Grandchild caregiving and social activity participation among urban grandparents in China: are migrants disadvantaged compared to locals?

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Hongxi Ge, Ting Zhang, Guan Ren This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6140336/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background and objectives: Grandchild caregiving is a common phenomenon among urban Chinese grandparents. Amid profound economic reforms and enormous demographic shifts in China, many rural grandparents have followed their adult children and migrated into urban areas to provide care for their grandchildren. However, little research has explored how grandparenting influences social participation among local and rural-to-urban migrant grandparents. This study examined the association between grandchild caregiving and Chinese grandparents’ participation in social activities in urban areas. We further explored whether this association differs between local and migrant grandparents and investigated how this migration-related heterogeneity varies by gender. Research Design and Methods: This study employed four waves of data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) spanning from 2011 to 2018. Three variables were constructed to measure whether to participate in any social activities, the number of types of social activities, and the frequency of social participation. Grandparenting was measured by a dummy variable indicating whether to provide care to grandchildren and a categorical variable to represent caregiving intensity. We employed the fixed effects model to examine the association between grandchild caregiving and social activity participation. Results: Our findings indicate that a significant positive effect of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation, primarily driven by moderate caregiving. Heterogeneity analyses reveal that these positive effects were observed only among local grandparents, with migration-based heterogeneity evident only among grandmothers. Discussion and Implications: Our findings offer valuable policy implications in the context of rapid population aging and large-scale internal migration in contemporary China and other developing countries. Social science/Social policy Social science/Sociology Grandparenting Social activity participation Rural-to-urban migration Gender Urban China Introduction Globally, entering grandparenthood and providing grandparental care are common experiences in late midlife and early later life (Zhang et al., 2021 ). In China, grandparenting is a widespread social phenomenon deeply rooted in traditional familial culture expectation, which emphasize the importance of familial bonds and collective interests (Luo et al., 2019 ; Xu, 2019 ). It also serves as a crucial family adaptation strategy to support dual-earner family in the context of the profound economic reforms and enormous demographic shifts in China (Chan et al., 2022 ). Nearly 70% of Chinese adults aged 45 or older are grandparents (Ta et al., 2019 ; Zhao et al., 2020 ), and more than 50% of grandparents provide care for their grandchildren (Ko & Hank, 2014 ; Xu, 2019 ). The number of grandparents will continue to rise as the population aged 60 and above reached 297 million (21%) in 2023 (National Bureau of Statistics of China., 2024) and is projected to reach 504 million (40%) by 2050 (United Nations, 2024). While grandchild caregiving may limit grandparents’ opportunities for self-care and leisure activities (Arpino & Bordone, 2017 ; Jendrek, 1993 ), it can simultaneously enhance their social participation by promoting purposeful involvement in communities setting directly linked with caregiving roles. The World Health Organization ( 2002 ) emphasizes social participation as a critical element in addressing challenges associated with aging, and extensive research has confirmed its benefits for older adults’ health, individual well-being, and societal cohesion (Baker et al., 2005 ; Keyes, 2006 ; Matz-Costa et al., 2016 ; Putnam, 2000 ). Despite social activity participation is characterized by interactions with others, there remains no universally accepted definition of social participation (Levasseur et al., 2010). In this study, we conceptualize social activity participation as involvement in activities outside the family that facilitate interpersonal interaction within societal or community settings. However, older adults in China have a relatively low rate of social participation compared to their Western counterparts (Guo et al., 2018 ). According to the China Health and Retirement Report (Zhao et al., 2019 ), nearly half of urban older adults participate in at least one type of recreational activity, while only about 13% engage in at least one type of service-oriented activity. Therefore, how to enhance urban older adults’ social participation and whether different types of social activities engagement exhibit competitive and cumulative relationships is attracting growing attention from policymakers and scholars. A comprehensive investigation into this relationship offers valuable insights for developing effective social policies to promote active and successful aging in urban China. As population aging accelerates in China, the number of elderly migrants is steadily increasing (Smith et al., 2014 ). According to the Seventh National Population Census, the number of internal migrant older adults in China reached 34.57 million in 2020, accounting for 10.7% of the total domestic migrant population (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2021 ). In the context modernization and urbanization of contemporary China, many rural grandparents have followed their adult children and migrated into urban areas, where their adult children work and reside, to provide caregiving support for their grandchild (Tang & Xie, 2023 ; Wang & Lai, 2022 ). However, they often encounter challenges related to social integration in unfamiliar urban environments (Liu et al., 2018 ; Wang & Lai, 2022 ), which are exacerbated by China’s household registration system (Hukou) (Song, 2014 ; Chu et al., 2022 ; Wang & Lai, 2022 ). Therefore, the distinction between these migrant grandparents and local urban grandparents presents a crucial perspective for examining the effect of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation. Moreover, gender differences in grandparental responsibilities and their outcomes are widely recognized. Women typically bear a greater share of family responsibilities (Yasuda et al., 2011 ; Zuo & Bian, 2001 ), which shapes gender-specific roles in grandparenting (Chen & Liu, 2012 ; Xu, 2019 ). Therefore, it is essential to examine whether the relationship between grandchild caregiving and social activity participation differs between migrant and local grandfathers, as well as between migrant and local grandmothers. Although numerous studies have examined the relationship between grandchild caregiving and social activity participation in Western high-income countries (e.g., Arpino & Bordone, 2017 ; Ates et al., 2022 ; Bulanda & Jendrek, 2016 ), evidence from urban China remain both underexplored and inconclusive. Studies in China often regard engagement in social activities as a mediating factor in the relationship between grandparental caregiving and health and well-being (e.g., Han & Ge, 2023 ; Zhang & Liu, 2022 ). While some studies have directly investigated the impact of grandchild caregiving on Chinese grandparents’ involvement in social activities, most have analyzed samples that encompass both urban and rural grandparents (e.g., Li & Gao, 2024 ; Yan et al., 2022 ). However, urban-rural differences in grandparental responsibilities and social activity participation patterns are widely recognized (Chen & Liu, 2012 ; Guo et al., 2018 ; Wang et al., 2019 ; Xu, 2019 ), yet few studies focus exclusively on urban grandparents. Moreover, little research has explored how grandparenting influences social participation among local and rural-to-urban migrant grandparents. Methodologically, several studies have relied on cross-sectional analysis, limiting their ability to address endogeneity issues arising from omitted time-invariant variables, which may overestimate the effects of grandchild caregiving on grandparents’ outcomes (Ates et al., 2022 ; Danielsbacka et al., 2019 ). Although a study have employed longitudinal data (e.g., Li & Gao, 2024 ), few have utilized fixed effect models to control unobservable time-invariant individual characteristics that simultaneously influence both grandparenting and social involvement. The aim of this study is to examine the association between grandchild caregiving and grandparents’ social activity participation in the urban China. To address gaps in the existing literature, we first assess this relationship among grandparents residing in urban areas, utilizing four waves (2011—2018) of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), a nationally representative survey. Second, we explore whether this relationship varies between rural-to-urban migrant and local urban grandparents and further examine whether the migration-based heterogeneity differs by genders. Third, we employ fixed effects models to control all time-invariant individual heterogeneity and address time-variant unobservable individual heterogeneity by incorporating baseline social activity participation trend through interactions between baseline social participation status and time trend in our analytical models. Theoretical perspectives Recent empirical studies have examined the effect of grandparenting on social activity participation, mostly in Western high-income countries, have yielded mixed results (Arpino & Bordone, 2017 ; Ates et al., 2022 ; Bulanda & Jendrek, 2016 ). Despite cultural differences between China and Western countries, Zhang (2020) found that the likelihood of being a working grandparent and co-residing with adult children in urban China closely resembles patterns observed in Western countries. Therefore, we first review previous findings from Western contexts before discussing urban China. In general, grandparenting has both positive and negative association with social activity participation among grandparents. Regarding its facilitative effects, low-intensity or supplementary grandparental caregiving has been linked to greater engagement in leisure activities, helping grandparents integrate into broader social networks (Ates et al., 2022 ; Bulanda & Jendrek, 2016 ). These studies are consistent with role enhancement theory, which refers to holding multiple social roles can yield psychological benefits, ultimately expanding opportunities for societal involvement (Liu & Lou, 2016 ; Sieber, 1974 ). In contrast, role strain theory suggests that the demands of multiple roles may lead to conflicts and increased stress, thereby limiting participation in social activities (Goode, 1960 ). Some studies have reported that caring for grandchildren is likely to reduce social involvement due to competing time and effort demands of both activities (Arpino & Bordone, 2017 ). These divergent findings can largely be attributed to the intensity of caregiving (Ates et al., 2022 ; Bulanda & Jendrek, 2016 ). Specifically, moderate caregiving can enhance social participation through role enhancement effect, whereas higher caregiving intensity amplifies the negative effects of role strain, ultimately limiting opportunities for social participation. In urban China, grandparents engaged in grandchild caregiving are considered to fulfill an expected duty, which follows traditional familial values of intergenerational reciprocity and familial harmony (Xu, 2019 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ). According to role enhancement theory, this involvement provides them with a sense of self-confidence, satisfaction, and social recognition, which may, in turn, increase their motivation for social activity participation (Moen et al., 1995 ; Tang et al., 2016 ). Additionally, grandchildren caregiving could facilitate the expansion of grandparents’ social networks through interactions with other grandparents engaged in similar caregiving responsibilities (Ko & Hank, 2014 ; Strauss, 2021 ). Empirical studies in China have confirmed a positive association between grandchild caregiving and social participation. For example, Liu and Lou ( 2016 ) utilized the 2011 CHARLS data and latent class analysis (LCA) to identify a positive relationship between family caregiving and formal volunteering, while Jia ( 2023 ) reached similar conclusions using the 2018 CHARLS data. In contrast, according to role strain theory, urban grandparents who provide intensive grandchild caregiving may experience physical and emotional burden (Minkler, 1999 ), limiting their time and resources for social activity participation. This strain may weaken the positive association between caregiving and social activity participation derived from role enhancement. A limited studies have confirmed that the effect of grandparenting on social participation is not statistically significant in urban areas (e.g., Li & Gao, 2024 ; Yan et al., 2022 ). Given that rural grandparents who migrate to urban areas often lack access to alternative childcare facilities and other community-based support services or programs compared to their urban counterparts (Chen & Liu, 2012 ), the relationship between grandchild caregiving and social activity participation may differ between these two groups. In China, many rural grandparents migrate to urban areas primarily to care for their grandchildren, often assuming high-intensity caregiving responsibilities, whereas the local urban grandparents are more likely to provide non-intensive or supplementary caregiving service (Wang & Lai, 2022 ; Xu, 2019 ). Additionally, rural-to-urban migration is frequently accompanied by the dissolution of preexisting friendships and the loss of connections with non-coresident family members (Tang & Xie, 2023 ). Moreover, rural-to-urban migrant grandparents in China often encounter adaptation challenges in urban environments due to institutional discrimination under the Hukou system, low socioeconomic status, acculturation difficulties, and struggles with self-identity (Wang & Lai, 2022 ). All in all, compared with local urban grandparents, these challenges may diminish the role enhancement benefits associated with grandparenting for migrant grandparents. Gendered caregiving differences provides a more nuanced understanding of the migration-based heterogeneous association between grandparenting and social activity participation. Within the patriarchal norms of Chinese society (Yasuda et al., 2011 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ), grandmothers typically shoulder a greater share of grandparenting responsibilities than grandfathers (Chen & Liu, 2012 ; Xu, 2019 ). In contrast, grandfathers may experience greater role strain or even social stigma if they are heavily involved in grandchild caregiving, as such involvement deviates from traditional gender norms (Xu, 2019 ). According to the role enhancement theory, grandmothers who assume primary caregiving responsibilities may derive greater social participation benefits than grandfathers. However, migrant grandmothers are more likely than local counterparts to face greater caregiving responsibility and even burdens, along with the dual challenge of losing their original social networks and adapting to unfamiliar urban environments, which may reduce role enhancement effects associated with grandparenting. Consequently, the positive influence of grandparenting on social activity participation may be significantly weaker among migrant grandmothers than among local urban grandmothers. In contrast, since grandfathers are more inclined to engage in low intensive caregiving activities due to traditional gender roles and more likely to assume companionship and play-related grandparenting responsibility (Xu, 2019 ), this relationship is unlikely to vary significantly between migrant and local grandfathers. Guided by relevant theoretical frameworks, we propose four hypotheses. First, we expect that grandchild caregiving will positively influence urban grandparents’ social activity participation (H1). Second, we hypothesize that this positive effect varies by caregiving intensity, with moderate grandchild caregiving promoting social activity participation, whereas intensive caregiving weakens this association (H2). Third, we anticipate that the positive impact of grandparenting on social activity participation is more pronounced for local grandparents than for migrant grandparents (H3). Finally, we expect this positive effect to be stronger among local grandmothers than among migrant grandmothers, whereas no significant differences are expected between migrant and local grandfathers (H4). Methods Data and Sample We utilized four waves of data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), a nationally representative longitudinal sample of Chinese adults older than 45 years and their spouses, spanning from 2011 to 2018. CHARLS collects comprehensive information on respondents’ demographics, socioeconomic status, health conditions, and relevant information about their family members (Zhao et al., 2014 ), which can fully meet the needs of this study. With a multistage cluster sampling design, CHARLS covers 450 villages or communities in 150 counties from 28 provinces in China. The initial nationwide baseline survey was conducted in 2011 and included 10,257 households and 17,708 individuals. The subsequent follow-up surveys in 2013, 2015, and 2018 maintained high sample retention rates of 86%, 82%, and 77%, respectively (Zhao et al., 2020 ). Following prior research (Choi & Zhang, 2021 ; Xu, 2019 ), we selected CHARLS respondents who resided in urban area, were aged between 50 and 80 years, and had at least one grandchild younger than 16 years across the four waves as the analytic sample in this study. The analytic sample included respondents aged 50 to 60, reflecting two key considerations. First, individuals in urban China typically become grandparents earlier than their Western counterparts, with a considerable proportion entering grandparenthood before their early 50s (Zhang et al., 2020 ). Second, this age range aligns with the retirement age policies in China: factory workers can retire at 50 for women, while the mandatory retirement age is 60 for men and 55 for female civil servants. Respondents over 80 years old were exclude, as few among the oldest-old engage in grandparenting due to age-related health declines (Hughes et al., 2007 ). We excluded observations with missing values and attrition across all four waves. Furthermore, among grandparents residing in urban areas, we focus on rural Hukou grandparents who followed their adult children and migrated to urban areas, excluding those who migrated without living with their adult children and those whose who experienced rural-to-urban Hukou conversion across four waves. Because the fixed-effects model based on unbalanced panel data would be used as the empirical strategy in this study, we retained those respondents who had participated survey in at least two of the four waves. The final analytic sample comprised 1,565 respondents and 4,106 person-year observations. Measurements Dependent Variables We constructed three variables to measure grandparents’ social activity participation. Respondents in the CHARLS were asked whether they had engaged in any of the following activities in the past month: (1) interactions with friends, (2) recreational activities, (3) physical exercise, (4) community organization participation, (5) volunteer or charity work, and (6) educational or training courses, following a previous study (Arpino & Bordone, 2017 ). For each activity, the respondents who answered “yes” were further asked to report the frequency of engagement, with responses ranging from 1 (almost daily) to 3 (not regularly). We first constructed a dichotomous variable as the outcome measure, assigning a value of 1 if the respondent had participated in at least one of the listed social activities and 0 if they had not participated in any type of social activity. Next, we created a variable capturing the total number of different types of social activities in which the respondent had participated. Additionally, we constructed a variable to measure the frequency of social activity participation. Consistent with previous studies (Santini et al., 2020 ; Wang et al., 2019 ), participation frequency was defined as the highest frequency of any activity in which the respondents had participated. We reverse-coded the frequency of social activity participation, with a higher value indicating a greater frequency of involvement in social activities. [1] Independent Variables Grandparenting status was determined based on respondents’ self-reported provision of care to grandchildren under 16 years in the last year. Respondents who answered “yes” were further asked about the total number of weeks and the average number of hours per week they had spent on grandchild caregiving in the past year. Using this information, we identified grandparent caregivers based on their reported caregiving time. First, we constructed a dichotomous variable, assigning a value of 1 for caregiver status and 0 for otherwise. Next, we calculated total caregiving time by multiplying the reported number of weeks by the average number of hours of care provided per week. Based on this total caregiving time, we classified caregiving intensity into three categories, following prior studies (Kim et al., 2017 ; Tang et al., 2021 ): high-intensity caregiving, defined as providing 40 or more hours of care per week; moderate-intensity caregiving, defined as providing less than 40 hours per week; and non-caregiving, which served as the reference group. Control Variables To mitigate self-selection biases associated with observable factors, we controlled for a range of individual- and household-level covariates that may confound the association between social activity participation and grandchild caregiving (Arpino & Bordone, 2017 ; Bulanda & Jendrek, 2016 ). Specifically, the individual characteristics included age, gender (1 = male, 0 = female), marital status (1 = married or with a partner, 0 = otherwise), educational attainment (illiteracy (reference), primary school, middle school, high school or above), employment status (1 = currently working, 0 = otherwise) [2] , pension status (1 = participated in or received a pension, 0 = otherwise), migrant status (1 = migrated to an urban area, 0 = otherwise), instrumental activities of daily living (IADL, range 0–5) [3] , self-rated health (from 1 = poor to 5 = excellent), and depression scores based on the CES-D scale (range 0–30, with higher scores suggesting more severe depression symptoms). Household characteristics accounted for household size, the number of adult children, annual household income in CNY, and living arrangements. The latter was categorized into four groups: (1) living alone or with a spouse (reference group), (2) living with adult children but not grandchildren, (3) living with both adult children and grandchildren, and (4) living with grandchildren but not with adult children. Among these control variables, gender and migrant status were treated as time-invariant variables, while the remaining variables were time-varying. Following to previous study, rural-to-urban migration is defined as older adults from rural areas relocating to urban areas to live with their adult children. In this study, migrant status was defined as a dichotomous variable by comparing Hukou type and current place of residence. Specifically, individuals residing in urban areas with their adult children while retaining their rural Hukou status were classified as migrants. In contrast, individuals who both resided in urban areas and held urban Hukou status were classified as local urban people. The variable was coded as 0 for local urban residents (reference group) and 1 for rural-to-urban migrant individuals. Analytical Strategy Assessing the relationship between grandparenting and social activity participation presents methodological challenges due to potential self-selection bias. To address this issue, we employed a fixed effects regression model based on the longitudinal structure of the CHARLS. This method account for unobservable, time-invariant individual heterogeneity that may influence both the likelihood of assuming grandparenting roles and engaging in social activities, thereby enhancing the validity of our findings. Additionally, we controlled for time-variant factors that could potentially confound this relationship. To further mitigate the selection bias arising from time-varying and unobservable individual heterogeneity, we followed the method proposed by Schaller and Stevens ( 2015 ). Specifically, we incorporated interaction terms between the baseline social activity participation variable and time trends, as well as between community dummies and time trends, in our fixed effects models. This approach accounts for preexisting individual differences in social activity participation and captures community-specific unobservable factors that may change over time. The final fixed effects model is represented in Eq. (1): \(\:{\text{S}\text{P}}_{\text{i}\text{j}\text{t}}={{\beta\:}}_{0}+{{\beta\:}}_{1}\text{G}{\text{C}}_{\text{i}\text{j}\text{t}}+{{\beta\:}}_{2}{\text{X}}_{\text{i}\text{j}\text{t}}+{{\beta\:}}_{3}\text{S}{\text{P}}_{\text{i}\text{j},2011}\times\:{\text{T}}_{\text{t}}+{\text{C}}_{\text{j}\text{i}}\times\:{\text{T}}_{\text{t}}+{{\mu\:}}_{\text{i}}+{{\lambda\:}}_{\text{t}}+{{\epsilon\:}}_{\text{i}\text{j}\text{t}}\) (1) where SP ijt represents the social activity participation outcome of individual i in community j at time t, with t = 1, 2, 3, or 4, corresponding to the four waves of CHARLS data. GC ijt denotes the grandparenting status of individual i in community j at the time t. X ijt represents a vector of time-varying control variables. SP ij,2011 captures the baseline social activity participation, and T t is the time trend. [4] Additionally, µ i and λ t represents individual fixed effects and wave-year fixed effects, respectively, accounting for individual-specific and period-specific unobservable heterogeneity. C ji denotes community dummy variables to control for community-specific unobserved factors, and ε ijt is the time-varying individual error term. The coefficient β 1 captures the relationship between grandparenting and social activity participation. We employed a linear fixed effects model to explore the relationship between grandparenting status and three distinct aspects of social activity participation. First, we assessed whether grandparents providing care for their grandchildren were more likely to engage in at least one activity compared to their non-caregiving counterparts. Next, we investigated the effects of grandparenting on two specific dimensions of social activity participation: the number of activity types and the frequency of participation. Second, we analyzed the impact of caregiving intensity on each of these three measures to determine whether moderate and intensive caregiving yielded differential effects. Third, recognizing the potential heterogeneity in the relationship between grandparenting and social activity participation based on migration status, we conducted separate analyses for rural-to-urban migrant and local urban grandparents. Finally, to explore whether the migration-based heterogeneous effects of grandparenting on social activity participation vary by gender, we examined these effects separately among migrant and local urban grandfathers and grandmothers. To enhance the reliability of our analysis, we used the multiple imputation method to address missing control variables, which enabled us to keep as many observations as possible in our empirical analyses. This sensitive test yielded similar results (see Supplementary Table S2-S5), and we present the final results based on listwise deletion. Specifically, we employed gender, age and marital status as auxiliary variables and applied multiple imputation with chained equations to create 5 imputed datasets for addressing missing values of the control variables. Results Descriptive Statistics Table 1 provides descriptive statistics for the total sample of urban grandparents and subsamples categorized by their provision of grandchild care. It also reports the significance level of the t-test for continuous variables and the χ 2 test for categorical variables to assess the differences between caregivers and non-caregivers. The results indicate that more than half (61.3%) of the urban grandparents participated in at least one social activity. On average, they engaged in 0.98 types of activities, with a mean participation frequency of 1.43. Notably, caregivers were more likely than non-caregivers to participate in at least one activity (63.2% vs. 59.2%, p < 0.01). However, there were no significant difference between caregivers and non-caregivers in terms of the number of activities types engaged in (1.00 vs 0.95, p=0.171) or the frequency of social activity participation (1.45 vs 1.42, p=0.424). Additionally, more than half (53.7%) of urban grandparents reported providing grandchild care, with the majority categorized as moderate caregivers (30.8%). In the full sample, most respondents were female (55 %), married (86 %) and had an average age of approximately 63 years. The prevalence of primary school education or below was less than half, while 28.7% had completed junior high school and 27 % had attained senior high school education or above, indicating relatively high educational attainment among urban Chinese grandparents. Approximately 31% of respondents were employed, and nearly 86% were enrolled in pension programs. Additionally, 18.5% of the rural grandparents had migrated to urban areas to live with their adult children. The average scores for IADL and self-rated health were 0.28 and 3.1, respectively, while the average depression score was 6.76. In terms of household characteristics, the average household was 3.4 members, with an average of 2.35 adult children, and the mean total household income was 67,980 CNY. Nearly 42% of the respondents lived either alone or with their spouse, while 26.5 % resided with adult children but not grandchildren. In contrast, 26.1 % lived with both adult children and grandchildren, and 5.7 % lived with grandchildren but not with adult children. Compared with non-caregivers, caregivers were predominantly female, married, and younger. They were also more likely to be rural-to-urban migrants living with their adult children. Furthermore, caregivers exhibited better health conditions, reporting higher self-rated health scores and lower IADL and depression scores. Additionally, they had larger household sizes and higher household incomes but fewer adult children. Finally, compared with non-caregivers, caregivers were more likely co-reside with their grandchildren, regardless of whether they lived with adult children. Table S1 further presents descriptive statistics by first dividing the analytical sample into migrant and local grandparents and then further categorizing each group into caregivers and non-caregivers (Supplementary Table 1). Among local grandparents, caregivers were more likely than non-caregivers to participation in at least one activity. However, among migrant grandparents, caregivers exhibited higher participation across all social participation indicators compared to non-caregivers. In terms of caregiving intensity, local grandparents were more likely to engage in moderate caregiving and less likely to undertake high-intensity caregiving than migrant grandparents. Regarding individual and household characteristics, the results demonstrate that the characteristic differences between caregiving and non-caregiving grandparents are inconsistent with those presented in Table 1. Specifically, among migrant grandparents, there were no significant differences between caregivers and non-caregivers in terms of gender, pension enrollment, self-rated health, or household income. The Effects of Grandchild Caregiving on Social Activity Participation Table 2 presents the impact of grandchild caregiving on different outcomes of social activity participation using the linear fixed effects regression specified in Equation (1). The estimates in Model 3 show that caring for grandchildren significantly increased the number of types of activities by 0.082 (p < 0.05), thereby providing empirical support for H1. To explore the potential nonlinear effect of grandparenting on participation in social activities, we investigated the effects of moderate and intensive grandchild caregiving, with no caregiving as the reference group in Model 4. The results indicate that, compared with intensive caregiving (coef. = 0.071, p = 0.156), moderate caregiving had a more pronounced effect on increasing the number of activity types (coef. = 0.088, p < 0.05). This finding suggests that the positive effect of grandparenting on social activity participation was predominantly driven by moderate caregiving, which provides partial support for H2. In terms of other social activity participation outcomes—participation in at least one activity and the frequency of participation, as shown in Models 1 to 2 and 5 to 6, no significant effects of grandchild caregiving status were found on either outcome. The Migration-based Heterogeneous Effects of Grandchild Caregiving on Social activity participation Table 3 presents the estimated effects of grandparenting on social activity participation among subsamples divided by migrant status. The results indicate a migration-based heterogeneity in the relationship between grandparenting and social activity participation. Panel B of Table 3 shows that grandparenting positively influenced the number of activity types only for the local urban subsample, whereas these effects were not statistically significant for the migrant subsample. Specifically, Model 1 in Panel B indicates that local grandparents engaged in grandchild caregiving were more likely to increase the number of activity types. In Model 3, this association remained significant when caregiving intensity was considered, with moderate caregiving yielding statistically significant positive effects on the number of activity types. However, for migrant grandparents, grandchild caregiving did not have a significant effect on the number of activity types (Panel B, Models 2 and 4). Similarly, Panel A and C reveal that grandparenting status had no significant effect on participation in at least one activity or the frequency of social participation in either the local urban or the migrant groups. These findings provide empirical support for H3, suggesting that the positive effect of grandparenting on social activity participation is more pronounced among local grandparents compared to their migrant counterparts. The Migration-based Heterogeneous Effects of Grandchild Caregiving on Social activity participation by Gender To further investigate whether the effects of grandparenting on social activity participation differ between migrant and local urban grandfathers, as well as between migrant and local urban grandmothers, we estimate the moderating role of migrant status within gender-specific groups. Specifically, we divided the analytical sample into migrant and local urban grandparents and further categorized them by gender into male and female subgroups within each migration status group. The results are presented in Table 4 and 5. Table 4 presents the migration-based heterogeneous effect of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation among female groups across different social participation outcomes. Model 2 in Panel B of Table 4 reveals that the estimated coefficient for the effect of grandchild caregiving on the number of types of activities was 0.111 (p < 0.10) for local mothers, whereas the effect was not statistically significant for the migrant grandmothers (Model 2 in Panel B). This indicates that grandchild caregiving is more likely to improve social activity participation among local urban grandmothers. A similar pattern is observed in Model 3 and 4 in Panel B, where caregiving intensity is considered. Specifically, among local urban grandmothers, moderate caregiving positively influenced the number of types of activities (coef. = 0.125, p < 0.10), while no statistically significant effects were found for migrant grandmothers. A similar result is observed in Model 1 to 4 in Panel C, where the frequency of participation is used as the outcome variable. Even in Panel A, we found that local urban grandmothers engaged in moderate caregiving had a higher probability of participating in at least one activity compared to migrant grandparents (Panel A, Models 3 and 4). These findings support H4, suggesting that the positive effects of grandparenting on social participation are more pronounced among local grandmothers than among migrant grandmothers. Table 5 presents the migration-based heterogeneous effect of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation among male groups across different social participation outcomes. The results in Panels A to C of Table 5 indicate that there were no significant differences in the effects of grandparenting on social activity participation between migrant and local urban grandfathers. These findings further support H4, reinforcing that migration-based heterogeneity in the relationship between grandparenting and social participation is evident only among grandmothers, whereas no significant differences exist between migrant and local grandfathers. Discussion Using nationally representative data from the CHARLS for 2011 to 2018 and applying a fixed effects model, this study examines the association between grandchild caregiving and grandparents’ participation in social activities in urban China. Additionally, we explore whether this association varies between local urban residents and migrant grandparents, as well as across genders within these groups. Our analysis indicates that grandchild caregiving positively influenced the diversity of social activity participation among urban grandparents, which align more closely with recent studies from high-income countries ( Ates et al., 2022 ; Bulanda & Jendrek, 2016 ). From the perspective of role enhancement theory, grandparenting may foster a stronger sense of self-realization and a renewed sense of purpose in later life, motivating grandparents to adopt a more active and engaged lifestyle (Chen & Liu, 2012 ; Di Gessa et al., 2016 ). Additionally, the benefits of social activity participation outside the family may stem from emotional fulfillment and material rewards obtained through family-oriented caregiving activities (Cong & Silverstein, 2012 ; Tang & Xie, 2023 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ). Engaging in caregiving roles may also provide urban grandparents with greater opportunities to participate in activities beyond the household and encourage them to integrate into broader social networks (Ates et al., 2022 ; Quirke et al., 2021 ). Conversely, role strain theory suggests that grandchild caregiving may introduce stress and limit urban grandparents’ ability to engage in social activities. Despite this, our findings indicate that the positive effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation outweigh the constraints imposed by role strain, highlighting the predominance of role enhancement benefits for urban grandparents in China. Our findings demonstrate that the positive effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation were more pronounced among grandparents who provided moderate care, aligning with findings from previous studies in western countries (Ates et al., 2022 ; Bulanda & Jendrek, 2016 ). When providing a moderate level of grandchild care, grandparents may better balance family responsibilities with participation in extrafamilial social activities, allowing them to maximize the benefits of role enhancement while mitigating the adverse effects of role strain. Compared to moderate grandchild caregiving, intensive grandchild caregiving could be more time- and energy-consuming, making urban grandparents more susceptible to role conflicts and stress. In such cases, the benefits of role enhancement may be counterbalanced by role strain, leading to nonsignificant positive effects of grandparenting on social activity participation. This nonlinear relationship between caregiving intensity and social activity participation is consistent with Coall and Hertwig’s theoretical framework (Coall & Hertwig, 2011 ), which suggests that the benefits of grandparenting for Chinese urban grandparents’ social participation are maximized only up to a certain threshold. Therefore, a moderate level of involvement in grandchild caregiving can contribute to active aging in urban China, a particularly crucial factor for urban grandparents with limited engagement in social activities. Our research highlights the heterogeneous effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation between local and migrant grandparents. Specifically, grandchild caregiving had significant positive effects on the number of activity types among local grandparents, whereas these effects were not statistically significant among migrant grandparents. This disparity may be attributed to the loss of original social networks and the social integration challenges faced by migrant grandparents. Caregivers who migrate from rural to urban settings often experience weakened connections with friends and other non-coresident family members (Tang & Xie, 2023 ; Townsend et al., 2021 ). Additionally, these migrant grandparents frequently encounter discrimination and exclusion in interactions with their local residents and face challenges in accessing supportive organizations and resources in their new residential locations (Liu et al., 2018 ; Wang & Lai, 2022 ), which may diminish the role enhancement benefits of grandparenting for social activity participation. Institutional barriers stemming from the Hukou system further restrict migrant grandparents’ access to basic social services (Song, 2014 ; Wang & Lai, 2022 ), exacerbating their difficulties in participating in local social activities. Moreover, rural-to-urban migrant grandparents who relocate to provide care for their grandchildren often assume high-intensity caregiving responsibility, which may increase caregiving stress and further weaken the potential benefits of role enhancement. Consequently, the limited positive role enhancement benefits among migrant grandparents appear insufficient to significantly improve their engagement in social activities in their new social environments. Further analysis reveals that the migration-based heterogenous effects of grandparenting on social activity participation were observed only among grandmothers, whereas no statistically significant differences were found between migrant and local grandfathers. One possible explanation lies in the gender-specific differences in the caregiving roles and responsibilities. Chinese grandmothers typically devote substantial time and effort to family-oriented activities, shouldering a greater share of caregiving responsibilities than grandfathers (Guo et al., 2017 ; Liu et al., 2022 ). According to role enhancement theory, this extensive involvement in caregiving may provide grandmothers with greater opportunities for social participation compared to grandfathers. However, migrant grandmothers face the dual challenge of losing their original social networks and adapting to unfamiliar living environments, whereas urban grandmothers, residing in familiar environment, are better positioned to leverage grandchild caregiving as an avenue for increased social participation. Another explanation may stem from the persistent gendered role expectations in contemporary China (Xu, 2019 ). Compared with their local urban counterparts, rural-to-urban grandmothers who care for their grandchildren are more likely to shoulder the primary burden of caregiving tasks, such as cooking, feeding, and clothing. In contrast, urban grandmothers are more likely to engage in caregiving-related activities outside the household, such as attending school events (Luo et al., 2019 ; Zeng et al., 2021 ). These differences in caregiving responsibilities could significantly diminish the role enhancement effect of grandparenting among migrant grandmothers, ultimately restricting their opportunities for social participation. In contrast, grandfathers may have acquired fewer caregiving-related skills and resources throughout their life course than grandmothers, and they may experience role strain or even social stigma when providing care for their grandchildren (Xu, 2019 ). As a result, the role enhancement benefits of grandparenting for grandfathers may be counterbalanced by role strain, leading to a nonsignificant effect for both migrant and local grandfathers. Although grandfathers who migrate with adult children may face the loss of original social networks and the social integration challenges, their caregiving roles often revolve around accompanying and entertaining grandchildren (Xu, 2019 ). These fewer demanding responsibilities may enable them to maintain a degree of social interaction in their new urban environment. The role enhancement benefits associated with these caregiving roles may partially mitigate the environmental constraints on their social participation. Consequently, changes in environmental factors, such as migration from rural to urban areas, are less likely to significantly alter the impact of grandchild caregiving on grandfathers’ social participation. This stability may explain the absence of significant differences in caregiving outcomes between urban Hukou holders and rural migrant grandfathers. There are several limitations in this study. First, the CHARLS data used in this article solely relies on respondents’ self-reported social participation over the past month, which may not fully capture their actual participation levels and frequency. This limitation could result in estimates that deviate from the true impact of grandparenting on social participation. Second, the measure of caregiving intensity in this study is restricted to the total annual hours spent on grandparenting, as information on specific caregiving content is not available in the CHARLS dataset. As a result, we are unable to determine which caregiving activities are most time-consuming and may weaken the positive facilitative effect of grandchild caregiving on social participation. Future research incorporating such information could offer targeted policy recommendations to alleviate caregiving burdens and enhance the positive outcomes of grandparenting. Third, our methodology does not fully address self-selection bias arising from unobservable, time-variant individual heterogeneity, which may weaken the internal validity of our findings. Consequently, the causal effect of grandparenting on social participation should be interpreted with caution. Future research could employ more rigorous methods to better identify the causal relationship between grandparenting and social participation. Finally, although this study examines the heterogeneous effects of grandparental caregiving on social participation across different migrant groups and genders, the underlying causal mechanisms remain unexplored. Future research should integrate qualitative and quantitative approaches to gain deeper insights into these mechanisms. Despite the limitations mentioned above, several important policy implications can be derived from the current study. First, given our findings that grandparenting enhances social activity participation but that intensive caregiving may weaken this positive effect, policies should focus on reducing caregiving burdens and stress to enable grandparents to engage more actively in social activities. This can be achieved by providing supportive resources such as grandparenting skill training and care subsidy schemes for grandparents, as well as expanding access to high-quality childcare services, including daycare centers and after-school programs (Zeng et al., 2021 ). Second, our findings highlight the need for policies tailored to heterogeneous subgroups of Chinese older adults. Specifically, rural-to-urban migrant grandparents—particularly migrant grandmothers—may not experience the same social participation benefits as their local urban counterparts. To address this disparity, local governments and communities should invest in high-quality childcare facilities and services that specifically support migrant grandparents, ensuring that their grandchildren receive the same standard of care as local children. Additionally, targeted programs—such as organizing more community-based voluntary activities and improving public amenities within migrant neighborhoods—should be designed to facilitate greater social engagement. These initiatives can encourage interactions between migrant grandparents and local residents, fostering a stronger sense of belonging and integration into the new community, thereby alleviating the environmental constraints that limit the role enhancement benefits of grandparenting. Conclusion Our findings indicate a significant positive effect of grandchild caregiving on grandparents’ social activity participation, primarily driven by moderate caregiving. Heterogeneity analyses reveal that this positive effect was more pronounced for local urban grandparents, with migrated-based heterogeneity evident only among grandmothers. This study contributes to the growing body of literature examining the effects of within-family caregiving on broader social engagement, offering valuable insights into productive aging and active aging in non-Western societies undergoing rapid urbanization and societal transformation. Overall, our findings advance the understanding of sociocultural differences in the social participation consequences of grandparenting within a global context. Declarations Ethical Approval This study utilizes publicly available secondary data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS). Ethical approval for all waves of the CHARLS survey was granted by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Peking University (Approval Number: IRB00001052-11015). This study was conducted in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. No additional ethical approval was required for the use of these secondary data. Informed Consent This study is based on publicly available secondary data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) and does not involve any human experimentation. In the data collection of the CHARLS survey, each respondent who agreed to participate in the survey was asked to sign two copies of the informed consent, and one copy was kept in the CHARLS office, which was also scanned and saved in PDF format Author Contribution H.G., T.Z., and G.R. contributed equally to this work. All authors contributed to the study design, analysis, and manuscript preparation. H.G. and G.R. were primarily responsible for methodology and formal analysis. T.Z. and H.G. led the writing and visualization. H.G. supervised the study. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. References Arpino, B., & Bordone, V. (2017). Regular provision of grandchild care and participation in social activities. 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Respondents are considered employed if they are engaged in any of the following activities: self-employment in agriculture, employment in agriculture, nonagricultural employment, self-employment in a nonagricultural sector, or management of a nonagricultural family business. Any difficulties in completing household chores, preparing meals, shopping, making phone calls or taking medications. The variable T represents time trends, assigned value of 1 for the year 2011, 3 for 2013, 5 for 2015, and 8 for 2018. Tables Table 1. Descriptive statistics of analytic sample Variables Full sample Non-caregiver Caregiver p Value a %/M (SD) %/M (SD) %/M (SD) Dependent variables At least one activity 61.30% 59.20% 63.20% < 0.01 Number of types of activities 0.98 (1.00) 0.95 (1.01) 1.00 (1.00) 0.171 Frequency of participation 1.43 (1.31) 1.42 (1.33) 1.45 (1.29) 0.424 Independent variables Any care 53.70% - - - Grandchild-care intensity No care 46.30% - - - Moderate care 30.80% - 57.40% - Intensive care 22.80% - 42.60% - Individual characteristics Female 55.00% 52.40% 57.20% < 0.01 Married 86.00% 82.60% 88.90% < 0.01 Age 63.10 (7.00) 64.75 (7.51) 61.65 (6.18) < 0.01 Education Illiterate 10.90% 11.80% 10.20% 0.111 Primary school 33.30% 32.40% 34.10% 0.246 Junior school 28.70% 27.70% 29.50% 0.214 Senior middle school and above 27.00% 28.10% 26.10% 0.168 Employed 31.20% 30.90% 31.50% 0.700 Pension enrollment 85.60% 85.00% 86.10% 0.344 Rural-to-urban migration 18.50% 14.90% 21.70% < 0.01 IADL 0.28 (0.81) 0.33 (0.89) 0.23 (0.72) < 0.01 Self-rated health 3.10 (0.88) 3.07 (0.90) 3.13 (0.87) < 0.05 CESD score 6.76 (5.65) 7.00 (5.91) 6.55 (5.40) < 0.05 Household characteristics Household size 3.40 (1.68) 2.94 (1.47) 3.80 (1.74) < 0.01 Number of adult children 2.35 (1.20) 2.58 (1.27) 2.16 (1.10) < 0.01 Household Income (1,000 CNY) 67.98 (100.01) 61.91 (107.22) 73.22 (93.04) < 0.01 Living arrangement Alone or with spouse 41.60% 54.60% 30.40% < 0.01 With adult children, not grandchildren 26.50% 29.70% 23.80% < 0.01 With adult children and grandchildren 26.10% 14.30% 36.30% < 0.01 With grandchildren, not adult children 5.70% 1.30% 9.50% < 0.01 N 4,106 1,903 2,203 Note : M = mean; SD = standard deviation. a P value from the t-test for continuous variables and χ 2 test for categorical variables between caregivers and non-caregivers. Table 2. The effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation Variables At least one activity Number of types of activities Frequency of participation Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Any care 0.020 (0.022) 0.082 ** (0.040) 0.065 (0.060) Moderate care 0.026 (0.024) 0.088 ** (0.043) 0.070 (0.064) Intensive care 0.007 (0.028) 0.071 (0.050) 0.056 (0.074) Individual characteristics Age -0.000 (0.012) -0.001 (0.012) 0.006 (0.020) 0.006 (0.020) -0.011 (0.031) -0.011 (0.031) Married -0.047 (0.056) -0.047 (0.056) -0.090 (0.105) -0.090 (0.105) -0.350 ** (0.150) -0.350 ** (0.150) Education (ref: Illiterate) Primary school 0.041 (0.082) 0.044 (0.082) 0.183 (0.162) 0.187 (0.163) 0.232 (0.200) 0.234 (0.200) Middle school 0.039 (0.094) 0.042 (0.094) 0.144 (0.186) 0.146 (0.186) 0.161 (0.227) 0.163 (0.227) High school and above -0.069 (0.107) -0.067 (0.107) 0.001 (0.234) 0.003 (0.235) -0.121 (0.260) -0.120 (0.260) Worked 0.001 (0.025) -0.001 (0.025) 0.059 (0.051) 0.057 (0.051) -0.001 (0.067) -0.003 (0.068) Pension enrollment -0.057 * (0.031) -0.057 * (0.031) -0.083 (0.054) -0.083 (0.054) -0.149 * (0.080) -0.149 * (0.080) IADL -0.044 *** (0.013) -0.044 *** (0.013) -0.048 ** (0.022) -0.048 ** (0.022) -0.072 ** (0.035) -0.072 ** (0.035) Self-rated health -0.001 (0.013) -0.001 (0.013) 0.019 (0.023) 0.020 (0.023) 0.000 (0.034) 0.000 (0.034) CESD score -0.003 (0.002) -0.003 (0.002) -0.004 (0.004) -0.004 (0.004) -0.016 *** (0.006) -0.016 *** (0.006) Household characteristics Household size 0.010 (0.012) 0.010 (0.012) 0.002 (0.021) 0.002 (0.021) 0.023 (0.031) 0.023 (0.031) Number of adult children 0.031 (0.019) 0.030 (0.019) 0.028 (0.032) 0.027 (0.032) 0.061 (0.055) 0.061 (0.055) Log household Income 0.018 *** (0.005) 0.018 *** (0.005) 0.028 *** (0.009) 0.028 *** (0.009) 0.041 *** (0.014) 0.041 *** (0.014) Living arrangement (ref: Alone or with spouse) With adult children, not grandchildren 0.051 (0.048) 0.051 (0.048) 0.101 (0.089) 0.100 (0.089) 0.081 (0.131) 0.080 (0.131) With adult children and grandchildren 0.014 (0.048) 0.013 (0.048) 0.093 (0.085) 0.093 (0.085) 0.043 (0.130) 0.043 (0.130) With grandchildren, not adult children -0.009 (0.051) -0.009 (0.051) 0.071 (0.088) 0.071 (0.088) 0.012 (0.138) 0.012 (0.138) Constant 0.453 (0.735) 0.455 (0.736) 0.048 (1.208) 0.050 (1.208) 1.796 (1.887) 1.798 (1.888) Baseline SAP × Time trend Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Community dummy variables × Time trend Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Individual FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Community FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes R 2 0.672 0.672 0.720 0.720 0.681 0.681 N 4,106 4,106 4,106 4,106 4,106 4,106 Note : We set no care as the reference group of moderate care and intensive care and apply it in all tables below. * p < 0.1; ** p < 0.05; *** p< 0.01 Table 3. The migration-based heterogeneous effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation Variables Locals Migrants Locals Migrants Model1 Model2 Model3 Model4 Panel A : At least one activity Any care 0.026 (0.024) -0.019 (0.074) Moderate care 0.029 (0.026) -0.015 (0.079) Intensive care 0.018 (0.031) -0.026 (0.085) R 2 0.663 0.754 0.663 0.754 Panel B : Number of types of activities Any care 0.104 ** (0.045) -0.045 (0.106) Moderate care 0.106 ** (0.048) -0.034 (0.115) Intensive care 0.100 * (0.058) -0.065 (0.119) R 2 0.712 0.809 0.712 0.809 Panel C : Frequency of participation Any care 0.078 (0.066) 0.028 (0.161) Moderate care 0.067 (0.070) 0.069 (0.180) Intensive care 0.102 (0.083) -0.044 (0.178) R 2 0.672 0.772 0.672 0.772 N 3,346 760 3,346 760 Note : All control variables in table 2, year-fixed effects, community-fixed effects, interaction between baseline social activities participation and time trend, and interaction between community dummy variables and time trend are included in each regression model. * p < 0.1; ** p < 0.05; *** p< 0.01 Table 4 The migration-based heterogeneous effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation among female groups Variables Locals Migrants Locals Migrants Model1 Model2 Model3 Model4 Panel A: At least one activity Any care 0.055 (0.035) 0.007 (0.119) Moderate care 0.066 * (0.037) -0.003 (0.126) Intensive care 0.032 (0.043) 0.026 (0.135) R 2 0.684 0.794 0.685 0.794 Panel B: Number of types of activities Any care 0.111 * (0.066) 0.034 (0.157) Moderate care 0.125 * (0.070) 0.011 (0.167) Intensive care 0.084 (0.083) 0.080 (0.184) R 2 0.728 0.839 0.728 0.839 Panel C: Frequency of participation Any care 0.169 * (0.097) 0.043 (0.262) Moderate care 0.178 * (0.103) 0.060 (0.288) Intensive care 0.152 (0.118) 0.009 (0.295) R 2 0.696 0.818 0.696 0.818 N 1,787 471 1,787 471 Note : All control variables in table 2, year-fixed effects, community-fixed effects, interaction between baseline social activities participation and time trend, and interaction between community dummy variables and time trend are included in each regression model. * p < 0.1; ** p < 0.05; *** p< 0.01 Table 5 The migration-based heterogeneous effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation among male groups Variables Locals Migrants Locals Migrants Model1 Model2 Model3 Model4 Panel A: At least one activity Any care 0.007 (0.038) -0.099 (0.153) Moderate care 0.004 (0.040) -0.120 (0.152) Intensive care 0.013 (0.051) -0.051 (0.194) R 2 0.685 0.869 0.685 0.870 Panel B: Number of types of activities Any care 0.115 (0.071) -0.328 (0.281) Moderate care 0.113 (0.075) -0.323 (0.294) Intensive care 0.120 (0.096) -0.337 (0.337) R 2 0.729 0.890 0.729 0.890 Panel C: Frequency of participation Any care 0.023 (0.104) 0.092 (0.383) Moderate care -0.006 (0.110) 0.090 (0.389) Intensive care 0.083 (0.136) 0.099 (0.502) R 2 0.686 0.846 0.687 0.846 N 1,559 289 1,559 289 Note : All control variables in table 2, year-fixed effects, community-fixed effects, interaction between baseline social activities participation and time trend, and interaction between community dummy variables and time trend are included in each regression model. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6140336","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":454495360,"identity":"1327476c-a284-46e8-bdb8-c1d1ede6325e","order_by":0,"name":"Hongxi Ge","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCRDBA2NUSMjJk6jljIWxYQNRWmAMxraKRIYDBHTIz+4xfvFB5nAe/+zmYw+/zpNIYGxgfvjoBh4tjHPOmFnO4DlcLHHnWLqx7DaJPHYGNmPjHDxamCVyzIx5eA4nbgAypCW3SRQzNvCwSePTwgbS8gesJf+btOQcicSGAwS08EjkGD9mgNjCJvmxgQgtEhJpZYw9POmJM26kmUkzHJMwNmwm4Bf5GcmbP/zssU7sn5H8TPJHTZ2cPHvzw8f4tIC9w9gDYTHzgEn8ysFKPjD8gLAYfxBWPQpGwSgYBSMQAADPOkf5l/F1BAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Beijing Normal University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hongxi","middleName":"","lastName":"Ge","suffix":""},{"id":454495361,"identity":"d1e87950-a435-49a2-8cd5-9481d5587329","order_by":1,"name":"Ting Zhang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Beijing Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ting","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhang","suffix":""},{"id":454495365,"identity":"5378b1e7-b435-46e7-8652-d87136755de9","order_by":2,"name":"Guan Ren","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Beijing Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Guan","middleName":"","lastName":"Ren","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-02 15:53:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6140336/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6140336/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108656199,"identity":"b541fbd2-f354-4aa5-b1a3-1edb57094fd7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-07 03:39:40","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":785346,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6140336/v1/97295211-4696-442a-9354-5e51ae0c596b.pdf"},{"id":82607140,"identity":"72fd979e-1afc-4490-b0a7-7ad7e036c39f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 10:12:32","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":52349,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarytables.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6140336/v1/711efcef87500496994c87ef.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Grandchild caregiving and social activity participation among urban grandparents in China: are migrants disadvantaged compared to locals?","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGlobally, entering grandparenthood and providing grandparental care are common experiences in late midlife and early later life (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In China, grandparenting is a widespread social phenomenon deeply rooted in traditional familial culture expectation, which emphasize the importance of familial bonds and collective interests (Luo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). It also serves as a crucial family adaptation strategy to support dual-earner family in the context of the profound economic reforms and enormous demographic shifts in China (Chan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Nearly 70% of Chinese adults aged 45 or older are grandparents (Ta et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zhao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and more than 50% of grandparents provide care for their grandchildren (Ko \u0026amp; Hank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The number of grandparents will continue to rise as the population aged 60 and above reached 297\u0026nbsp;million (21%) in 2023 (National Bureau of Statistics of China., 2024) and is projected to reach 504\u0026nbsp;million (40%) by 2050 (United Nations, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile grandchild caregiving may limit grandparents\u0026rsquo; opportunities for self-care and leisure activities (Arpino \u0026amp; Bordone, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Jendrek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e), it can simultaneously enhance their social participation by promoting purposeful involvement in communities setting directly linked with caregiving roles. The World Health Organization (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes social participation as a critical element in addressing challenges associated with aging, and extensive research has confirmed its benefits for older adults\u0026rsquo; health, individual well-being, and societal cohesion (Baker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Keyes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Matz-Costa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Putnam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Despite social activity participation is characterized by interactions with others, there remains no universally accepted definition of social participation (Levasseur et al., 2010). In this study, we conceptualize social activity participation as involvement in activities outside the family that facilitate interpersonal interaction within societal or community settings. However, older adults in China have a relatively low rate of social participation compared to their Western counterparts (Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). According to the China Health and Retirement Report (Zhao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), nearly half of urban older adults participate in at least one type of recreational activity, while only about 13% engage in at least one type of service-oriented activity. Therefore, how to enhance urban older adults\u0026rsquo; social participation and whether different types of social activities engagement exhibit competitive and cumulative relationships is attracting growing attention from policymakers and scholars. A comprehensive investigation into this relationship offers valuable insights for developing effective social policies to promote active and successful aging in urban China.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs population aging accelerates in China, the number of elderly migrants is steadily increasing (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). According to the Seventh National Population Census, the number of internal migrant older adults in China reached 34.57\u0026nbsp;million in 2020, accounting for 10.7% of the total domestic migrant population (National Bureau of Statistics of China, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In the context modernization and urbanization of contemporary China, many rural grandparents have followed their adult children and migrated into urban areas, where their adult children work and reside, to provide caregiving support for their grandchild (Tang \u0026amp; Xie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Wang \u0026amp; Lai, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, they often encounter challenges related to social integration in unfamiliar urban environments (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Wang \u0026amp; Lai, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), which are exacerbated by China\u0026rsquo;s household registration system (Hukou) (Song, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Chu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Wang \u0026amp; Lai, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the distinction between these migrant grandparents and local urban grandparents presents a crucial perspective for examining the effect of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation. Moreover, gender differences in grandparental responsibilities and their outcomes are widely recognized. Women typically bear a greater share of family responsibilities (Yasuda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Zuo \u0026amp; Bian, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e), which shapes gender-specific roles in grandparenting (Chen \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, it is essential to examine whether the relationship between grandchild caregiving and social activity participation differs between migrant and local grandfathers, as well as between migrant and local grandmothers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough numerous studies have examined the relationship between grandchild caregiving and social activity participation in Western high-income countries (e.g., Arpino \u0026amp; Bordone, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Ates et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Bulanda \u0026amp; Jendrek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), evidence from urban China remain both underexplored and inconclusive. Studies in China often regard engagement in social activities as a mediating factor in the relationship between grandparental caregiving and health and well-being (e.g., Han \u0026amp; Ge, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). While some studies have directly investigated the impact of grandchild caregiving on Chinese grandparents\u0026rsquo; involvement in social activities, most have analyzed samples that encompass both urban and rural grandparents (e.g., Li \u0026amp; Gao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, urban-rural differences in grandparental responsibilities and social activity participation patterns are widely recognized (Chen \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), yet few studies focus exclusively on urban grandparents. Moreover, little research has explored how grandparenting influences social participation among local and rural-to-urban migrant grandparents. Methodologically, several studies have relied on cross-sectional analysis, limiting their ability to address endogeneity issues arising from omitted time-invariant variables, which may overestimate the effects of grandchild caregiving on grandparents\u0026rsquo; outcomes (Ates et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Danielsbacka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Although a study have employed longitudinal data (e.g., Li \u0026amp; Gao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), few have utilized fixed effect models to control unobservable time-invariant individual characteristics that simultaneously influence both grandparenting and social involvement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to examine the association between grandchild caregiving and grandparents\u0026rsquo; social activity participation in the urban China. To address gaps in the existing literature, we first assess this relationship among grandparents residing in urban areas, utilizing four waves (2011\u0026mdash;2018) of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), a nationally representative survey. Second, we explore whether this relationship varies between rural-to-urban migrant and local urban grandparents and further examine whether the migration-based heterogeneity differs by genders. Third, we employ fixed effects models to control all time-invariant individual heterogeneity and address time-variant unobservable individual heterogeneity by incorporating baseline social activity participation trend through interactions between baseline social participation status and time trend in our analytical models.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheoretical perspectives\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecent empirical studies have examined the effect of grandparenting on social activity participation, mostly in Western high-income countries, have yielded mixed results (Arpino \u0026amp; Bordone, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Ates et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Bulanda \u0026amp; Jendrek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Despite cultural differences between China and Western countries, Zhang (2020) found that the likelihood of being a working grandparent and co-residing with adult children in urban China closely resembles patterns observed in Western countries. Therefore, we first review previous findings from Western contexts before discussing urban China.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn general, grandparenting has both positive and negative association with social activity participation among grandparents. Regarding its facilitative effects, low-intensity or supplementary grandparental caregiving has been linked to greater engagement in leisure activities, helping grandparents integrate into broader social networks (Ates et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Bulanda \u0026amp; Jendrek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). These studies are consistent with role enhancement theory, which refers to holding multiple social roles can yield psychological benefits, ultimately expanding opportunities for societal involvement (Liu \u0026amp; Lou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Sieber, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, role strain theory suggests that the demands of multiple roles may lead to conflicts and increased stress, thereby limiting participation in social activities (Goode, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1960\u003c/span\u003e). Some studies have reported that caring for grandchildren is likely to reduce social involvement due to competing time and effort demands of both activities (Arpino \u0026amp; Bordone, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). These divergent findings can largely be attributed to the intensity of caregiving (Ates et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Bulanda \u0026amp; Jendrek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, moderate caregiving can enhance social participation through role enhancement effect, whereas higher caregiving intensity amplifies the negative effects of role strain, ultimately limiting opportunities for social participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn urban China, grandparents engaged in grandchild caregiving are considered to fulfill an expected duty, which follows traditional familial values of intergenerational reciprocity and familial harmony (Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). According to role enhancement theory, this involvement provides them with a sense of self-confidence, satisfaction, and social recognition, which may, in turn, increase their motivation for social activity participation (Moen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Tang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, grandchildren caregiving could facilitate the expansion of grandparents’ social networks through interactions with other grandparents engaged in similar caregiving responsibilities (Ko \u0026amp; Hank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Strauss, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Empirical studies in China have confirmed a positive association between grandchild caregiving and social participation. For example, Liu and Lou (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) utilized the 2011 CHARLS data and latent class analysis (LCA) to identify a positive relationship between family caregiving and formal volunteering, while Jia (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) reached similar conclusions using the 2018 CHARLS data. In contrast, according to role strain theory, urban grandparents who provide intensive grandchild caregiving may experience physical and emotional burden (Minkler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), limiting their time and resources for social activity participation. This strain may weaken the positive association between caregiving and social activity participation derived from role enhancement. A limited studies have confirmed that the effect of grandparenting on social participation is not statistically significant in urban areas (e.g., Li \u0026amp; Gao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven that rural grandparents who migrate to urban areas often lack access to alternative childcare facilities and other community-based support services or programs compared to their urban counterparts (Chen \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), the relationship between grandchild caregiving and social activity participation may differ between these two groups. In China, many rural grandparents migrate to urban areas primarily to care for their grandchildren, often assuming high-intensity caregiving responsibilities, whereas the local urban grandparents are more likely to provide non-intensive or supplementary caregiving service (Wang \u0026amp; Lai, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, rural-to-urban migration is frequently accompanied by the dissolution of preexisting friendships and the loss of connections with non-coresident family members (Tang \u0026amp; Xie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, rural-to-urban migrant grandparents in China often encounter adaptation challenges in urban environments due to institutional discrimination under the Hukou system, low socioeconomic status, acculturation difficulties, and struggles with self-identity (Wang \u0026amp; Lai, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). All in all, compared with local urban grandparents, these challenges may diminish the role enhancement benefits associated with grandparenting for migrant grandparents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGendered caregiving differences provides a more nuanced understanding of the migration-based heterogeneous association between grandparenting and social activity participation. Within the patriarchal norms of Chinese society (Yasuda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), grandmothers typically shoulder a greater share of grandparenting responsibilities than grandfathers (Chen \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, grandfathers may experience greater role strain or even social stigma if they are heavily involved in grandchild caregiving, as such involvement deviates from traditional gender norms (Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). According to the role enhancement theory, grandmothers who assume primary caregiving responsibilities may derive greater social participation benefits than grandfathers. However, migrant grandmothers are more likely than local counterparts to face greater caregiving responsibility and even burdens, along with the dual challenge of losing their original social networks and adapting to unfamiliar urban environments, which may reduce role enhancement effects associated with grandparenting. Consequently, the positive influence of grandparenting on social activity participation may be significantly weaker among migrant grandmothers than among local urban grandmothers. In contrast, since grandfathers are more inclined to engage in low intensive caregiving activities due to traditional gender roles and more likely to assume companionship and play-related grandparenting responsibility (Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), this relationship is unlikely to vary significantly between migrant and local grandfathers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGuided by relevant theoretical frameworks, we propose four hypotheses. First, we expect that grandchild caregiving will positively influence urban grandparents’ social activity participation (H1). Second, we hypothesize that this positive effect varies by caregiving intensity, with moderate grandchild caregiving promoting social activity participation, whereas intensive caregiving weakens this association (H2). Third, we anticipate that the positive impact of grandparenting on social activity participation is more pronounced for local grandparents than for migrant grandparents (H3). Finally, we expect this positive effect to be stronger among local grandmothers than among migrant grandmothers, whereas no significant differences are expected between migrant and local grandfathers (H4).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003ch2\u003eData and Sample\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe utilized four waves of data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), a nationally representative longitudinal sample of Chinese adults older than 45 years and their spouses, spanning from 2011 to 2018. CHARLS collects comprehensive information on respondents\u0026rsquo; demographics, socioeconomic status, health conditions, and relevant information about their family members (Zhao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), which can fully meet the needs of this study. With a multistage cluster sampling design, CHARLS covers 450 villages or communities in 150 counties from 28 provinces in China. The initial nationwide baseline survey was conducted in 2011 and included 10,257 households and 17,708 individuals. The subsequent follow-up surveys in 2013, 2015, and 2018 maintained high sample retention rates of 86%, 82%, and 77%, respectively (Zhao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing prior research (Choi \u0026amp; Zhang, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Xu, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), we selected CHARLS respondents who resided in urban area, were aged between 50 and 80 years, and had at least one grandchild younger than 16 years across the four waves as the analytic sample in this study. The analytic sample included respondents aged 50 to 60, reflecting two key considerations. First, individuals in urban China typically become grandparents earlier than their Western counterparts, with a considerable proportion entering grandparenthood before their early 50s (Zhang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Second, this age range aligns with the retirement age policies in China: factory workers can retire at 50 for women, while the mandatory retirement age is 60 for men and 55 for female civil servants. Respondents over 80 years old were exclude, as few among the oldest-old engage in grandparenting due to age-related health declines (Hughes et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). We excluded observations with missing values and attrition across all four waves. Furthermore, among grandparents residing in urban areas, we focus on rural Hukou grandparents who followed their adult children and migrated to urban areas, excluding those who migrated without living with their adult children and those whose who experienced rural-to-urban Hukou conversion across four waves. Because the fixed-effects model based on unbalanced panel data would be used as the empirical strategy in this study, we retained those respondents who had participated survey in at least two of the four waves. The final analytic sample comprised 1,565 respondents and 4,106 person-year observations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasurements\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eDependent Variables\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWe constructed three variables to measure grandparents\u0026rsquo; social activity participation. Respondents in the CHARLS were asked whether they had engaged in any of the following activities in the past month: (1) interactions with friends, (2) recreational activities, (3) physical exercise, (4) community organization participation, (5) volunteer or charity work, and (6) educational or training courses, following a previous study (Arpino \u0026amp; Bordone, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). For each activity, the respondents who answered \u0026ldquo;yes\u0026rdquo; were further asked to report the frequency of engagement, with responses ranging from 1 (almost daily) to 3 (not regularly). We first constructed a dichotomous variable as the outcome measure, assigning a value of 1 if the respondent had participated in at least one of the listed social activities and 0 if they had not participated in any type of social activity. Next, we created a variable capturing the total number of different types of social activities in which the respondent had participated. Additionally, we constructed a variable to measure the frequency of social activity participation. Consistent with previous studies (Santini et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), participation frequency was defined as the highest frequency of any activity in which the respondents had participated. We reverse-coded the frequency of social activity participation, with a higher value indicating a greater frequency of involvement in social activities.\u003csup\u003e[1]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eIndependent Variables\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGrandparenting status was determined based on respondents\u0026rsquo; self-reported provision of care to grandchildren under 16 years in the last year. Respondents who answered \u0026ldquo;yes\u0026rdquo; were further asked about the total number of weeks and the average number of hours per week they had spent on grandchild caregiving in the past year. Using this information, we identified grandparent caregivers based on their reported caregiving time. First, we constructed a dichotomous variable, assigning a value of 1 for caregiver status and 0 for otherwise. Next, we calculated total caregiving time by multiplying the reported number of weeks by the average number of hours of care provided per week. Based on this total caregiving time, we classified caregiving intensity into three categories, following prior studies (Kim et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Tang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e): high-intensity caregiving, defined as providing 40 or more hours of care per week; moderate-intensity caregiving, defined as providing less than 40 hours per week; and non-caregiving, which served as the reference group.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eControl Variables\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo mitigate self-selection biases associated with observable factors, we controlled for a range of individual- and household-level covariates that may confound the association between social activity participation and grandchild caregiving (Arpino \u0026amp; Bordone, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Bulanda \u0026amp; Jendrek, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, the individual characteristics included age, gender (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;male, 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;female), marital status (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;married or with a partner, 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;otherwise), educational attainment (illiteracy (reference), primary school, middle school, high school or above), employment status (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;currently working, 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;otherwise)\u003csup\u003e[2]\u003c/sup\u003e, pension status (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;participated in or received a pension, 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;otherwise), migrant status (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;migrated to an urban area, 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;otherwise), instrumental activities of daily living (IADL, range 0\u0026ndash;5)\u003csup\u003e[3]\u003c/sup\u003e, self-rated health (from 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;poor to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;excellent), and depression scores based on the CES-D scale (range 0\u0026ndash;30, with higher scores suggesting more severe depression symptoms). Household characteristics accounted for household size, the number of adult children, annual household income in CNY, and living arrangements. The latter was categorized into four groups: (1) living alone or with a spouse (reference group), (2) living with adult children but not grandchildren, (3) living with both adult children and grandchildren, and (4) living with grandchildren but not with adult children. Among these control variables, gender and migrant status were treated as time-invariant variables, while the remaining variables were time-varying.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFollowing to previous study, rural-to-urban migration is defined as older adults from rural areas relocating to urban areas to live with their adult children. In this study, migrant status was defined as a dichotomous variable by comparing Hukou type and current place of residence. Specifically, individuals residing in urban areas with their adult children while retaining their rural Hukou status were classified as migrants. In contrast, individuals who both resided in urban areas and held urban Hukou status were classified as local urban people. The variable was coded as 0 for local urban residents (reference group) and 1 for rural-to-urban migrant individuals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAnalytical Strategy\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAssessing the relationship between grandparenting and social activity participation presents methodological challenges due to potential self-selection bias. To address this issue, we employed a fixed effects regression model based on the longitudinal structure of the CHARLS. This method account for unobservable, time-invariant individual heterogeneity that may influence both the likelihood of assuming grandparenting roles and engaging in social activities, thereby enhancing the validity of our findings. Additionally, we controlled for time-variant factors that could potentially confound this relationship. To further mitigate the selection bias arising from time-varying and unobservable individual heterogeneity, we followed the method proposed by Schaller and Stevens (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, we incorporated interaction terms between the baseline social activity participation variable and time trends, as well as between community dummies and time trends, in our fixed effects models. This approach accounts for preexisting individual differences in social activity participation and captures community-specific unobservable factors that may change over time. The final fixed effects model is represented in Eq. (1):\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{\\text{S}\\text{P}}_{\\text{i}\\text{j}\\text{t}}={{\\beta\\:}}_{0}+{{\\beta\\:}}_{1}\\text{G}{\\text{C}}_{\\text{i}\\text{j}\\text{t}}+{{\\beta\\:}}_{2}{\\text{X}}_{\\text{i}\\text{j}\\text{t}}+{{\\beta\\:}}_{3}\\text{S}{\\text{P}}_{\\text{i}\\text{j},2011}\\times\\:{\\text{T}}_{\\text{t}}+{\\text{C}}_{\\text{j}\\text{i}}\\times\\:{\\text{T}}_{\\text{t}}+{{\\mu\\:}}_{\\text{i}}+{{\\lambda\\:}}_{\\text{t}}+{{\\epsilon\\:}}_{\\text{i}\\text{j}\\text{t}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewhere SP\u003csub\u003eijt\u003c/sub\u003e represents the social activity participation outcome of individual i in community j at time t, with t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1, 2, 3, or 4, corresponding to the four waves of CHARLS data. GC\u003csub\u003eijt\u003c/sub\u003e denotes the grandparenting status of individual i in community j at the time t. X\u003csub\u003eijt\u003c/sub\u003e represents a vector of time-varying control variables. SP\u003csub\u003eij,2011\u003c/sub\u003e captures the baseline social activity participation, and T\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e is the time trend.\u003csup\u003e[4]\u003c/sup\u003e Additionally, \u0026micro;\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e and \u0026lambda;\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e represents individual fixed effects and wave-year fixed effects, respectively, accounting for individual-specific and period-specific unobservable heterogeneity. C\u003csub\u003eji\u003c/sub\u003e denotes community dummy variables to control for community-specific unobserved factors, and \u0026epsilon;\u003csub\u003eijt\u003c/sub\u003e is the time-varying individual error term. The coefficient \u0026beta;\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e captures the relationship between grandparenting and social activity participation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe employed a linear fixed effects model to explore the relationship between grandparenting status and three distinct aspects of social activity participation. First, we assessed whether grandparents providing care for their grandchildren were more likely to engage in at least one activity compared to their non-caregiving counterparts. Next, we investigated the effects of grandparenting on two specific dimensions of social activity participation: the number of activity types and the frequency of participation. Second, we analyzed the impact of caregiving intensity on each of these three measures to determine whether moderate and intensive caregiving yielded differential effects. Third, recognizing the potential heterogeneity in the relationship between grandparenting and social activity participation based on migration status, we conducted separate analyses for rural-to-urban migrant and local urban grandparents. Finally, to explore whether the migration-based heterogeneous effects of grandparenting on social activity participation vary by gender, we examined these effects separately among migrant and local urban grandfathers and grandmothers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo enhance the reliability of our analysis, we used the multiple imputation method to address missing control variables, which enabled us to keep as many observations as possible in our empirical analyses. This sensitive test yielded similar results (see Supplementary Table S2-S5), and we present the final results based on listwise deletion. Specifically, we employed gender, age and marital status as auxiliary variables and applied multiple imputation with chained equations to create 5 imputed datasets for addressing missing values of the control variables.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDescriptive Statistics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1 provides descriptive statistics for the total sample of urban grandparents and subsamples categorized by their provision of grandchild care. It also reports the significance level of the t-test for continuous variables and the χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e test for categorical variables to assess the differences between caregivers and non-caregivers. The results indicate that more than half (61.3%) of the urban grandparents participated in at least one social activity.\u0026nbsp;On average, they engaged in 0.98 types of activities, with a mean participation frequency of 1.43. Notably, caregivers were more likely than non-caregivers to participate in at least one activity (63.2% vs. 59.2%, p \u0026lt; 0.01). However, there were no significant difference between caregivers and non-caregivers in terms of the number of activities types engaged in (1.00 vs 0.95, p=0.171) or the frequency of social activity participation (1.45 vs 1.42, p=0.424). Additionally,\u0026nbsp;more than\u0026nbsp;half (53.7%) of urban grandparents\u0026nbsp;reported\u0026nbsp;providing grandchild care, with the majority categorized as moderate caregivers (30.8%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the full sample, most respondents were female (55 %), married (86 %) and had an average age of approximately 63 years. The prevalence of primary school education or below was less than half, while 28.7% had completed junior high school and 27 % had attained senior high school education or above, indicating relatively high educational attainment among urban Chinese grandparents. Approximately 31% of respondents were employed, and nearly 86% were enrolled in pension programs. Additionally, 18.5% of the rural grandparents had migrated to urban areas to live with their adult children. The average scores for IADL and self-rated health were 0.28 and 3.1, respectively, while the average depression score was 6.76. In terms of household characteristics, the average household was 3.4 members, with an average of 2.35 adult children, and the mean total household income was 67,980 CNY. Nearly 42% of\u0026nbsp;the\u0026nbsp;respondents lived either alone or with their spouse, while 26.5 % resided with adult children but not grandchildren. In contrast, 26.1 % lived with both adult children and grandchildren, and 5.7 % lived with grandchildren but not with adult children.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompared with non-caregivers, caregivers were predominantly female, married, and younger. They were also more likely to be rural-to-urban migrants living with their adult children. Furthermore, caregivers exhibited better health conditions, reporting higher self-rated health scores and lower IADL and depression scores. Additionally, they had larger household sizes and higher household incomes but fewer adult children. Finally, compared with non-caregivers, caregivers were more likely co-reside with their grandchildren, regardless of whether they lived with adult children. Table S1 further presents descriptive statistics by first dividing the analytical sample into migrant and local grandparents and then further categorizing each group into caregivers and non-caregivers (Supplementary Table 1). Among local grandparents, caregivers were more likely than non-caregivers to participation in at least one activity. However, among migrant grandparents, caregivers exhibited higher participation across all social participation indicators compared to non-caregivers. In terms of caregiving intensity, local grandparents were more likely to engage in moderate caregiving and less likely to undertake high-intensity caregiving than migrant grandparents. Regarding individual and household characteristics, the results demonstrate that the characteristic differences between caregiving and non-caregiving grandparents are inconsistent with those presented in Table 1. Specifically, among migrant grandparents, there were no significant differences between caregivers and non-caregivers in terms of gender, pension enrollment, self-rated health, or household income.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;insert Table 1 about here\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Effects of Grandchild Caregiving on\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSocial Activity Participation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 presents the impact of grandchild caregiving on different outcomes of social activity participation using the linear fixed effects regression specified in Equation (1). The estimates in Model 3 show that caring for grandchildren significantly increased the number of types of activities by 0.082 (p \u0026lt; 0.05), thereby providing empirical support for H1. To explore the potential nonlinear effect of grandparenting on participation in social activities, we investigated the effects of moderate and intensive grandchild caregiving, with no caregiving as the reference group in Model 4. The results indicate that, compared with\u0026nbsp;intensive caregiving (coef. = 0.071, p = 0.156),\u0026nbsp;moderate caregiving had a more pronounced effect on increasing the number of activity types (coef. = 0.088, p \u0026lt; 0.05). This finding suggests that the positive effect of grandparenting on social activity participation was predominantly driven by moderate caregiving, which provides partial support for H2. In terms of other social activity participation outcomes—participation in at least one activity and the frequency of participation, as shown in Models 1 to 2 and 5 to 6, no significant effects of grandchild caregiving status were found on either outcome.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;insert Table 2 about here\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Migration-based Heterogeneous Effects of Grandchild Caregiving on Social activity participation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 presents the estimated effects of grandparenting on social activity participation among subsamples divided by migrant status. The results indicate a migration-based heterogeneity in the relationship between grandparenting and social activity participation. Panel B of Table 3 shows that grandparenting positively influenced\u0026nbsp;the number of activity types only for the local urban subsample, whereas these effects were not statistically significant for the migrant subsample. Specifically, Model 1 in Panel B indicates that local grandparents engaged in grandchild caregiving were more likely to increase the number of activity types. In Model 3, this association remained significant when caregiving intensity was considered, with moderate caregiving yielding statistically significant positive effects on the number of activity types. However, for migrant grandparents, grandchild caregiving did not have a significant effect on the number of activity types (Panel B, Models 2 and 4). Similarly, Panel A and C reveal that grandparenting status had no significant effect on participation in at least one activity or the frequency of social participation in either the local urban or the migrant groups. These findings provide empirical support for H3, suggesting that the positive effect of grandparenting on social activity participation is more pronounced among local grandparents compared to their migrant counterparts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;insert Table 3 about here\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Migration-based Heterogeneous Effects of Grandchild Caregiving on Social activity participation by Gender\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo further investigate whether the effects of grandparenting on social activity participation differ between migrant and local urban grandfathers, as well as between migrant and local urban grandmothers, we estimate the moderating role of migrant status within gender-specific groups. Specifically,\u0026nbsp;we divided\u0026nbsp;the analytical sample into migrant and local urban grandparents and further categorized them by gender into male and female subgroups within each migration status group. The results are presented in Table 4 and 5.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;insert Table 4 about here\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4 presents the migration-based heterogeneous effect of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation among female groups across different social participation outcomes. Model 2 in Panel B of Table 4 reveals that the estimated coefficient for the effect of grandchild caregiving on the number of types of activities\u0026nbsp;was 0.111 (p \u0026lt; 0.10) for local mothers, whereas\u0026nbsp;the effect was not statistically significant for the migrant grandmothers (Model 2 in Panel B). This indicates that grandchild caregiving is more likely to improve social activity participation among local urban grandmothers. A similar pattern is observed in\u0026nbsp;Model 3 and 4\u0026nbsp;in Panel B, where caregiving intensity is considered.\u0026nbsp;Specifically, among local urban grandmothers, moderate caregiving positively influenced the\u0026nbsp;number of types of activities (coef. = 0.125, p \u0026lt; 0.10), while no statistically significant effects were found for migrant grandmothers. A similar result is observed in\u0026nbsp;Model 1 to 4\u0026nbsp;in Panel C, where\u0026nbsp;the frequency of participation is used as the outcome variable. Even in Panel A, we found that local urban grandmothers engaged in moderate caregiving had a higher probability of participating in at least one activity compared to migrant grandparents (Panel A, Models 3 and 4). These findings support H4, suggesting that the positive effects of grandparenting on social participation are more pronounced among local grandmothers than among migrant grandmothers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;insert Table 5 about here\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 5 presents the migration-based heterogeneous effect of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation among male groups across different social participation outcomes. The results in Panels A to C of Table 5 indicate that there were no significant differences in the effects of grandparenting on social activity participation between migrant and local urban grandfathers. These findings further support H4, reinforcing that migration-based heterogeneity in the relationship between grandparenting and social participation is evident only among grandmothers, whereas no significant differences exist between migrant and local grandfathers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eUsing nationally representative data from the CHARLS for 2011 to 2018 and applying a fixed effects model, this study examines the association between grandchild caregiving and grandparents\u0026rsquo; participation in social activities in urban China. Additionally, we explore whether this association varies between local urban residents and migrant grandparents, as well as across genders within these groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur analysis indicates that grandchild caregiving positively influenced the diversity of social activity participation among urban grandparents, which align more closely with recent studies from high-income countries ( Ates et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Bulanda \u0026amp; Jendrek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). From the perspective of role enhancement theory, grandparenting may foster a stronger sense of self-realization and a renewed sense of purpose in later life, motivating grandparents to adopt a more active and engaged lifestyle (Chen \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Di Gessa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the benefits of social activity participation outside the family may stem from emotional fulfillment and material rewards obtained through family-oriented caregiving activities (Cong \u0026amp; Silverstein, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Tang \u0026amp; Xie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Engaging in caregiving roles may also provide urban grandparents with greater opportunities to participate in activities beyond the household and encourage them to integrate into broader social networks (Ates et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Quirke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, role strain theory suggests that grandchild caregiving may introduce stress and limit urban grandparents\u0026rsquo; ability to engage in social activities. Despite this, our findings indicate that the positive effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation outweigh the constraints imposed by role strain, highlighting the predominance of role enhancement benefits for urban grandparents in China.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings demonstrate that the positive effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation were more pronounced among grandparents who provided moderate care, aligning with findings from previous studies in western countries (Ates et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Bulanda \u0026amp; Jendrek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). When providing a moderate level of grandchild care, grandparents may better balance family responsibilities with participation in extrafamilial social activities, allowing them to maximize the benefits of role enhancement while mitigating the adverse effects of role strain. Compared to moderate grandchild caregiving, intensive grandchild caregiving could be more time- and energy-consuming, making urban grandparents more susceptible to role conflicts and stress. In such cases, the benefits of role enhancement may be counterbalanced by role strain, leading to nonsignificant positive effects of grandparenting on social activity participation. This nonlinear relationship between caregiving intensity and social activity participation is consistent with Coall and Hertwig\u0026rsquo;s theoretical framework (Coall \u0026amp; Hertwig, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), which suggests that the benefits of grandparenting for Chinese urban grandparents\u0026rsquo; social participation are maximized only up to a certain threshold. Therefore, a moderate level of involvement in grandchild caregiving can contribute to active aging in urban China, a particularly crucial factor for urban grandparents with limited engagement in social activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Our research highlights the heterogeneous effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation between local and migrant grandparents. Specifically, grandchild caregiving had significant positive effects on the number of activity types among local grandparents, whereas these effects were not statistically significant among migrant grandparents. This disparity may be attributed to the loss of original social networks and the social integration challenges faced by migrant grandparents. Caregivers who migrate from rural to urban settings often experience weakened connections with friends and other non-coresident family members (Tang \u0026amp; Xie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Townsend et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, these migrant grandparents frequently encounter discrimination and exclusion in interactions with their local residents and face challenges in accessing supportive organizations and resources in their new residential locations (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Wang \u0026amp; Lai, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), which may diminish the role enhancement benefits of grandparenting for social activity participation. Institutional barriers stemming from the Hukou system further restrict migrant grandparents\u0026rsquo; access to basic social services (Song, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Wang \u0026amp; Lai, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), exacerbating their difficulties in participating in local social activities. Moreover, rural-to-urban migrant grandparents who relocate to provide care for their grandchildren often assume high-intensity caregiving responsibility, which may increase caregiving stress and further weaken the potential benefits of role enhancement. Consequently, the limited positive role enhancement benefits among migrant grandparents appear insufficient to significantly improve their engagement in social activities in their new social environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther analysis reveals that the migration-based heterogenous effects of grandparenting on social activity participation were observed only among grandmothers, whereas no statistically significant differences were found between migrant and local grandfathers. One possible explanation lies in the gender-specific differences in the caregiving roles and responsibilities. Chinese grandmothers typically devote substantial time and effort to family-oriented activities, shouldering a greater share of caregiving responsibilities than grandfathers (Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). According to role enhancement theory, this extensive involvement in caregiving may provide grandmothers with greater opportunities for social participation compared to grandfathers. However, migrant grandmothers face the dual challenge of losing their original social networks and adapting to unfamiliar living environments, whereas urban grandmothers, residing in familiar environment, are better positioned to leverage grandchild caregiving as an avenue for increased social participation. Another explanation may stem from the persistent gendered role expectations in contemporary China (Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Compared with their local urban counterparts, rural-to-urban grandmothers who care for their grandchildren are more likely to shoulder the primary burden of caregiving tasks, such as cooking, feeding, and clothing. In contrast, urban grandmothers are more likely to engage in caregiving-related activities outside the household, such as attending school events (Luo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zeng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These differences in caregiving responsibilities could significantly diminish the role enhancement effect of grandparenting among migrant grandmothers, ultimately restricting their opportunities for social participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, grandfathers may have acquired fewer caregiving-related skills and resources throughout their life course than grandmothers, and they may experience role strain or even social stigma when providing care for their grandchildren (Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, the role enhancement benefits of grandparenting for grandfathers may be counterbalanced by role strain, leading to a nonsignificant effect for both migrant and local grandfathers. Although grandfathers who migrate with adult children may face the loss of original social networks and the social integration challenges, their caregiving roles often revolve around accompanying and entertaining grandchildren (Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). These fewer demanding responsibilities may enable them to maintain a degree of social interaction in their new urban environment. The role enhancement benefits associated with these caregiving roles may partially mitigate the environmental constraints on their social participation. Consequently, changes in environmental factors, such as migration from rural to urban areas, are less likely to significantly alter the impact of grandchild caregiving on grandfathers\u0026rsquo; social participation. This stability may explain the absence of significant differences in caregiving outcomes between urban Hukou holders and rural migrant grandfathers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are several limitations in this study. First, the CHARLS data used in this article solely relies on respondents\u0026rsquo; self-reported social participation over the past month, which may not fully capture their actual participation levels and frequency. This limitation could result in estimates that deviate from the true impact of grandparenting on social participation. Second, the measure of caregiving intensity in this study is restricted to the total annual hours spent on grandparenting, as information on specific caregiving content is not available in the CHARLS dataset. As a result, we are unable to determine which caregiving activities are most time-consuming and may weaken the positive facilitative effect of grandchild caregiving on social participation. Future research incorporating such information could offer targeted policy recommendations to alleviate caregiving burdens and enhance the positive outcomes of grandparenting. Third, our methodology does not fully address self-selection bias arising from unobservable, time-variant individual heterogeneity, which may weaken the internal validity of our findings. Consequently, the causal effect of grandparenting on social participation should be interpreted with caution. Future research could employ more rigorous methods to better identify the causal relationship between grandparenting and social participation. Finally, although this study examines the heterogeneous effects of grandparental caregiving on social participation across different migrant groups and genders, the underlying causal mechanisms remain unexplored. Future research should integrate qualitative and quantitative approaches to gain deeper insights into these mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the limitations mentioned above, several important policy implications can be derived from the current study. First, given our findings that grandparenting enhances social activity participation but that intensive caregiving may weaken this positive effect, policies should focus on reducing caregiving burdens and stress to enable grandparents to engage more actively in social activities. This can be achieved by providing supportive resources such as grandparenting skill training and care subsidy schemes for grandparents, as well as expanding access to high-quality childcare services, including daycare centers and after-school programs (Zeng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Second, our findings highlight the need for policies tailored to heterogeneous subgroups of Chinese older adults. Specifically, rural-to-urban migrant grandparents\u0026mdash;particularly migrant grandmothers\u0026mdash;may not experience the same social participation benefits as their local urban counterparts. To address this disparity, local governments and communities should invest in high-quality childcare facilities and services that specifically support migrant grandparents, ensuring that their grandchildren receive the same standard of care as local children. Additionally, targeted programs\u0026mdash;such as organizing more community-based voluntary activities and improving public amenities within migrant neighborhoods\u0026mdash;should be designed to facilitate greater social engagement. These initiatives can encourage interactions between migrant grandparents and local residents, fostering a stronger sense of belonging and integration into the new community, thereby alleviating the environmental constraints that limit the role enhancement benefits of grandparenting.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur findings indicate a significant positive effect of grandchild caregiving on grandparents\u0026rsquo; social activity participation, primarily driven by moderate caregiving. Heterogeneity analyses reveal that this positive effect was more pronounced for local urban grandparents, with migrated-based heterogeneity evident only among grandmothers. This study contributes to the growing body of literature examining the effects of within-family caregiving on broader social engagement, offering valuable insights into productive aging and active aging in non-Western societies undergoing rapid urbanization and societal transformation. Overall, our findings advance the understanding of sociocultural differences in the social participation consequences of grandparenting within a global context.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study utilizes publicly available secondary data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS). Ethical approval for all waves of the CHARLS survey was granted by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Peking University (Approval Number: IRB00001052-11015). This study was conducted in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. No additional ethical approval was required for the use of these secondary data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study is based on publicly available secondary data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) and does not involve any human experimentation. In the data collection of the CHARLS survey, each respondent who agreed to participate in the survey was asked to sign two copies of the informed consent, and one copy was kept in the CHARLS office, which was also scanned and saved in PDF format\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eH.G., T.Z., and G.R. contributed equally to this work. All authors contributed to the study design, analysis, and manuscript preparation. H.G. and G.R. were primarily responsible for methodology and formal analysis. T.Z. and H.G. led the writing and visualization. H.G. supervised the study. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArpino, B., \u0026amp; Bordone, V. (2017). 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Mental health of older migrants migrating along with adult children in China: A systematic review. \u003cem\u003eAgeing and Society\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e42\u003c/em\u003e(4), 786\u0026ndash;811. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X20001166 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang, R., Chen, Z., Zhou, Y., Shen, L., Zhang, Z., \u0026amp; Wu, X. (2019). Melancholy or mahjong? Diversity, frequency, type, and rural-urban divide of social participation and depression in middle- and old-aged Chinese: A fixed-effects analysis. \u003cem\u003eSocial Science \u0026amp; Medicine\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e238\u003c/em\u003e, 112518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112518 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Health Organization. (2002). \u003cem\u003eActive ageing: A policy framework\u003c/em\u003e. https://extranet.who.int/agefriendlyworld/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/WHO-Active-Ageing-Framework.pdf \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXu, H. (2019). Physical and mental health of Chinese grandparents caring for grandchildren and great-grandparents. \u003cem\u003eSocial Science \u0026amp; Medicine\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e229\u003c/em\u003e, 106\u0026ndash;116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.05.047 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYan, Y., Fang, Y., Li, M. Y., \u0026amp; Zeng, Y. B. (2022). The impact of grandparenting on social participation of the elderly: An empirical study based on 2018 CHARLS data. \u003cem\u003eChinese Health Service Management\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e39\u003c/em\u003e(09), 699\u0026ndash;703. [in Chinese]\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYasuda, T., Iwai, N., Chin-chun, Y., \u0026amp; Guihua, X. (2011). Intergenerational coresidence in China, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan: Comparative analyses based on the East Asian social survey 2006. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Comparative Family Studies\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e42\u003c/em\u003e(5), 703\u0026ndash;722. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.42.5.703 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZeng, Y., Chen, Y.-C., \u0026amp; Lum, T. Y. S. (2021). Longitudinal impacts of grandparent caregiving on cognitive, mental, and physical health in China. \u003cem\u003eAging \u0026amp; Mental Health\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e25\u003c/em\u003e(11), Article 11. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2020.1856779 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, J., Emery, T., \u0026amp; Dykstra, P. (2020). Grandparenthood in China and Western Europe: An analysis of CHARLS and SHARE. \u003cem\u003eAdvances in Life Course Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e45\u003c/em\u003e, 100257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2018.11.003 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, J., Fokkema, T., \u0026amp; Arpino, B. (2021). Loneliness among Chinese older adults: the role of grandparenthood and grandparental childcare by gender. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Family Issues\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e43\u003c/em\u003e(11), 3078-3099. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X211041992 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, Y., \u0026amp; Liu, J. (2022). The impact of grandparenting on the physical and mental health of the elderly and its mechanisms: An empirical analysis based on the 2014 China Longitudinal Aging Social Survey data. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Agrotechnical Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e04\u003c/em\u003e, 117\u0026ndash;131. https://doi.org/10.13246/j.cnki.jae.2022.04.007 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao, Y., Chen, X., Wang, Y., Meng, Q., Bo, H., Chen, C., Chen, Y., Gong, J., Jia, Y., Wang, G., Wu, X., Yan, L., Yang, P., \u0026amp; Zhou, H. (2020). \u003cem\u003eThe China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) Fifth Wave (2020) User Guide\u003c/em\u003e. National School of Development, Peking University. https://charls.charlsdata.com/Public/ashelf/public/uploads/document/2018-charls-wave4/application/CHARLS_2018_Users_Guide.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao, Y., Hu, Y., Smith, J. P., Strauss, J., \u0026amp; Yang, G. (2014). Cohort Profile: The China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS). \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Epidemiology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e43\u003c/em\u003e(1), 61\u0026ndash;68. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dys203 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao, Y., Wang, Y., Chen, X., Meng, Q., Tang, H., Zhang, T., Hou, D., Liu, X., \u0026amp; Zhang, X. (2019). \u003cem\u003eThe China Health and Retirement Report\u003c/em\u003e. https://charls.pku.edu.cn/wenjian/zhongguojiankangyuyanglaobaogao.pdf \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZuo, J., \u0026amp; Bian, Y. (2001). Gendered resources, division of housework, and perceived fairness\u0026mdash;A case in urban China. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Marriage and Family\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e63\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1122\u0026ndash;1133. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.01122.x \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Footnotes","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e This operationalization is employed to ensure that individuals who are intensely involved in a specific activity are not underrated compared to those who participate occasionally in multiple activities.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e Respondents are considered employed if they are engaged in any of the following activities: self-employment in agriculture, employment in agriculture, nonagricultural employment, self-employment in a nonagricultural sector, or management of a nonagricultural family business.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e Any difficulties in completing household chores, preparing meals, shopping, making phone calls or taking medications.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e The variable T represents time trends, assigned value of 1 for the year 2011, 3 for 2013, 5 for 2015, and 8 for 2018.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1. Descriptive statistics of analytic sample\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFull sample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNon-caregiver\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaregiver\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep Value\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%/M (SD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%/M (SD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%/M (SD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDependent variables\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt least one activity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61.30%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.20%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63.20%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of types of activities\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98 (1.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95 (1.01)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00 (1.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.171\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency of participation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.43 (1.31)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.42 (1.33)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.45 (1.29)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.424\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eIndependent variables\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAny care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.70%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrandchild-care intensity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.30%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.80%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.40%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntensive care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.80%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.60%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eIndividual characteristics\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.00%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.40%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.20%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.00%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.60%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.90%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63.10 (7.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.75 (7.51)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61.65 (6.18)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIlliterate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.90%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.80%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.20%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.111\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.30%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.40%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.10%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.246\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJunior school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.70%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.70%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.50%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.214\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSenior middle school and above\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.00%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.10%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.10%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.168\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.20%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.90%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.50%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.700\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePension enrollment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.60%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.00%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.10%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.344\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRural-to-urban migration\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.50%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.90%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.70%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIADL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28 (0.81)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33 (0.89)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23 (0.72)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-rated health\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.10 (0.88)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.07 (0.90)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.13 (0.87)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCESD score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.76 (5.65)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.00 (5.91)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.55 (5.40)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eHousehold characteristics\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHousehold size\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.40 (1.68)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.94 (1.47)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.80 (1.74)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of adult children\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.35 (1.20)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.58 (1.27)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.16 (1.10)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHousehold Income (1,000 CNY)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.98 (100.01)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61.91 (107.22)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73.22 (93.04)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLiving arrangement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlone or with spouse\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.60%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.60%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.40%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWith adult children, not grandchildren\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.50%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.70%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.80%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWith adult children and grandchildren\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.10%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.30%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.30%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWith grandchildren, not adult children\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.70%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.30%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.50%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 246px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4,106\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,903\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2,203\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: M = mean; SD = standard deviation. \u003csup\u003ea\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eP value from the t-test for continuous variables and \u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e test for categorical variables between caregivers and non-caregivers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2. The effects of grandchild caregiving on\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003esocial activity participation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 223px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt least one activity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 223px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of types of activities\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 223px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency of participation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel 4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel 5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel 6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAny care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.020 (0.022)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.082\u003csup\u003e**\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.040)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.065 (0.060)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.026 (0.024)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.088\u003csup\u003e**\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.043)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.070 (0.064)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntensive care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.007 (0.028)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.071 (0.050)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.056 (0.074)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eIndividual characteristics\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.000 (0.012)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.001 (0.012)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.006 (0.020)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.006 (0.020)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.011 (0.031)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.011 (0.031)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.047 (0.056)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.047 (0.056)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.090 (0.105)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.090 (0.105)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.350\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e (0.150)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.350\u003csup\u003e**\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.150)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducation (ref: Illiterate)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.041 (0.082)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.044 (0.082)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.183 (0.162)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.187 (0.163)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.232 (0.200)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.234 (0.200)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMiddle school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.039 (0.094)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.042 (0.094)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.144 (0.186)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.146 (0.186)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.161 (0.227)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.163 (0.227)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school and above\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.069 (0.107)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.067 (0.107)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001 (0.234)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.003 (0.235)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.121 (0.260)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.120 (0.260)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWorked\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001 (0.025)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.001 (0.025)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.059 (0.051)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.057 (0.051)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.001 (0.067)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.003 (0.068)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePension enrollment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.057\u003csup\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.031)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.057\u003csup\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.031)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.083 (0.054)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.083 (0.054)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.149\u003csup\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.080)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.149\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e (0.080)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIADL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.044\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.013)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.044\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.013)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.048\u003csup\u003e**\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.022)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.048\u003csup\u003e**\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.022)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.072\u003csup\u003e**\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.035)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.072\u003csup\u003e**\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.035)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-rated health\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.001 (0.013)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.001 (0.013)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.019 (0.023)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.020 (0.023)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000 (0.034)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000 (0.034)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCESD score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.003 (0.002)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.003 (0.002)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.004 (0.004)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.004 (0.004)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.016\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e (0.006)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.016\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e (0.006)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 931px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eHousehold characteristics\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHousehold size\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.010 (0.012)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.010 (0.012)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002 (0.021)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002 (0.021)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.023 (0.031)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.023 (0.031)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of adult children\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.031 (0.019)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.030 (0.019)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.028 (0.032)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.027 (0.032)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.061 (0.055)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.061 (0.055)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLog household Income\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.018\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.005)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.018\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.005)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.009)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.009)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.014)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.014)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 931px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLiving arrangement (ref: Alone or with spouse)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWith adult children, not grandchildren\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.051 (0.048)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.051 (0.048)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.101 (0.089)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.100 (0.089)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.081 (0.131)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.080 (0.131)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWith adult children and grandchildren\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.014 (0.048)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.013 (0.048)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.093 (0.085)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.093 (0.085)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.043 (0.130)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.043 (0.130)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWith grandchildren, not adult children\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.009 (0.051)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.009 (0.051)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.071 (0.088)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.071 (0.088)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.012 (0.138)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.012 (0.138)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConstant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.453 (0.735)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.455 (0.736)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.048 (1.208)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.050 (1.208)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.796 (1.887)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.798 (1.888)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBaseline SAP \u0026times; Time trend\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommunity dummy variables \u0026times; Time trend\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYear FE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndividual FE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommunity FE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.672\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.672\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.720\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.720\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.681\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.681\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 263px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4,106\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4,106\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4,106\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4,106\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4,106\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4,106\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: We set no care as the reference group of moderate care and intensive care and apply it in all tables below.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003ep \u0026lt; 0.1; \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003ep \u0026lt; 0.05;\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;***\u003c/sup\u003ep\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3. The migration-based heterogeneous effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMigrants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMigrants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 432px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePanel A\u003c/em\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eAt least one activity\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAny care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.026 (0.024)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.019 (0.074)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.029 (0.026)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.015 (0.079)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntensive care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.018 (0.031)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.026 (0.085)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.663\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.754\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.663\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.754\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 432px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePanel B\u003c/em\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eNumber of types of activities\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAny care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.104\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e (0.045)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.045 (0.106)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.106\u003csup\u003e**\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.048)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.034 (0.115)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntensive care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.100\u003csup\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.058)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.065 (0.119)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.712\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.809\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.712\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.809\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 432px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePanel C\u003c/em\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eFrequency of participation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAny care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.078 (0.066)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.028 (0.161)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.067 (0.070)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.069 (0.180)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntensive care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.102 (0.083)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.044 (0.178)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.672\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.772\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.672\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.772\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3,346\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e760\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3,346\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e760\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: All control variables in table 2, year-fixed effects, community-fixed effects, interaction between baseline social activities participation and time trend, and interaction between community dummy variables and time trend are included in each regression model.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003ep \u0026lt; 0.1;\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;**\u003c/sup\u003ep \u0026lt; 0.05;\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;***\u003c/sup\u003ep\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4 The migration-based heterogeneous effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation among female groups\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMigrants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMigrants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 554px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePanel A: At least one activity\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAny care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.055 (0.035)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.007 (0.119)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.066\u003csup\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.037)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.003 (0.126)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntensive care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.032 (0.043)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.026 (0.135)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.684\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.794\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.685\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.794\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 554px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePanel B: Number of types of activities\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAny care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.111\u003csup\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.066)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034 (0.157)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.125\u003csup\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.070)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.011 (0.167)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntensive care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.084 (0.083)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.080 (0.184)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.728\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.839\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.728\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.839\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 554px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePanel C: Frequency of participation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAny care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.169\u003csup\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.097)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.043 (0.262)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.178\u003csup\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(0.103)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.060 (0.288)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntensive care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.152 (0.118)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.009 (0.295)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.696\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.818\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.696\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.818\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,787\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e471\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,787\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e471\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: All control variables in table 2, year-fixed effects, community-fixed effects, interaction between baseline social activities participation and time trend, and interaction between community dummy variables and time trend are included in each regression model.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003ep \u0026lt; 0.1; \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003ep \u0026lt; 0.05; \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003ep\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5 The migration-based heterogeneous effects of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation among male groups\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"center\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMigrants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMigrants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 554px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePanel A: At least one activity\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAny care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.007 (0.038)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.099 (0.153)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.004 (0.040)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.120 (0.152)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntensive care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.013 (0.051)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.051 (0.194)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.685\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.869\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.685\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.870\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 554px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePanel B: Number of types of activities\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAny care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.115 (0.071)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.328 (0.281)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.113 (0.075)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.323 (0.294)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntensive care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.120 (0.096)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.337 (0.337)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.729\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.890\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.729\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.890\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 554px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePanel C: Frequency of participation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAny care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.023 (0.104)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.092 (0.383)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.006 (0.110)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.090 (0.389)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntensive care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.083 (0.136)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.099 (0.502)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.686\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.846\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.687\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.846\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,559\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e289\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,559\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e289\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: All control variables in table 2, year-fixed effects, community-fixed effects, interaction between baseline social activities participation and time trend, and interaction between community dummy variables and time trend are included in each regression model.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Grandparenting, Social activity participation, Rural-to-urban migration, Gender, Urban China","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6140336/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6140336/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground and objectives: \u003c/strong\u003eGrandchild caregiving is a common phenomenon among urban Chinese grandparents. Amid profound economic reforms and enormous demographic shifts in China, many rural grandparents have followed their adult children and migrated into urban areas to provide care for their grandchildren. However, little research has explored how grandparenting influences social participation among local and rural-to-urban migrant grandparents. This study examined the association between grandchild caregiving and Chinese grandparents’ participation in social activities in urban areas. We further explored whether this association differs between local and migrant grandparents and investigated how this migration-related heterogeneity varies by gender.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch Design and Methods: \u003c/strong\u003eThis study employed four waves of data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) spanning from 2011 to 2018. Three variables were constructed to measure whether to participate in any social activities, the number of types of social activities, and the frequency of social participation. Grandparenting was measured by a dummy variable indicating whether to provide care to grandchildren and a categorical variable to represent caregiving intensity. We employed the fixed effects model to examine the association between grandchild caregiving and social activity participation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults: \u003c/strong\u003eOur findings indicate that a significant positive effect of grandchild caregiving on social activity participation, primarily driven by moderate caregiving. Heterogeneity analyses reveal that these positive effects were observed only among local grandparents, with migration-based heterogeneity evident only among grandmothers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDiscussion and Implications: \u003c/strong\u003eOur findings offer valuable policy implications in the context of rapid population aging and large-scale internal migration in contemporary China and other developing countries.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Grandchild caregiving and social activity participation among urban grandparents in China: are migrants disadvantaged compared to locals?","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-13 10:12:28","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6140336/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e4ece602-2277-4f54-b9dc-225b38e1c737","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":48330971,"name":"Social science/Social policy"},{"id":48330972,"name":"Social science/Sociology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-07T03:38:34+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-13 10:12:28","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6140336","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6140336","identity":"rs-6140336","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}