.7 13 671 / 99.1 4 356 / 97.3 12 540 / 99.8 2 936 2008-09 Sao-Tomé 2 296 / 75.4 2 615 / 89.8 1 544 / 87.4 3 536 / 94.2 793 2010-11 Senegal 4 929 / 87.0 15 688 / 92.7 3 780 / 22.9 7 902 / 98.4 1 887 2019 Sierra Leone 7 197 / 96.9 15 574 / 96.7 5 556 / 88.9 6 712 / 98.7 2 530 2006-07 E-swatini 4 156 / 88.9 4 987 / 94.1 2 940 / 93.8 4 843 / 95.2 545 2015 Zimbabwe 8 396 / 91.9 9 955 / 96.2 6 511 / 93.0 10 534 / 98.8 2 667 Total 24 148 The DHS surveys in sub-Saharan Africa that met the above criteria and included in this study took place between 2006 and 2021 (Table 1 ). Most of these countries are English-speaking, with the exception of Gabon, São Tome and Príncipe and Senegal. The sample size for males ranged from 12,688 in Ethiopia to 2,931 in Lesotho, and for females from 18,506 in Uganda to 4,987 in E-swatini (formerly Swaziland). The number of children under five ranged from 10,752 in Ethiopia to 1,972 in Lesotho. The number of households ranges from 19,588 in Uganda to 4,843 in E-swatini. In general, coverage rates are above 95%, with the exception of Namibia (85% for men). Overall, these rates are sufficient to provide a representative sample of the target population in each country, especially as the sample size estimate has anticipated the non-responses. Finally, the triplet number of mother-father-child with all valid measurements varies from 6,024 in Ethiopia to 277 in South Africa. The child's stature growth is assessed using the height-for-age z-score index based on the 2006 WHO standard (Borghi et al. 2006 ). It is obtained by taking the difference between the observed height of the child and the median of the standard height; this difference is then divided by the standard deviation of the standard height for the same age and sex of the child. This index helps to define the child's growth status. A child is said to be stunted if the z-score is less than − 2. Conversely, if the z-score is greater than − 2, the child's height is considered normal. The new norm developed by WHO now indicates the optimal growth rate for a child who benefits from adequate nutrition, health, maternal support and environment (Borghi et al. 2006 ). The analysis of the data begins with a sample description, using a presentation of the frequencies of variables of interest. The dependent variable is presented in two formats: a quantitative form with the height-for-age z-score and a discrete form with the stunting status of children. The mean and standard deviation are used for continuous variables with a normal distribution, and the median is used for those with a non-normal distribution. This initial description is followed by bivariate cross-tabulations of the dependent variable with the independent variables. To test the significance of the relationship, either Pearson's chi-square is used for the intersection of two categorical variables, Fischer's exact test when at least one cell contains five cases or less, or analysis of variance for the intersection of a continuous and a categorical variable. For the multivariate component, linear regression was used for the continuous dependent variable height-for-age z-score. When the dichotomised dependent variable is stunting status, logistic regression is used. Only independent variables with a significant bivariate statistical test up to 20% threshold with the dependent variable are considered. 3. Results A descriptive presentation of the population is made on some selected variables. It shows a strong collinearity between the number of children born alive to a woman and the birth rank of the child. This is mainly due to the fact that this analysis focuses on the woman's children under the age of 5. These children are usually the last and their ranks are quite close to the total number of children, hence the similarity of values. Thus, one of the two variables, the number of children, was dropped from the modelling to ensure parsimony. We also note that there is a high degree of occupational endogamy between spouses, mainly related to the practice of extensive family farming. To this end, only the mother's activity is included in the modelling, to the detriment of the father's activity. The assessment of anthropometric data quality for under five-year-old children, the raw height measurements and age expressed in months, were first considered. The quality of age data was assessed using the Myers index (Gendreau et al. 1985). This revealed the attractiveness and repulsiveness of age endings in months (Table 2 ). We can see that ages ended by 0 are more repulsive and those ended by 8 are the most attractive. In the case of repulsion, this is mainly due to age 0, which has the lowest number of children, a characteristic of developing countries. There is a strong tendency for mothers to systematically age their children by giving them the age of one year. This is combined with the fact that neighbouring ages, especially in the lower groups, cannot be carried forward in the specific case of age 0 months. There is also a propensity to use a round number of years (one year equals 12 months, 2 years equals 24 months, etc.). In terms of data quality of child height, the highest proportions were observed for measurements ended by 0 and 5 (20.2% and 13.6% respectively). This reflects a tendency of measurers to systematically look for a round value. It should also be noted that children under 2 years of age, who should be measured recumbent, were always not. About one in ten children under the age of 2 was measured standing up (11%). On the other hand, 4% of children aged over 2 years who should have been measured standing up were measured recumbent. There is therefore a greater tendency to measure children standing up than recumbent. However, a corrective measure adopted by the WHO-Anthro software is to add 0.7 cm to the height of those mistakenly taken standing up and to subtract 0.7 cm from those mistakenly measured recumbent. In addition, the assessment of age structure shows that the ratio of children aged 6–29 months to those aged 30–59 months is 0.868: this value is quite close to the expected value of 0.7. Table 2 Attractions and repulsions of ages and height terminated by specific digits Myers index Attraction-repulsion for height Digit Index-10 |Index-10| Percentage |Percent-10| 0 -1.22 1.22 20.2 10.2 1 -0.51 0.51 8.9 1.1 2 -0.47 0.47 10.8 0.8 3 -0.21 0.21 10.0 0.0 4 -0.12 0.12 8.6 1.4 5 -0.40 0.40 13.6 3.6 6 0.60 0.60 8.1 1.9 7 0.36 0.36 7.7 2.3 8 1.23 1.23 7.0 3.0 9 0.75 0.75 5.2 4.8 Overall 5.87 100 29.1 The quality evaluation of the height-for-age z-score index by the isolation of extreme values obtained by the calculations with WHO-Anthro version 3.2.2 software. This is done using the validity interval specified for the height-for-age z-score (HAZ), which is -6 to 6. On this basis, the number of outliers is 298 or 1.1%, which is below the recommended maximum threshold of 5%. The standard deviation of HAZ obtained was 1.611, which is outside the recommended range of 0.8 to 1.2 (Mei et Grummer-Strawn 2007). For parents, unlikely heights below 120 cm and above 220 cm were excluded. Secondly, in the absence of standardised norms for classifying adult height, maternal height was discretised into three categories: (1) “<155 cm”, (2) “155–165 cm” and (3) “165 cm and over”. Paternal height was also discretised into three modalities: (1) “<165 cm”, (2) “165–175 cm” and (3) “175 cm+”. For parental weight status, a common categorisation into three modalities of body mass index (BMI) is used: too thin for height ( = 25 kg/m²). 3.1 Descriptive analysis of child stunting Consistent with empirical studies, stunting broadly follows expected trends in socioeconomic characteristics (Tables 3 and 4 ). Stunted children were found to be older, to have a higher birth rank, to have had fewer antenatal visits, to be male, to suffer from anaemia, to be twins, to be born small for height, to have less educated parents, to have a lower BMI, to be shorter, to come from agricultural households, to live in rural areas, to be poor, to come from households with poor hygiene or that have too many members. In addition, the birth interval is more often longer than the two years recommended for children with stunted growth. The opposite would be expected. On the other hand, the parents of these children appear to have practically the same age as those of normal height for their age and sex. The convexity of the U-shaped relationship between parental age and the height-for-age z-score index explains this atypical relationship. Thus, age has been categorised to take account of changes in biological potential. Younger and older women tend to have more stunted children. The discretisation adopted for mothers is: (1) “< 20 years”, (2) “20–34 years”, (3) “35 years or more”. For fathers, the modalities considered are: (1) “< 25 years”, (2) “25–44 years”, (3) “45 years or more”. Table 3 Variation of socioeconomic characteristics according to stunting status Mean value Variable Normal Stunted Significance Age of mother 29.69 29.71 0.798 Age o father 36.38 36.37 0.963 Age of child 27.67 31.57 0.000 BMI of mother 23.47 22.17 0.000 BMI of father 21.97 21.19 0.000 Height of mother 159.49 156.90 0.000 Height of father 170.32 167.91 0.000 Size of household 6.62 6.77 0.008 Children in household 1.98 2.07 0.000 Child birth rank 3.60 3.82 0.000 Total 16,980 7,168 Table 4 Prevalence of child stunting according to some socioeconomic characteristics Variable/modalities Prevalence Significance Variable/modalities Prevalence Significance Height of father 0.000 Antenatal care 0.000 < 165 cm 38.8% No 30.5% 165–175 cm 29.3% Yes 22.3% 175 cm+ 20.5% Sex of child 0.000 Height of mother 0.000 Male 31.6% < 155 cm 40.7% Female 27.7% 155–165 cm 27.3% Place of residence 0.000 165 cm+ 18.3% Urban 19.6% Occupation of father père 0.000 Rural 33.2% Not work 27.8% Anaemia 0.000 Technical/Clerical 16.1% Severe 49.5% Sale 24.1% Moderate 34.8% Agriculture 35.3% Mild 31.3% Service 25.6% Not at all 29.3% Manual 26.3% Education of mother 0.000 Twin 0.000 Illiterate 35.5% Simple 29.3% Primary 32.4% Multiple 42.7% Secondary 19.8% Diarrhoea 0.000 Superior 8.7% No 29.5% Education of father 0.000 Yes 31.1% Illiterate 36.1% Living standard 0.054 Primary 33.2% Poorest 35.7% Secondary 22.3% Poor 33.7% Superior 14.4% Middle class 29.9% Cigarette 0.000 Well-off 26.2% Yes 40.5% Rich 16.2% No 29.4% Size at birth 0.000 Hygiene 0.000 Very large 24.4% Flush toilet 15.7% Larger than average 26.8% Open/close latrine 31.1% Average 29.4% No toilet 32.9% Smaller than average 35.2% Age group of mother 0.048 Very small 40.1% <=20 years 27.9% Age group of father 0.000 21–34 years 29.5% 2 years 0.000 45 years+ 31.1% No 27.2% Yes 32.9% Overall 29.7% 3.2 Explanatory analysis of height-for-age index The linear regression of the child's height-for-age z-score (HAZ) index shows a positive relationship with the ascendants’ height. An increase of 1 HAZ correlates with a significant increase of 0.041 metres (CI=[0.037; 0.045]) in maternal height (Table 5 ). The corresponding value for fathers is 0.029 metres (CI=[0.026; 0.033]). The effect of mother's height is therefore significantly greater than that of father, at around 41%. Thus, despite adjustment for several other factors, parental height plays a role in determining the stature growth index of under five-year-old children. For weight status, there is a similar relation in favour of mothers. One (1) additional z-score is associated with 0.036 (CI=[0.030; 0.042]) of the mother's and 0.020 (CI=[0.0122; 0.0279]) of the father's BMI. The effect of maternal weight is 80% greater than that of paternal weight on growth index of offspring. Table 5 Linear regression of height-for-age z-score index Variable Modalities Coefficient P-value Confidence interval WHZ -0.170 0.000 -0.196 -0.144 Occupation of Not work 0.000 mother Technical/Clerical 0.181 0.004 0.060 0.303 Sale -0.020 0.603 -0.095 0.055 Agriculture -0.078 0.013 -0.141 -0.016 Service -0.007 0.901 -0.124 0.109 Manual 0.066 0.204 -0.036 0.169 Birth Interval -0.005 0.016 -0.008 -0.001 Twin Simple 0.000 Multiple -0.553 0.000 -0.743 -0.363 Age group of mother <=20 years 0.000 21–34 years -0.065 0.258 -0.177 0.048 35 years + -0.042 0.546 -0.180 0.095 Age group of father <=25 years 0.000 26–44 years 0.113 0.029 0.012 0.213 45 years+ 0.175 0.006 0.051 0.299 Diarrhoea No 0.000 Yes -0.122 0.000 -0.186 -0.058 Living standard 0.055 0.000 0.033 0.077 Size at birth -0.146 0.000 -0.170 -0.122 Prenatal care No 0.000 Yes 0.125 0.000 0.074 0.177 Age of child -0.0196 0.000 -0.023 -0.016 Sex of child Female 0.000 Male 0.188 0.000 0.140 0.236 Place of residence Urban 0.000 Rural -0.095 0.007 -0.164 -0.026 Anaemia 0.127 0.000 0.097 0.157 BMI of mother 0.036 0.000 0.030 0.042 BMI of father 0.020 0.000 0.012 0.028 Height of mother 0.041 0.000 0.037 0.045 Height of father 0.029 0.000 0.026 0.033 Size of household 0.0004 0.948 -0.011 0.012 Education of mother 0.028 0.171 -0.012 0.068 Education of father 0.073 0.000 0.038 0.109 Cigarette smoking Yes 0.000 No 0.246 0.003 0.085 0.4081 Hygiene Flush toilet 0.000 Latrine -0.031 0.471 -0.115 0.053 No toilet 0.015 0.772 -0.088 0.118 Rank of birth -0.007 0.380 -0.023 0.009 Children in household -0.100 0.000 -0.1378 -0.063 Constant -13.828 0.000 -14.689 -12.967 Nagelkerke R² 0.187 3.3 Explanatory analysis of child stunting status Logistic regression of infant growth status indicates that mothers with normal weight for height have a lower risk of having a stunted child (aOR = 0.073; CI=[0.620; 0.847]) compared to children of mothers too thin for height (Table 6 ). For those who were overweight or obese, the risk was lower (aOR = 0.479; CI=[0.399; 0.574]). Regarding the weight status of the father, there was no significant difference in the effect on child growth between those too thin height and those with a normal weight. The difference emerges between children of overweight or obese fathers and those with father too thin for height (aOR = 0.816; CI=[0.673; 0.989]). The risk of child growth retardation associated with maternal height is 0.576 (CI=[0.528; 0.630]) for women of medium height compared with women of short height. This risk decreases to 0.370 (CI=[0.326; 0.427]) for tall mothers compared to short ones. For father, the corresponding risks are 0.733 (CI=[0.668; 0.804]) and 0.479 (CI=[0.423; 0.542]) respectively for medium and tall fathers compared with short ones. In all cases, therefore, the risk of child stunting in sub-Saharan Africa is negatively and independently associated with the paternal height. There are no interaction effects between the height of the two parents in the explanatory model. In other words, the increase in height-for-age z-score as a function of the height of one parent does not depend on the height of the other parent. Furthermore, the independent models for each sex indicate that the effects of maternal or paternal height are not significantly different according to the sex of the child (Table 7 ). Table 6 Logistic Regression of child stunting status WHZ aOR P-value Conf. Interval 1.179 0.000 1.138 1.221 Father occupation Not work 1.000 Technical/Clerical 0.678 0.010 0.504 0.913 Sale 0.883 0.063 0.775 1.007 Agriculture 1.004 0.940 0.909 1.108 Service 0.854 0.162 0.684 1.066 Manual 0.883 0.161 0.742 1.051 Birth interval =2 years 1.138 0.031 1.012 1.280 Twin Simple 1.000 Multiple 1.994 0.000 1.470 2.704 Age group of mother <=20 years 1.000 21–34 years 1.077 0.408 0.903 1.285 35 years+ 1.127 0.286 0.905 1.405 Age group of father <=25 years 1.000 26–44 years 0.802 0.008 0.682 0.943 45 years + 0.777 0.014 0.636 0.950 Diarrhoea No 1.000 Yes 1.092 0.100 0.983 1.213 Living standard 0.926 0.000 0.892 0.961 Size at birth 1.223 0.000 1.176 1.272 Antenatal care No 1.000 Yes 0.755 0.000 0.690 0.827 Age of child 1.017 0.000 1.013 1.021 Sex of child Male 1.000 Female 0.782 0.000 0.722 0.848 Place of residence Urban 1.000 Rural 1.062 0.331 0.940 1.199 Anaemia 0.864 0.000 0.824 0.907 Mother BMI Too thin for height 1.000 Normal 0.725 0.000 0.620 0.847 Overweight/obesity 0.479 0.000 0.399 0.574 Father BMI Too thin for height 1.000 Normal 1.024 0.740 0.888 1.182 Overweight/obesity 0.816 0.038 0.673 0.989 Mother height Short (< 155 cm) 1.000 Medium (155–165 cm) 0.576 0.000 0.528 0.630 Tall (165 cm+) 0.370 0.000 0.326 0.427 Father height Short (< 165 cm) 1.000 Medium (165–175 cm) 0.733 0.000 0.668 0.804 Tall (175 cm+) 0.479 0.000 0.423 0.542 Household size 0.988 0.186 0.971 1.006 Mother education 0.864 0.000 0.808 0.924 Father education 0.860 0.000 0.810 0.914 Cigarette Yes 1.000 No 0.806 0.099 0.625 1.041 Hygiene Flush toilet 1.000 Latrine 1.143 0.112 0.969 1.348 No toilet 1.033 0.732 0.856 1.247 Birth rank 0.996 0.758 0.971 1.021 Children in household 1.128 0.000 1.060 1.199 Constant 1.679 0.028 1.058 2.665 Pseudo R2 = 0.1004 aOR : adjusted Odds Ratio ; WHZ : Weight-for-Height Z-score; BMI: Body Mass Index Table 7 Regression models of height-for-age z-score index according to child sex Variable Boys’ model Girls’ model Coeff. Pvalue Conf. interv. Coeff. Pvalue Conf. interv. Mother BMI 0.031 0.000 0.023 0.039 0.040 0.000 0.032 0.049 Father BMI 0.011 0.046 0.0002 0.022 0.021 0.001 0.009 0.033 Mother height 0.044 0.000 0.038 0.049 0.043 0.000 0.037 0.048 Father height 0.0297 0.000 0.025 0.035 0.032 0.000 0.027 0.037 R² 0.196 0.212 Models adjusted by factors : WHZ, Occupation of mother and father, Birth Interval, Twin, Age group of mother, Age group of father, Diarrhoea, Living standard, Size at birth, Prenatal care, Child age, Child sex, Place of residence, Size of household, Education of mother, Education of father, Cigarette smoking, Hygiene, Rank of birth, Number of children in household 4. Discussion The use of DHS data from multiple countries help to constitute a consistent number of cases for an in-depth analysis. However, the repeated selection required to construct our sub-sample of both parents and a child under five, significantly reduces the number of initial cases in the collected datasets. Conducting such a study at a single country scale may therefore prove to be rather restrictive and consequently inconclusive. However, the consistency achieved by pooling the data can in no way be taken as representative of all African countries. As noted above, the inclusion of countries was based primarily on the availability of anthropometric measurements for individuals in the same household (men, women, child). These countries are not representative of all African countries. The majority of countries with data of interest are from English-speaking countries, and no Portuguese-speaking ones are included. However, the major sub-Saharan regional groupings are represented, including Southern, West, Central and East Africa. This relative lack of representativeness is compounded by some parameters correlated with child development, such as ethnicity or religion, are not taken into account. Their diversity and specificity within and between countries, in terms of behaviour and practices, make it impossible to establish coherent and easily interpretable modalities at continental level. Consequently, these data were not included in analyses. In addition, it was not possible to make an effective estimate of children's diets quality based on 24-hour recalls, as the variables relating to this were not standardised across all surveys. Nevertheless, given the multifactorial nature of child stunting, the results obtained were adjusted for various other factors highlighted by studies in order to reach at consistent findings. However, it was found that, contrary to expectations, birth intervals were longer for stunted children. However, this phenomenon has also been observed in Senegal and reflects a reaction of mothers to cope with their child's poor health and to ensure its survival, especially as there is generally no culturally determined duration. Instead, it is left to mothers to decide the right time to wean in order to ensure child's survival (Simondon et Simondon 1998). Effects of mother’s height The results show that maternal height has a strong effect on the offspring height. One additional centimetre of maternal height is associated with an average increase of 0.44 in the child's height-for-age z-score index, controlling for other characteristics of both parents. A similar effect was obtained using pooled data from four Bangladesh DHS surveys of 28,123 children aged 0–59 months, and using modified Poisson regression. The authors found that each 1 cm increase in maternal height significantly reduced the relative risk of child stunting (RR = 0.960; CI=[0.957; 0.962]). Based on the categorisation of maternal height, children of short mothers ( = 155 cm) (Khatun et al. 2019 ). In South Africa, the use of logistic regression showed that the risk of stunting was inversely associated with maternal height measurement (OR = 0.94; CI=[0.91; 0.98]) (Matsungo et al. 2017 ). Furthermore, Sumarsono et Irwanto (2022), using an observational analysis approach on a sample of 130 Indonesian mother-child pairs, took maternal height as the independent variable and child stunting as the dependent variable. On this basis, a bivariate test showed that maternal height affected the risk of child stunting (OR = 3.22; p = 0.003). The influences of maternal height on offspring stature result from genetic and non-genetic factors that may be related to environment, including intergenerational influences related to nutrition and health status that prevent offspring from reaching their height potential (Yaw et al. 2013). Genetics cause children to inherit suboptimal stature. Indeed, mothers whose short stature is due to pathological conditions (such as growth hormone deficiency) have genes in their chromosomes that carry short stature traits, putting their children at higher risk of stunting (Sumarsono et Irwanto 2022). In addition, mothers with short stature are at greater risk of impaired anatomical development during pregnancy and metabolic disorders such as low maternal glucose levels, protein and fat deficiencies. These disorders contribute to impaired intrauterine development and stunted growth in infants (Sumarsono et Irwanto, 2022). The disproportion between the maternal pelvis and the foetal volume leads to bony dystocia and recourse to caesarean section for delivery (Özaltin 2010 ). This biomechanical process leads to subsequent child growth retardation (Gupta, Cleland, et Sekher 2022). These pregnancies carry a high risk of perinatal death (stillbirth or death within 7 days of birth), largely due to birth asphyxia or delayed neurological and intellectual development of the child (Dewey et Begum 2011). But even if a person is born with the right genes and faces an unfavourable environment, their growth and development will be disrupted. Conversely, good environmental factors can help children born with unfavourable genetic conditions to compensate as much as possible for their stunted growth (Sumarsono and Irwanto, 2022). Poor nutrition contributes to the transmission of short stature to offspring. Nutritional imbalance during pregnancy leads to intrauterine growth retardation or low birth weight (Black et al. 2013 ). A parental undernutrition, particularly in the preconception period, has been associated with sub-methylation of the insulin-like growth factor II (IGF2) gene in the child, a gene involved in foetal growth (Dugas et Robitaille 2018). This is the genetic expression of David Barker's theory, which linked low birth weight to an increased risk of disease in adulthood (Charles et Junien 2012). His theory, known as “foetal programming”', is based on the fact that a foetus subjected to restriction during gestation would be “'programmed” towards a frugal phenotype, also known as a thrifty genotype, in order to protect vital organs, particularly the brain, to the detriment of organs such as liver, pancreas, kidneys and muscles. These conditions prepare the child for a later environment of food restriction or hunger. This gene is thought to be able to survive critical periods through a phenomenon of natural selection, thanks to its ability to store energy reserves in fatty tissue. It has even been credited with assuring humanity survival (Schlienger 2023 ). This epigenetic process (i.e. the adaptation of gene expression to the environment) is beneficial in the short term, but is associated with an increased risk of metabolic disease in adulthood if exposed post-natally to excessive or even normal dietary intake. Subsequent research has extended the critical period for a child's nutritional status to the first two years of life. Thus, an increase in BMI before the age of 2 years is associated with a higher volume of lean body mass in adulthood, while this increase from the age of 2 years to adolescence, accompanied by a delay in stature, is associated with overweight/obesity in adulthood. And in the absence of weight gain between 0 and 2 years of age, the rebound in adiposity occurs earlier. Therefore, Turck ( 2009 ) suggests that it would be accurate to expand the “prenatal origin theory” of diet-related chronic diseases into a more complete set of “growth acceleration theory”. Effect of father’s height Our findings indicate that maternal height is more strongly associated with stunted growth than paternal height. The association between paternal height and child stunting is also significant. A similar result was found in India by Gupta, Cleland, et Sekher (2022). On the other hand, Sindhughosa et Arimbawa (2020) found no association between paternal height and child stunting in their bivariate analysis. The relationship between the child's height and the father's height may be partly influenced by the father's unpreparedness and lack of maturity, especially for a first child. In addition, young fathers tend to have relatively low socio-economic status and education level, all of which are inherently conducive to their child stunting (Sari and Sartika 2021). Factors such as health and nutritional status of the father may also play a role. These can affect sperm quality, epigenetic status, DNA integrity and semen composition in ways that affect foetal growth and offspring health. It is possible that these conditions are more prevalent in shorter men than in taller men (Gupta, Cleland, et Sekher 2022). It has also been reported that the height of father may influence the likelihood that the new-born will inherit a gene that affects bone growth during pregnancy, while the height of the mother may influence the likelihood that the new-born will inherit a gene that affects bone growth later in pregnancy (Sindhughosa et Arimbawa 2020). In addition, advanced paternal age is contributing to certain health risks due to mutations and chromosomal abnormalities. Having an older and less physically active father may also be detrimental to the child's growth and development (Sindhughosa et Arimbawa 2020). For example, Sari et Sartika (2021) show that children of parents who are both under 20 or over 35 are 2.37 times more likely to be stunted at birth than their counterparts. The 25–29 age group is considered the optimal time for couples to have children to avoid the risk of having a child with stunted growth at birth. In addition, diet, through the intake of nutrients such as fatty acids and proteins, also contributes to changes in the sperm genome (Pascoal et al. 2022 ). In fact, diet-induced epigenetic modifications can alter human germ cells (precursor cells of sexual gametes), which constitute the genetic inheritance of future birth (Dugas et Robitaille 2018). The data show that the effects of parental height on offspring height do not differ significantly by child gender. A similar result was found by Yaw et al. ( 2013 ). Despite sexual dimorphism in stature growth, they found no significant heterogeneity in associations by offspring sex in any of the five countries included in their analysis. On the other hand, Wu et al. ( 2021 ) found that the mother-daughter association was more important than the mother-son association in their global analysis. In fact, the association between maternal height and her daughter’s height is stronger than the association between maternal height and her son’s height of under-five year old. They argue that the genetic mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of potential stature involve several chromosomes (such as the 7th, 8th, 20th and sex chromosomes) (Wu et al. 2021 ). It therefore showcases that sexual difference by the growth gene is located on the sex chromosomes. Conclusion Among the modifiable factors highlighted by this study, age at birth plays an important role in the association between low parental height and child growth retardation, as it is strongly correlated with morphology. Women who give birth at a young age are more likely to have an immature uterus and pelvis. At this stage, pregnancy is synonymous with a higher risk of poor growth and foetal distress. On the other hand, women over 35 years have a higher risk of preterm birth. This suggests that the mother's age at pregnancy may lead to a poor birth outcome that impedes the child's potential growth (Sari et Sartika 2021). To this end, it is necessary to promote a more rigorous application of the law on age of marriage, which is likely to have a positive impact on raising the reproductive age, especially in a context where contraceptive use is still in its early stages (Tabutin et Schoumaker 2004). This phenomenon is exacerbated by the poverty that prevails in many households (Martorell et Young 2012). Young parents are generally poor. This is associated with strong social and physical endogamy. In poor couples, both parents are more likely to have short or very short height, have little or no education and are generally in the lowest welfare quintile (Gupta, Cleland, et Sekher 2022). Under these suboptimal environmental conditions, adult height is largely a reflection of intrauterine and later life disadvantage. We are therefore in a vicious cycle where poverty promotes stunted growth and short adult stature leads to a restriction of physical, material and financial resources. This study highlights the importance of the height and nutritional status of the ascendants for the later growth of the child. Conversely, stunted growth in childhood increases the risk of short stature in adulthood (Dewey et Begum 2011; Roulet, Cheseaux, and Coti 2005). It is therefore important to implement interventions from preconception to the 1000-day period (during pregnancy at age of 2 years) to prevent the intergenerational cycle of stunting. In addition to postnatal factors associated with stunting, factors in the prenatal environment help prevent intrauterine growth retardation and the onset of low birth weight (Berkman et al. 2002 ; Svefors 2018 ). This emphasises the importance of targeting women at childbearing age to prevent child stunting. Slower growth in the first 1,000 days is critical for child and adult height. This should be addressed by improving or fortifying the diets of pregnant women and providing new-borns with a balanced diet in the first years of life, in line with relevant guidelines (Mamidi et al. 2011 ). A special attention should also be paid to the prenatal period, especially during adolescence, to reduce the most common nutritional deficiencies that can negatively affect pregnancy outcomes and survival. It has also long been stressed that female teenagers need a balanced diet to prepare them for their future reproductive life. This analysis shows that it is equally important to highlight the situation of their male partners. For too long, their nutritional contribution to reproduction has been underestimated. The focus has been oriented towards economic, social and family support for women during and after pregnancy, while their biological contribution has been overlooked. More attention should be paid to monitoring the nutritional and health status. Given the poor quality of men's sperm increases the risk of low birth weight (Wu et al. 2021 ), which is also influenced by the quality of their diet and health, it is necessary to formulate appropriate interventions for men in general, and male adolescents in particular, who face socio-economic and biological difficulties. Eventually, the fight against stunting should not focus solely on the child, but should be more systemic and include the link with their parents. To achieve this, certain factors are essential: biomechanical factors related to age, women's reproductive organs such as the pelvis and placenta, biological factors (i.e. a person's metabolism when receiving or transferring nutritional elements, inadequate nutritional reserves), genetic factors and psychosocial factors related to living conditions (Sindhughosa et Arimbawa 2020). Many studies attempted to document the factors involved in the emergence or maintenance of high prevalence stunting in children, either at country or sub-regional level. Several other studies endeavoured to summarise the determinants through meta-analyses of specific studies. This was the case of studies on the drivers of the global decline in stunting, which included only paternal education, although it also includes maternal height and BMI (Vaivada et al. 2020 ). A study of pooled data from 33 longitudinal cohorts in 15 developing countries in South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and Eastern Europe aimed to determine the relationship between children's nutritional status and their parents' height. Of these cohorts, only 4 included measurements of paternal height, whereas 20 included data on maternal height (Mertens et al. 2023 ). As for Buisman et al. ( 2019 ), who attempted to identify the determinants of stunting specifically in sub-Saharan Africa, they included maternal height but not paternal height. It suggests incomplete explanatory models, given the father's height accounts for more than half of the mother's height and is equivalent to the effect of the mother's education. The omission of this important explanatory parameter in the models is due to a methodological limitation in the collection of anthropometric data, which overemphasises the maternal relationship and undervalues the relationship to father. It is also sometimes deliberate, linked to the technical and financial constraints of data collection, or to a lack of awareness of the best strategy for involving men in children's health. This shortcoming must be remedied by systematising the collection of anthropometric data for both ascendants, in order to obtain an adequate overview of the determinants of child stunting. Declarations - Consent to publish declaration: not applicable. - Ethics declaration: The survey protocol, including all survey instruments, measurement procedures and biological tests, was reviewed and approved by the Burkina Faso National Ethics Committee and the ICF Institutional Review Board. - The dataset used comes from https://dhsprogram.com/data/ and it is available free of charge. - Consent to Participate declaration: A consent form emphasised that all information collected would remain strictly confidential and would not be shared with anyone other than members of the survey team. 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Ph.D. Université de Montréal Faculté de Médecine Département de Nutrition. https://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1866/8754/Zeba_Augustin-Nawidimbasba_2012_These_.pdf (15 mars 2015). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6563475","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":457214793,"identity":"269890c9-0ed5-4dc4-bd59-5abaf8205075","order_by":0,"name":"Bernard Dembele","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCAwxsDAwFDAwG7A0MzCRoMQAingMka5FIIFIL3/HutAcfDGwYzCXfGH4uqLBh4G/vTsCrRfLM2e2GMwzSGCxn5xhLzziTxiBx5uwGvFoMbuRuk+YxOMxgcDvHQJq3DciQyCWg5f7bbdJ/DP4zGNw8Y/ybOC03eLdJMxgcADJ4zIizRfJM7nbDHoNkBsuetDJrnjNpPAT9wnf87LYHPyrsGMzZD2++zVNhI8ff3otfCwzUNzBwGIAYPEQphwL2B6SoHgWjYBSMghEEALmJRq1K57rrAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bernard","middleName":"","lastName":"Dembele","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-30 09:38:02","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6563475/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6563475/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":91279510,"identity":"11a5fe87-86ed-48ad-8f30-38445642ae47","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-14 14:31:48","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1297961,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6563475/v1/1deccabb-08b8-4efe-9fe0-eb1769a3b050.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The intergenerational transmission of low height growth in sub-Saharan Africa","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s stature has an impact on her offspring height growth. Maternal stature is largely the result of the mother's own previous intrauterine and/or infant growth retardation (Vaivada et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Maternal short stature contributes to the birth of children who are also at risk of stunting (Zeba 2012). Children issued from short mothers (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;145 cm) are twice as likely to be stunted (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.15; CI=[2.10; 2.20]), in comparison to children whose mothers are considered tall (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;160 cm) (\u0026Ouml;zaltin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Once established, it would take at least two generations to eliminate the effects of this transmission of stunted growth (Falkner, Holzgreve, et Schloo 1994). This transmission may even persist over several generations (Delisle \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). In India, the mothers of stunted children were most likely to have had mothers or grandmothers of below-average height themselves (Sumarsono et Irwanto 2022). This confirms that stunting is a condition that is passed on to the next generation unless health and nutritional conditions improve. In an analysis of cohort data from five countries, Yaw et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) showed that maternal height affects both height and weight growth from the age of two, but also adult height. Coly et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) quantify this effect by showing that stunted growth at 2 years of age leads to a reduction in adult height of 6 cm for females and 9 cm for males. Maternal height therefore serves as a proxy for both genetic potential and the intergenerational effect of maternal growth at birth (which determines adult height) on the stature growth of the child (Prado et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA study in India assessed the association between parental height and childhood stunting using nationally representative data on 28,975 children under five years of age in 2015-16. In multivariate analysis, maternal height emerged as the strongest predictor of child stunting, with an adjusted risk of 2.85 for the lowest quintile compared with the highest quintile (Gupta, Cleland, et Sekher 2022). A pooled analysis of maternal height and offspring growth was also conducted using 7,630 mother-child pairs from five birth cohorts (Brazil, Guatemala, India, Philippines and South Africa). Based on linear regression, maternal height was found to be associated with birth weight and height at each age. The strongest associations were found between adult height and child height at age 2. In fact, a 1 cm increase in maternal height predicted a 0.024 (CI=[0.021; 0.028]) standard deviation (SD) increase in the offspring's birth weight, a 0.037 (CI=[0.033; 0.040]) SD increase in height at age 2, and 0.044 (CI=[0.040; 0.048]) SD increase in adult height. Mothers of short stature (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;150.1 cm) were more likely to have a child with stunted growth at 2 years and in adulthood (Yaw et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Maternal height was also significantly associated with offspring birth weight and all postnatal measures of height attained (Yaw et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The risk of stunted growth in children was doubled if the mother's waist-to-hip ratio was around 1, compared to mothers with a mean value of 0.65 (Barquera et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). A similar result was found in Burkina Faso using the Cormic index (Zeba 2012). Using data from India's 2005-6 National Family Health Survey, Subramanian et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) found that 1 cm increase in maternal height was associated with 0.97 reduction in the adjusted relative risk of stunting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost of the studies tended to focus on the effect of maternal height and rarely considered the effect of paternal height, or the combination of both ascendants\u0026rsquo; height on offspring growth. The few studies that have compared the results of both parents suggest that, in general, maternal height has an effect on the height of the child, but that paternal height has a smaller effect (Martin et al. 2020). Thus, maternal height is more strongly associated with stunted growth in children than paternal height. However, the effect of paternal height remains strong and is of the same magnitude as that of household wealth (Gupta, Cleland, et Sekher 2022). Although these parental heights have been shown to affect child growth, they have unfortunately been very poorly assessed in African countries. The same is true for parental weight status, which has also been poorly studied. To address this gap, we decided to focus specifically on sub-Saharan Africa. For this purpose, we consider all African countries in this region that have conducted Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) and have collected these anthropometric measures in at least one round of their survey series. In addition to the effects of parents as a whole, we tried to capture any differential effects according to the sex of parents and children, adjusted for confounding factors of child growth.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe analysis uses data from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) conducted in 13 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The choice of survey passages in these countries is based on the prerequisite of anthropometry for women, their husbands and their children under five. In addition, in countries where there were more than one passage containing the anthropometric measurements, only the most recent one has been considered. This was done to avoid over-representation of every country. On this principle, we have built up a dataset of 24,148 father-mother-child triplets (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). All these DHS surveys used a standardised sampling design. It consists of a two-stage stratified sample. The sampling frame used is usually the most recent population census conducted in the country. The process is designed to provide estimates of key indicators for the country as a whole, for urban and rural areas separately, and for each of the regions. For this purpose, each region is stratified into urban and rural areas. Samples of enumeration areas (EAs) are selected independently from each stratum in two stages. In the first stage, EAs are drawn in proportion to their size in terms of the number of households in each stratum. Next, households are enumerated in all the selected EAs. The lists of households obtained are used for the selection of households in the second stage. If some of the selected EAs are too large, they are reduced by segmentation. A single segment is then selected for the survey with a probability proportional to the size of the segment. The list of households is drawn up only in the selected segment. In the second sampling stage, a fixed number of households per cluster (varying between 20 and 30) are selected with equal probability by systematic sampling from the updated list of households. In half of the selected households, all women were eligible for the anthropometric module, as were their spouses and children aged 0\u0026ndash;59 months. All female and male permanent residents in the selected households are then interviewed. While the age range for women was 15\u0026ndash;49, that of men varied by country. In most cases, it is 15\u0026ndash;59 years that is chosen to take account of the age difference between spouses. In some surveys, the interval is restricted to 15\u0026ndash;49 years in order to ensure comparability between indicators for both sexes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of the surveys included\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear of data collection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCountry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFather sample /Coverage rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother sample /Coverage rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChildren sample /Coverage rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold sample /Coverage rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of two parents and child measured\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026nbsp;618 / 72.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u0026nbsp;514 / 86.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026nbsp;024 / 73.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026nbsp;477\u0026nbsp;/\u0026nbsp;83.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e238\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u0026nbsp;688 / 85.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026nbsp;683 / 94.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026nbsp;752 / 88.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u0026nbsp;650 / 97.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026nbsp;673\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019-21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGabon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026nbsp;566 / 93.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u0026nbsp;507 / 95.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026nbsp;997 / 95.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u0026nbsp;713 / 98.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026nbsp;521\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGhana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026nbsp;388 / 95.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u0026nbsp;396 / 97.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026nbsp;992 / 97.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u0026nbsp;835 / 98.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026nbsp;656\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLesotho\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026nbsp;931 / 93.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026nbsp;621 / 97.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026nbsp;972 / 97.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u0026nbsp;402 / 98.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e401\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNamibia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026nbsp;481 / 85.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u0026nbsp;176 / 92.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026nbsp;840 / 94.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u0026nbsp;849 / 96.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e626\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUganda\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026nbsp;336 / 94.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u0026nbsp;506 / 97.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026nbsp;418/ 95.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u0026nbsp;588 / 98.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026nbsp;675\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRwanda\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026nbsp;329 / 98.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u0026nbsp;671 / 99.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026nbsp;356 / 97.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u0026nbsp;540 / 99.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026nbsp;936\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2008-09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSao-Tom\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026nbsp;296 / 75.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026nbsp;615 / 89.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026nbsp;544 / 87.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026nbsp;536 / 94.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e793\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2010-11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSenegal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026nbsp;929 / 87.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026nbsp;688 / 92.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026nbsp;780 / 22.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u0026nbsp;902 / 98.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026nbsp;887\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSierra Leone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u0026nbsp;197 / 96.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026nbsp;574 / 96.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026nbsp;556 / 88.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026nbsp;712 / 98.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026nbsp;530\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2006-07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE-swatini\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026nbsp;156 / 88.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026nbsp;987 / 94.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026nbsp;940 / 93.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026nbsp;843 / 95.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e545\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u0026nbsp;396 / 91.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u0026nbsp;955 / 96.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026nbsp;511 / 93.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026nbsp;534 / 98.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026nbsp;667\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u0026nbsp;148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe DHS surveys in sub-Saharan Africa that met the above criteria and included in this study took place between 2006 and 2021 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Most of these countries are English-speaking, with the exception of Gabon, S\u0026atilde;o Tome and Pr\u0026iacute;ncipe and Senegal. The sample size for males ranged from 12,688 in Ethiopia to 2,931 in Lesotho, and for females from 18,506 in Uganda to 4,987 in E-swatini (formerly Swaziland). The number of children under five ranged from 10,752 in Ethiopia to 1,972 in Lesotho. The number of households ranges from 19,588 in Uganda to 4,843 in E-swatini. In general, coverage rates are above 95%, with the exception of Namibia (85% for men). Overall, these rates are sufficient to provide a representative sample of the target population in each country, especially as the sample size estimate has anticipated the non-responses. Finally, the triplet number of mother-father-child with all valid measurements varies from 6,024 in Ethiopia to 277 in South Africa.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe child's stature growth is assessed using the height-for-age z-score index based on the 2006 WHO standard (Borghi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). It is obtained by taking the difference between the observed height of the child and the median of the standard height; this difference is then divided by the standard deviation of the standard height for the same age and sex of the child. This index helps to define the child's growth status. A child is said to be stunted if the z-score is less than \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2. Conversely, if the z-score is greater than \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2, the child's height is considered normal. The new norm developed by WHO now indicates the optimal growth rate for a child who benefits from adequate nutrition, health, maternal support and environment (Borghi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of the data begins with a sample description, using a presentation of the frequencies of variables of interest. The dependent variable is presented in two formats: a quantitative form with the height-for-age z-score and a discrete form with the stunting status of children. The mean and standard deviation are used for continuous variables with a normal distribution, and the median is used for those with a non-normal distribution. This initial description is followed by bivariate cross-tabulations of the dependent variable with the independent variables. To test the significance of the relationship, either Pearson's chi-square is used for the intersection of two categorical variables, Fischer's exact test when at least one cell contains five cases or less, or analysis of variance for the intersection of a continuous and a categorical variable. For the multivariate component, linear regression was used for the continuous dependent variable height-for-age z-score. When the dichotomised dependent variable is stunting status, logistic regression is used. Only independent variables with a significant bivariate statistical test up to 20% threshold with the dependent variable are considered.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eA descriptive presentation of the population is made on some selected variables. It shows a strong collinearity between the number of children born alive to a woman and the birth rank of the child. This is mainly due to the fact that this analysis focuses on the woman's children under the age of 5. These children are usually the last and their ranks are quite close to the total number of children, hence the similarity of values. Thus, one of the two variables, the number of children, was dropped from the modelling to ensure parsimony. We also note that there is a high degree of occupational endogamy between spouses, mainly related to the practice of extensive family farming. To this end, only the mother's activity is included in the modelling, to the detriment of the father's activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe assessment of anthropometric data quality for under five-year-old children, the raw height measurements and age expressed in months, were first considered. The quality of age data was assessed using the Myers index (Gendreau et al. 1985). This revealed the attractiveness and repulsiveness of age endings in months (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). We can see that ages ended by 0 are more repulsive and those ended by 8 are the most attractive. In the case of repulsion, this is mainly due to age 0, which has the lowest number of children, a characteristic of developing countries. There is a strong tendency for mothers to systematically age their children by giving them the age of one year. This is combined with the fact that neighbouring ages, especially in the lower groups, cannot be carried forward in the specific case of age 0 months. There is also a propensity to use a round number of years (one year equals 12 months, 2 years equals 24 months, etc.). In terms of data quality of child height, the highest proportions were observed for measurements ended by 0 and 5 (20.2% and 13.6% respectively). This reflects a tendency of measurers to systematically look for a round value. It should also be noted that children under 2 years of age, who should be measured recumbent, were always not. About one in ten children under the age of 2 was measured standing up (11%). On the other hand, 4% of children aged over 2 years who should have been measured standing up were measured recumbent. There is therefore a greater tendency to measure children standing up than recumbent. However, a corrective measure adopted by the WHO-Anthro software is to add 0.7 cm to the height of those mistakenly taken standing up and to subtract 0.7 cm from those mistakenly measured recumbent. In addition, the assessment of age structure shows that the ratio of children aged 6\u0026ndash;29 months to those aged 30\u0026ndash;59 months is 0.868: this value is quite close to the expected value of 0.7.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttractions and repulsions of ages and height terminated by specific digits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMyers index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttraction-repulsion for height\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex-10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e|Index-10|\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e|Percent-10|\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe quality evaluation of the height-for-age z-score index by the isolation of extreme values obtained by the calculations with WHO-Anthro version 3.2.2 software. This is done using the validity interval specified for the height-for-age z-score (HAZ), which is -6 to 6. On this basis, the number of outliers is 298 or 1.1%, which is below the recommended maximum threshold of 5%. The standard deviation of HAZ obtained was 1.611, which is outside the recommended range of 0.8 to 1.2 (Mei et Grummer-Strawn 2007). For parents, unlikely heights below 120 cm and above 220 cm were excluded. Secondly, in the absence of standardised norms for classifying adult height, maternal height was discretised into three categories: (1) \u0026ldquo;\u0026lt;155 cm\u0026rdquo;, (2) \u0026ldquo;155\u0026ndash;165 cm\u0026rdquo; and (3) \u0026ldquo;165 cm and over\u0026rdquo;. Paternal height was also discretised into three modalities: (1) \u0026ldquo;\u0026lt;165 cm\u0026rdquo;, (2) \u0026ldquo;165\u0026ndash;175 cm\u0026rdquo; and (3) \u0026ldquo;175 cm+\u0026rdquo;. For parental weight status, a common categorisation into three modalities of body mass index (BMI) is used: too thin for height (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;18.5 kg/m\u0026sup2;), normal (18.5\u0026ndash;25 kg/m\u0026sup2;) and overweight/obese (\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25 kg/m\u0026sup2;).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Descriptive analysis of child stunting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistent with empirical studies, stunting broadly follows expected trends in socioeconomic characteristics (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Stunted children were found to be older, to have a higher birth rank, to have had fewer antenatal visits, to be male, to suffer from anaemia, to be twins, to be born small for height, to have less educated parents, to have a lower BMI, to be shorter, to come from agricultural households, to live in rural areas, to be poor, to come from households with poor hygiene or that have too many members. In addition, the birth interval is more often longer than the two years recommended for children with stunted growth. The opposite would be expected. On the other hand, the parents of these children appear to have practically the same age as those of normal height for their age and sex. The convexity of the U-shaped relationship between parental age and the height-for-age z-score index explains this atypical relationship. Thus, age has been categorised to take account of changes in biological potential. Younger and older women tend to have more stunted children. The discretisation adopted for mothers is: (1) \u0026ldquo;\u0026lt; 20 years\u0026rdquo;, (2) \u0026ldquo;20\u0026ndash;34 years\u0026rdquo;, (3) \u0026ldquo;35 years or more\u0026rdquo;. For fathers, the modalities considered are: (1) \u0026ldquo;\u0026lt; 25 years\u0026rdquo;, (2) \u0026ldquo;25\u0026ndash;44 years\u0026rdquo;, (3) \u0026ldquo;45 years or more\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariation of socioeconomic characteristics according to stunting status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNormal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStunted\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge of mother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.798\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge o father\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.963\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge of child\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBMI of mother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBMI of father\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight of mother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e159.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e156.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight of father\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e167.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize of household\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChildren in household\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild birth rank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16,980\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7,168\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevalence of child stunting according to some socioeconomic characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable/modalities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevalence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable/modalities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevalence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight of father\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAntenatal care\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;165 cm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e165\u0026ndash;175 cm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e175 cm+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex of child\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight of mother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;155 cm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e155\u0026ndash;165 cm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlace of residence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e165 cm+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccupation of father p\u0026egrave;re\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot work\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnaemia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnical/Clerical\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSevere\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgriculture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMild\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eService\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot at all\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation of mother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIlliterate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiarrhoea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuperior\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation of father\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIlliterate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiving standard\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoorest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuperior\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle class\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCigarette\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWell-off\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRich\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize at birth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHygiene\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery large\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlush toilet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarger than average\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOpen/close latrine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo toilet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmaller than average\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge group of mother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery small\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;=20 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge group of father\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u0026ndash;34 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;=25 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 years +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u0026ndash;44 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirth Interval\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 years+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Explanatory analysis of height-for-age index\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe linear regression of the child's height-for-age z-score (HAZ) index shows a positive relationship with the ascendants\u0026rsquo; height. An increase of 1 HAZ correlates with a significant increase of 0.041 metres (CI=[0.037; 0.045]) in maternal height (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The corresponding value for fathers is 0.029 metres (CI=[0.026; 0.033]). The effect of mother's height is therefore significantly greater than that of father, at around 41%. Thus, despite adjustment for several other factors, parental height plays a role in determining the stature growth index of under five-year-old children. For weight status, there is a similar relation in favour of mothers. One (1) additional z-score is associated with 0.036 (CI=[0.030; 0.042]) of the mother's and 0.020 (CI=[0.0122; 0.0279]) of the father's BMI. The effect of maternal weight is 80% greater than that of paternal weight on growth index of offspring.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLinear regression of height-for-age z-score index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModalities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoefficient\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfidence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einterval\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHZ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.196\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccupation of\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot work\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnical/Clerical\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.181\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.060\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.303\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.603\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.095\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgriculture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.078\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.141\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eService\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.901\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.124\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.066\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.204\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.169\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirth Interval\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.553\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.743\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.363\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge group of mother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;=20 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u0026ndash;34 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.065\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.258\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.177\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 years +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.546\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.180\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.095\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge group of father\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;=25 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u0026ndash;44 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.113\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.213\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 years+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.175\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.299\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiarrhoea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.186\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.058\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiving standard\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize at birth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.146\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrenatal care\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.074\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.177\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge of child\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0196\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex of child\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.188\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.236\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlace of residence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.095\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnaemia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.127\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.097\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.157\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBMI of mother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBMI of father\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight of mother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.037\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight of father\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize of household\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.948\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation of mother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.171\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation of father\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.073\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCigarette smoking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.246\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.085\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4081\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHygiene\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlush toilet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLatrine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.471\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo toilet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.772\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.088\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank of birth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.380\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChildren in household\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.1378\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.063\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-13.828\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-14.689\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-12.967\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNagelkerke R\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.187\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Explanatory analysis of child stunting status\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLogistic regression of infant growth status indicates that mothers with normal weight for height have a lower risk of having a stunted child (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.073; CI=[0.620; 0.847]) compared to children of mothers too thin for height (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). For those who were overweight or obese, the risk was lower (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.479; CI=[0.399; 0.574]). Regarding the weight status of the father, there was no significant difference in the effect on child growth between those too thin height and those with a normal weight. The difference emerges between children of overweight or obese fathers and those with father too thin for height (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.816; CI=[0.673; 0.989]). The risk of child growth retardation associated with maternal height is 0.576 (CI=[0.528; 0.630]) for women of medium height compared with women of short height. This risk decreases to 0.370 (CI=[0.326; 0.427]) for tall mothers compared to short ones. For father, the corresponding risks are 0.733 (CI=[0.668; 0.804]) and 0.479 (CI=[0.423; 0.542]) respectively for medium and tall fathers compared with short ones. In all cases, therefore, the risk of child stunting in sub-Saharan Africa is negatively and independently associated with the paternal height. There are no interaction effects between the height of the two parents in the explanatory model. In other words, the increase in height-for-age z-score as a function of the height of one parent does not depend on the height of the other parent. Furthermore, the independent models for each sex indicate that the effects of maternal or paternal height are not significantly different according to the sex of the child (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLogistic Regression of child stunting status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHZ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eaOR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConf. Interval\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.179\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.221\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFather occupation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot work\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnical/Clerical\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.678\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.504\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.913\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.883\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.775\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgriculture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.940\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.909\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eService\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.854\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.162\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.684\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.066\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.883\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.161\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.742\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirth interval\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;=2 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.280\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.994\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.470\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.704\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge group of mother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;=20 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u0026ndash;34 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.408\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.903\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.285\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 years+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.127\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.286\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.905\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.405\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge group of father\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;=25 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u0026ndash;44 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.802\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.682\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.943\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 years +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.777\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.636\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.950\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiarrhoea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.092\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.983\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.213\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiving standard\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.926\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.892\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.961\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize at birth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.223\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.176\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.272\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAntenatal care\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.755\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.690\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.827\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge of child\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex of child\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.782\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.722\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.848\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlace of residence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.331\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.940\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.199\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnaemia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.864\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.824\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.907\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother BMI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToo thin for height 1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNormal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.725\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.620\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.847\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverweight/obesity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.479\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.399\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.574\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFather BMI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToo thin for height 1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNormal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.740\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.888\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.182\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverweight/obesity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.816\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.673\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.989\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother height\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;155 cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium (155\u0026ndash;165 cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.576\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.528\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.630\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTall (165 cm+)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.370\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.326\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFather height\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;165 cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium (165\u0026ndash;175 cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.733\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.668\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.804\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTall (175 cm+)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.479\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.423\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.542\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.988\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.186\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.971\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.864\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.808\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.924\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFather education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.860\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.810\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.914\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCigarette\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.806\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.099\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.625\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.041\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHygiene\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlush toilet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLatrine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.969\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.348\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo toilet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.732\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.856\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.247\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirth rank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.996\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.971\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChildren in household\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.128\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.060\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.199\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.679\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.058\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.665\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePseudo R2 =\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eaOR : adjusted Odds Ratio ; WHZ : Weight-for-Height Z-score; BMI: Body Mass Index\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegression models of height-for-age z-score index according to child sex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoys\u0026rsquo; model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGirls\u0026rsquo; model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoeff.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePvalue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConf. interv.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoeff.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePvalue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConf. interv.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother BMI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFather BMI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother height\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.037\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFather height\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0297\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.037\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.196\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.212\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModels adjusted by factors\u0026nbsp;: WHZ, Occupation of mother and father, Birth Interval, Twin, Age group of mother, Age group of father, Diarrhoea, Living standard, Size at birth, Prenatal care, Child age, Child sex, Place of residence, Size of household, Education of mother, Education of father, Cigarette smoking, Hygiene, Rank of birth, Number of children in household\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe use of DHS data from multiple countries help to constitute a consistent number of cases for an in-depth analysis. However, the repeated selection required to construct our sub-sample of both parents and a child under five, significantly reduces the number of initial cases in the collected datasets. Conducting such a study at a single country scale may therefore prove to be rather restrictive and consequently inconclusive. However, the consistency achieved by pooling the data can in no way be taken as representative of all African countries. As noted above, the inclusion of countries was based primarily on the availability of anthropometric measurements for individuals in the same household (men, women, child). These countries are not representative of all African countries. The majority of countries with data of interest are from English-speaking countries, and no Portuguese-speaking ones are included. However, the major sub-Saharan regional groupings are represented, including Southern, West, Central and East Africa.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis relative lack of representativeness is compounded by some parameters correlated with child development, such as ethnicity or religion, are not taken into account. Their diversity and specificity within and between countries, in terms of behaviour and practices, make it impossible to establish coherent and easily interpretable modalities at continental level. Consequently, these data were not included in analyses. In addition, it was not possible to make an effective estimate of children's diets quality based on 24-hour recalls, as the variables relating to this were not standardised across all surveys. Nevertheless, given the multifactorial nature of child stunting, the results obtained were adjusted for various other factors highlighted by studies in order to reach at consistent findings. However, it was found that, contrary to expectations, birth intervals were longer for stunted children. However, this phenomenon has also been observed in Senegal and reflects a reaction of mothers to cope with their child's poor health and to ensure its survival, especially as there is generally no culturally determined duration. Instead, it is left to mothers to decide the right time to wean in order to ensure child's survival (Simondon et Simondon 1998).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEffects of mother’s height\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results show that maternal height has a strong effect on the offspring height. One additional centimetre of maternal height is associated with an average increase of 0.44 in the child's height-for-age z-score index, controlling for other characteristics of both parents. A similar effect was obtained using pooled data from four Bangladesh DHS surveys of 28,123 children aged 0–59 months, and using modified Poisson regression. The authors found that each 1 cm increase in maternal height significantly reduced the relative risk of child stunting (RR = 0.960; CI=[0.957; 0.962]). Based on the categorisation of maternal height, children of short mothers (\u0026lt; 145 cm) had approximately twice the risk of stunting compared to tall mothers ( \u0026gt; = 155 cm) (Khatun et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In South Africa, the use of logistic regression showed that the risk of stunting was inversely associated with maternal height measurement (OR = 0.94; CI=[0.91; 0.98]) (Matsungo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, Sumarsono et Irwanto (2022), using an observational analysis approach on a sample of 130 Indonesian mother-child pairs, took maternal height as the independent variable and child stunting as the dependent variable. On this basis, a bivariate test showed that maternal height affected the risk of child stunting (OR = 3.22; p = 0.003).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe influences of maternal height on offspring stature result from genetic and non-genetic factors that may be related to environment, including intergenerational influences related to nutrition and health status that prevent offspring from reaching their height potential (Yaw\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eet al. 2013). Genetics cause children to inherit suboptimal stature. Indeed, mothers whose short stature is due to pathological conditions (such as growth hormone deficiency) have genes in their chromosomes that carry short stature traits, putting their children at higher risk of stunting (Sumarsono et Irwanto 2022). In addition, mothers with short stature are at greater risk of impaired anatomical development during pregnancy and metabolic disorders such as low maternal glucose levels, protein and fat deficiencies. These disorders contribute to impaired intrauterine development and stunted growth in infants (Sumarsono et Irwanto, 2022). The disproportion between the maternal pelvis and the foetal volume leads to bony dystocia and recourse to caesarean section for delivery (Özaltin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). This biomechanical process leads to subsequent child growth retardation (Gupta, Cleland, et Sekher 2022). These pregnancies carry a high risk of perinatal death (stillbirth or death within 7 days of birth), largely due to birth asphyxia or delayed neurological and intellectual development of the child (Dewey et Begum 2011). But even if a person is born with the right genes and faces an unfavourable environment, their growth and development will be disrupted. Conversely, good environmental factors can help children born with unfavourable genetic conditions to compensate as much as possible for their stunted growth (Sumarsono and Irwanto, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor nutrition contributes to the transmission of short stature to offspring. Nutritional imbalance during pregnancy leads to intrauterine growth retardation or low birth weight (Black et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). A parental undernutrition, particularly in the preconception period, has been associated with sub-methylation of the insulin-like growth factor II (IGF2) gene in the child, a gene involved in foetal growth (Dugas et Robitaille 2018). This is the genetic expression of David Barker's theory, which linked low birth weight to an increased risk of disease in adulthood (Charles et Junien 2012). His theory, known as “foetal programming”', is based on the fact that a foetus subjected to restriction during gestation would be “'programmed” towards a frugal phenotype, also known as a thrifty genotype, in order to protect vital organs, particularly the brain, to the detriment of organs such as liver, pancreas, kidneys and muscles. These conditions prepare the child for a later environment of food restriction or hunger. This gene is thought to be able to survive critical periods through a phenomenon of natural selection, thanks to its ability to store energy reserves in fatty tissue. It has even been credited with assuring humanity survival (Schlienger \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This epigenetic process (i.e. the adaptation of gene expression to the environment) is beneficial in the short term, but is associated with an increased risk of metabolic disease in adulthood if exposed post-natally to excessive or even normal dietary intake. Subsequent research has extended the critical period for a child's nutritional status to the first two years of life. Thus, an increase in BMI before the age of 2 years is associated with a higher volume of lean body mass in adulthood, while this increase from the age of 2 years to adolescence, accompanied by a delay in stature, is associated with overweight/obesity in adulthood. And in the absence of weight gain between 0 and 2 years of age, the rebound in adiposity occurs earlier. Therefore, Turck (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) suggests that it would be accurate to expand the “prenatal origin theory” of diet-related chronic diseases into a more complete set of “growth acceleration theory”.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEffect of father’s height\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings indicate that maternal height is more strongly associated with stunted growth than paternal height. The association between paternal height and child stunting is also significant. A similar result was found in India by Gupta, Cleland, et Sekher (2022). On the other hand, Sindhughosa et Arimbawa (2020) found no association between paternal height and child stunting in their bivariate analysis. The relationship between the child's height and the father's height may be partly influenced by the father's unpreparedness and lack of maturity, especially for a first child. In addition, young fathers tend to have relatively low socio-economic status and education level, all of which are inherently conducive to their child stunting (Sari and Sartika 2021). Factors such as health and nutritional status of the father may also play a role. These can affect sperm quality, epigenetic status, DNA integrity and semen composition in ways that affect foetal growth and offspring health. It is possible that these conditions are more prevalent in shorter men than in taller men (Gupta, Cleland, et Sekher 2022). It has also been reported that the height of father may influence the likelihood that the new-born will inherit a gene that affects bone growth during pregnancy, while the height of the mother may influence the likelihood that the new-born will inherit a gene that affects bone growth later in pregnancy (Sindhughosa et Arimbawa 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, advanced paternal age is contributing to certain health risks due to mutations and chromosomal abnormalities. Having an older and less physically active father may also be detrimental to the child's growth and development (Sindhughosa et Arimbawa 2020). For example, Sari et Sartika (2021) show that children of parents who are both under 20 or over 35 are 2.37 times more likely to be stunted at birth than their counterparts. The 25–29 age group is considered the optimal time for couples to have children to avoid the risk of having a child with stunted growth at birth. In addition, diet, through the intake of nutrients such as fatty acids and proteins, also contributes to changes in the sperm genome (Pascoal et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In fact, diet-induced epigenetic modifications can alter human germ cells (precursor cells of sexual gametes), which constitute the genetic inheritance of future birth (Dugas et Robitaille 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data show that the effects of parental height on offspring height do not differ significantly by child gender. A similar result was found by Yaw et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Despite sexual dimorphism in stature growth, they found no significant heterogeneity in associations by offspring sex in any of the five countries included in their analysis. On the other hand, Wu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found that the mother-daughter association was more important than the mother-son association in their global analysis. In fact, the association between maternal height and her daughter’s height is stronger than the association between maternal height and her son’s height of under-five year old. They argue that the genetic mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of potential stature involve several chromosomes (such as the 7th, 8th, 20th and sex chromosomes) (Wu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It therefore showcases that sexual difference by the growth gene is located on the sex chromosomes.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eAmong the modifiable factors highlighted by this study, age at birth plays an important role in the association between low parental height and child growth retardation, as it is strongly correlated with morphology. Women who give birth at a young age are more likely to have an immature uterus and pelvis. At this stage, pregnancy is synonymous with a higher risk of poor growth and foetal distress. On the other hand, women over 35 years have a higher risk of preterm birth. This suggests that the mother's age at pregnancy may lead to a poor birth outcome that impedes the child's potential growth (Sari et Sartika 2021). To this end, it is necessary to promote a more rigorous application of the law on age of marriage, which is likely to have a positive impact on raising the reproductive age, especially in a context where contraceptive use is still in its early stages (Tabutin et Schoumaker 2004). This phenomenon is exacerbated by the poverty that prevails in many households (Martorell et Young 2012). Young parents are generally poor. This is associated with strong social and physical endogamy. In poor couples, both parents are more likely to have short or very short height, have little or no education and are generally in the lowest welfare quintile (Gupta, Cleland, et Sekher 2022). Under these suboptimal environmental conditions, adult height is largely a reflection of intrauterine and later life disadvantage. We are therefore in a vicious cycle where poverty promotes stunted growth and short adult stature leads to a restriction of physical, material and financial resources.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the importance of the height and nutritional status of the ascendants for the later growth of the child. Conversely, stunted growth in childhood increases the risk of short stature in adulthood (Dewey et Begum 2011; Roulet, Cheseaux, and Coti 2005). It is therefore important to implement interventions from preconception to the 1000-day period (during pregnancy at age of 2 years) to prevent the intergenerational cycle of stunting. In addition to postnatal factors associated with stunting, factors in the prenatal environment help prevent intrauterine growth retardation and the onset of low birth weight (Berkman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Svefors \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This emphasises the importance of targeting women at childbearing age to prevent child stunting. Slower growth in the first 1,000 days is critical for child and adult height. This should be addressed by improving or fortifying the diets of pregnant women and providing new-borns with a balanced diet in the first years of life, in line with relevant guidelines (Mamidi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). A special attention should also be paid to the prenatal period, especially during adolescence, to reduce the most common nutritional deficiencies that can negatively affect pregnancy outcomes and survival.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt has also long been stressed that female teenagers need a balanced diet to prepare them for their future reproductive life. This analysis shows that it is equally important to highlight the situation of their male partners. For too long, their nutritional contribution to reproduction has been underestimated. The focus has been oriented towards economic, social and family support for women during and after pregnancy, while their biological contribution has been overlooked. More attention should be paid to monitoring the nutritional and health status. Given the poor quality of men's sperm increases the risk of low birth weight (Wu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), which is also influenced by the quality of their diet and health, it is necessary to formulate appropriate interventions for men in general, and male adolescents in particular, who face socio-economic and biological difficulties. Eventually, the fight against stunting should not focus solely on the child, but should be more systemic and include the link with their parents. To achieve this, certain factors are essential: biomechanical factors related to age, women's reproductive organs such as the pelvis and placenta, biological factors (i.e. a person's metabolism when receiving or transferring nutritional elements, inadequate nutritional reserves), genetic factors and psychosocial factors related to living conditions (Sindhughosa et Arimbawa 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMany studies attempted to document the factors involved in the emergence or maintenance of high prevalence stunting in children, either at country or sub-regional level. Several other studies endeavoured to summarise the determinants through meta-analyses of specific studies. This was the case of studies on the drivers of the global decline in stunting, which included only paternal education, although it also includes maternal height and BMI (Vaivada et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). A study of pooled data from 33 longitudinal cohorts in 15 developing countries in South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and Eastern Europe aimed to determine the relationship between children's nutritional status and their parents' height. Of these cohorts, only 4 included measurements of paternal height, whereas 20 included data on maternal height (Mertens et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). As for Buisman et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), who attempted to identify the determinants of stunting specifically in sub-Saharan Africa, they included maternal height but not paternal height. It suggests incomplete explanatory models, given the father's height accounts for more than half of the mother's height and is equivalent to the effect of the mother's education. The omission of this important explanatory parameter in the models is due to a methodological limitation in the collection of anthropometric data, which overemphasises the maternal relationship and undervalues the relationship to father. It is also sometimes deliberate, linked to the technical and financial constraints of data collection, or to a lack of awareness of the best strategy for involving men in children's health. This shortcoming must be remedied by systematising the collection of anthropometric data for both ascendants, in order to obtain an adequate overview of the determinants of child stunting.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e- Consent to publish declaration: not applicable.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;- Ethics declaration:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe survey protocol, including all survey instruments, measurement procedures and biological tests, was reviewed and approved by the Burkina Faso National Ethics Committee and the ICF Institutional Review Board.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- The dataset used comes from https://dhsprogram.com/data/ and it is available free of charge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Consent to Participate declaration:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA consent form emphasised that all information collected would remain strictly confidential and would not be shared with anyone other than members of the survey team. It was reiterated that there was no obligation to take part in the survey. If there were any questions that the respondent did not wish to answer, they could choose not to.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- No Competing Interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- No Funding received.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eB.D. wrote the whole paper\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBarquera S, Peterson KE, Must A, Rogers BL, Flores M, Houser R, Monterrubio E, et, Rivera-Dommarco JA. 2007. \u0026laquo; Coexistence of Maternal Central Adiposity and Child Stunting in Mexico \u0026raquo;. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Obesity (2005)\u003c/em\u003e 31(4): 601\u0026ndash;7. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0803529\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/sj.ijo.0803529\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (15 mars 2015).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBerkman DS, Andres G, Lescano RH, Gilman SL, Lopez M, Black. \u0026laquo; Effects of Stunting, Diarrhoeal Disease, and Parasitic Infection during Infancy on Cognition in Late Childhood: A Follow-up Study \u0026raquo;. 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Ph.D. Universit\u0026eacute; de Montr\u0026eacute;al Facult\u0026eacute; de M\u0026eacute;decine D\u0026eacute;partement de Nutrition. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1866/8754/Zeba_Augustin-Nawidimbasba_2012_These_.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1866/8754/Zeba_Augustin-Nawidimbasba_2012_These_.pdf\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (15 mars 2015).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6563475/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6563475/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eDespite the decline of child stunting worldwide, levels are still subjects of concern, with about one in five children under five-year-old that is under his growth potential. Sub-Saharan Africa is even more affected. To curb the multi-faceted impact on the population, analyses have been carried out to identify the underlying factors. They show that already at this age, children benefit from their parents' health potential. The aim of this study is to estimate the extent of the impact and the factors associated with maternal and paternal stature on the risk of offspring stunting in sub-Saharan Africa. To this end, datasets from demographic and health surveys conducted in 13 countries that included anthropometric measurements of both parents and their children were used. Using the pooled data from 24,148 under five year-old children, we obtained a stunting prevalence of 29.7%, with a higher level for boys (31.6% versus 27.7%). The adjusted effects of mother's height and nutritional status were twice those of father. However, the effects of the parents' characteristics are similar for child's sex. Thus, interventions to anticipate child growth should be undertaken earlier at adolescence of the ascendants themselves to interrupt the vicious cycle of stunting.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The intergenerational transmission of low height growth in sub-Saharan Africa","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-16 12:09:10","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6563475/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9a84cfcb-c38b-4956-9c9f-5a964300962a","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 16th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-14T14:23:40+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-16 12:09:10","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6563475","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6563475","identity":"rs-6563475","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}