Time to Save: How Time Perspective Nudges Cut Food Waste

Time to Save: How Time Perspective Nudges Cut Food Waste | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Time to Save: How Time Perspective Nudges Cut Food Waste Meizhen Lin, Yaoqi Li, Ye Zhang, Qiumin Jiang, Jingqiang Wang This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4932783/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Predominant endeavors to mitigate food waste involve utilizing regulations and marketing campaigns. However, this kind of explicit advocacy frequently encounters resistance stemming from consumer autonomy, necessitating highly effective implicit interventions. This study explored the potential of time-perspective nudging as a supplementary technique for curbing food waste. Through 2,109 individual observations from a natural field experiment in a restaurant, this study assessed the effectiveness of time-perspective priming in reducing food waste. Additionally, we evaluated the broader applicability of this approach across countries by analyzing secondary data on time perspective and food waste from 56 countries. These findings demonstrate a close cross-country relationship between cyclical time perspective and food waste reduction, as well as the dominant effectiveness of cyclical time perspective nudging in reducing food waste. This implicit nudge throws insights into future food waste reduction initiatives, promoting pro-sustainability dining behaviors ethically and effectively. Social science/Psychology/Human behaviour Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental social sciences/Psychology and behaviour Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals aim to halve food waste by 2030, highlighting its importance for economies, businesses, consumers, human health, and the environment. Food waste has become a critical international focus due to global challenges such as hunger alleviation and environmental protection. Over 1.05 billion tons of food are wasted annually, constituting 19% of the world’s food supply 1 . The food service sector, including restaurants, cafes, and fast-food chains, accounts for 28% of global food waste. The food retailing sector contributes 12%, while household food waste constitutes 60%. This waste evidently contributes to global warming, producing 8-10% of greenhouse gas emissions 1 . This underscores the urgency of exploring effective strategies to diminish food waste. Nudging, as a behavioral intervention technique, has been identified as a promising approach to addressing such challenges. According to the Nudge Theory 2 , nudging involves designing and adapting a favorable choice environment to influence individuals' decision-making and behaviors, thus achieving personally, socially, and environmentally beneficial goals. Policymakers, organizations, and scholars have increasingly recognized the significant potential of nudging in meeting sustainability challenges, including food waste reduction 3–5 . Explicit nudges that promote their sustainability objectives to the target audience are common in government policies and business strategies, such as sustainability-oriented social norms like China’s ‘Clean Plate’ campaign 6 , the U.K. ‘Love Food Hate Waste’ initiative 7 , and the U.S. ‘Save the Food’ campaign 8 . However, many explicit nudges are less effective than implicit ones. The latter establishes the choice environment in a way that individuals can automatically adopt desired behaviors without recognizing underlying intentions 9,10 . The background setting plays a dominant role in inducing unconscious behavioral changes 11 . Contextual priming is well-established as an implicit nudge, using varying contextual features to influence behavior subconsciously 12,13 . Such implicit nudges can prevent consumer resistance, which often arises from perceived autonomy deprivation and distrust of explicit nudges. Implicit nudges have proven effective in encouraging beneficial self-regulatory behaviors that compromise hedonistic pleasures 14,15 . However, existing pro-environmental nudges mainly adopt a quite explicit manner, largely hinging on consumers' conscious awareness of sustainability values. Exploring implicit nudges, such as contextual priming with sensory stimuli below conscious awareness, is essential to enhance nudging effectiveness 9,12 . This study examined the potential of time-perspective nudging as a novel implicit nudge and efficient contextual priming in the dining environment to subtly propel food waste reduction. Time-perspective priming offers advantages such as cost-effectiveness, ease of implementation, and adaptability across various food consumption contexts to complement existing food waste reduction policies 2,11 . It encompasses two distinct time perspectives: the cyclical time perspective, which views time as unlimited and ongoing, and the linear time perspective, which sees time as a finite, one-way journey 16 . Based on the related literature, compared to those with a linear time perspective, individuals with a cyclical time perspective tend to consider their food consumption through a more sustainable, longitudinal, karmic, and holistic lens, which is conducive to overcoming the urge to splurge 17,18 . Therefore, the cyclical time perspective is expected to foster prudent food consumption potency, thus reducing food waste. Consequently, time-perspective (particularly the cyclical time perspective) priming holds the potential to be an implicit nudge to curb food waste. This study investigated the effectiveness of priming a cyclical versus linear time perspective in food waste reduction. A natural field experiment was conducted using a single-factor ( cyclical time perspective group vs. linear time perspective group vs. control group ) between-subject design in a restaurant in Quanzhou, the second largest GDP in Fujian Province and the starting point of the Silk Road on the Sea in China. The experiment collected 2,109 individual observations from November 3 to December 3, 2023. The selected restaurant is representative of the majority of Chinese dining establishments. Given China's prominent role in the global food system, exploring effective strategies for reducing food waste in China provides substantial international implications. The findings demonstrate that the implicit nudge, time-perspective priming, can substantially reduce food waste. Subsequently, secondary data analysis was performed on the 2021 Food Sustainability Index for 56 countries 19 and their corresponding long-term orientation index from Hofstede Insights 20 . It reveals a remarkable cross-country association between cyclical time perspective and food waste, indicating the global generalizability of cyclical time perspective as a promising nudge for food waste reduction. To sum up, these empirical findings verify cyclical time priming as an effective nudging technique for advancing food waste reduction strategies and policymaking. This approach offers valuable insights for international efforts to combat food waste, which can minimally infringe on consumer choice by implementing effective and ethical interventions. Moreover, it promotes the exploration of optimal practices in global food waste reduction. Pro-sustainability Behavioral Interventions & Nudging Techniques Pro-environmental consumption often involves trade-offs between hedonic and utilitarian outcomes. Consequently, policymakers and businesses have endeavored to inspire consumers to embrace environmental values, forging an equilibrium in decision-making 21 . However, despite heightened public awareness of sustainability, significant behavioral changes have yet to materialize 22 . Nudge Theory 2 presents a potentially more efficient approach to fostering pro-sustainability consumer behaviors. Based on this, nudges have increasingly been integrated into business strategies and public policies 4 , 23 , 24 . Nudges are interventions that leverage cognitive or affective biases to facilitate positive behaviors without fundamentally altering consumers’ motives or restricting their options 2 . These interventions activate System 1 in dual-process brain functioning, which is unconscious, automatic, and rapid, in contrast to the effortful, reflective, and slow System 2 25 . Predominant nudges modify choice architecture (e.g., prominently displaying preferred options) and explicitly state their goals (e.g., prompting individuals to complete an environmental attitude scale; presenting pro-environmental content) 26 , 27 . Explicit nudges are frequently employed to shape attitudes and behaviors toward pro-sustainability initiatives, including food waste reduction 28 . However, explicit promotions from governments and businesses can sometimes backfire, as people may perceive these attempts as encroachments on their freedom, which can lead to resistance 29 , 30 . Consumers may also become hostile toward such promotions due to suspicions of greenwashing to enhance profitability 9 . Implicit nudges, such as contextual priming—where ideas or values are subtly introduced without the audience's conscious awareness—are more effective in fostering behaviors that counteract consumer preferences and habits, such as quitting smoking 10 . Such nudges can gently shift perceptions and behaviors in accordance with the primed concepts, such as using environmental cues to encourage food waste reduction 9 . Therefore, this paper anticipates that implicit priming interventions will more effectively promote food waste reduction behaviors, conflicting with hedonic motivations like food cravings and impulse ordering 31 , 32 . It is crucial to bypass consumer resistance and nudge them toward reducing food waste 12 , 13 , 33 , 34 . However, research on implicit priming interventions remains inadequate. Time Perspective Priming Scholars have found that beliefs about present benefits vary across different demographic groups, accordingly influencing their pro-environmental behaviors 35 . This highlights the role of time in determining pro-sustainability consumer behaviors. This paper argues that diverse time perspectives among consumers can affect their attitudes toward current food consumption and, consequently, their food waste reduction behaviors. We hypothesize that compared to those with a linear time perspective, individuals with a cyclical time perspective tend to engage in food waste reduction behaviors. This assumption is grounded in the following distinctions between these time perspectives. First, the linear time view perceives the present moment as precious due to its one-way nature 16 . This can lead individuals to prioritize immediate gratification, thus indulging in food consumption 17 , 36 . Consequently, cautious and self-regulatory consumption in this view is less prevalent than in the cyclical time perspective. Second, those with a cyclical time perspective tend to adopt a long-term view of their actions, which heightens their awareness of the enduring environmental consequences of food waste and more mindful food consumption 37 . Third, the cyclical time perspective resonates with and activates various religious beliefs, infusing food consumption with a sense of sacredness and reverence, thereby viewing food waste as sinful. For instance, Buddhist beliefs consider time as an eternal cycle of transformations, where kind deeds in the present cycle are rewarded in future cycles, while unethical acts like wasting food result in enduring suffering 38 . Similarly, Catholic traditions treat meals as blessings from God, rendering food waste akin to the sin of squandering a sacred gift 39 . Fourth, the cyclical time perspective implies interconnectedness, where past and present events influence future outcomes. This broader perspective makes current food waste pertinent to future welfare, suggesting that reducing food waste is crucial for the well-being of both current and future generations. Overall, the cyclical time perspective offers consumers additional motivation for food waste reduction by anchoring it within the context of long-term personal welfare and self-focused concern. Evidence indicates that the cyclical time perspective is associated with more sustainable behaviors (e.g., recycling) in individuals 40 and organizations compared to the linear time perspective 41 , 42 . However, its effectiveness in motivating effortful and hedonistically compromising behaviors like food waste reduction has not been validated. Dining experiences are highly valued and closely related to fundamental physiological needs outlined in Maslow’s hierarchy 43 . Compared to less demanding sustainable behaviors previously examined, dining experiences present a greater challenge for individuals to resist the temptation for abundant and diverse food. Therefore, the impact of time perspectives needs to be specifically explored in the context of food waste reduction. Leveraging contextual cues in dining settings to subtly activate a cyclical time perspective may effectively nudge consumers to reduce food waste while preserving their autonomy. Contextual priming of a cyclical time perspective minimizes perceived interference with personal freedom of choice and allows for easy application across various dining settings (e.g., home versus dining out, individual versus family dining, cross-regional and cross-cultural dining). However, this approach remains underexplored. Given the need for more effective implicit nudges for food waste reduction and the unverified potential of time perspective priming, this study investigated cyclical time perspective priming as a novel implicit nudging technique, assessing its efficacy in pro-environmental interventions like food waste reduction and its potential for cross-country applications. Results & Discussion Natural Field Experiment Figure 1 depicts the field experimental design. The findings support the expected effect of time perspective priming ( F (2, 436 = 27.098, p < 0.001)(Table 1 ). As shown in Table 2 , cyclical time perspective priming significantly reduces the quantity of food waste (M cyclical = 556.035) compared to linear time perspective priming (M linear = 1303.927), achieving a reduction of 747.892 grams, or 57.36% ( p < .001). Additionally, the cyclical time perspective group exhibits significantly less food waste than the control group (M control = 1011.938), with a reduction of 455.903 grams, or 45.03% ( p < .001). Furthermore, the control group wastes less food than the linear time perspective group, with a reduction of 291.982 grams, or 22.39% ( p < .05). Figure 2 illustrates the food waste quantity as a function of time perspective, demonstrating the effectiveness of nudging with a cyclical time perspective in food waste reduction. The boxplots (N = 439) display the group-wise distribution of food waste per table in a restaurant with the cyclical time perspective group, linear time perspective group, and control group (time perspective (M ± SE). ***, p < 0.001; *, p < 0.05). The line in the middle of each box represents the median, and the diamond indicates the mean food waste. Each box spans the first quartile to the third quartile, and the whiskers extend up to 1.5 times the interquartile range from the top or bottom of the box.) Table 1 Main treatment effect Source Type III sum of squares df Mean square F Sig. Partial eta squared Corrected Model 43518425.687 2 21759212.84 27.098 .000 0.111 Intercept 397580978.5 1 397580978.5 495.137 .000 0.532 Time perspective 43518425.69 2 21759212.84 27.098 .000 0.111 Error 350095971.1 436 802972.411 Total 809629011 439 Corrected Total 393614396.8 438 R 2 = 0.111 Table 2 Posthoc subgroup analysis Waste quantity Mean SD Post hoc comparisons A. Liner group (N = 167) 1303.927 1099.240 A > B *** , A > C * B. Cyclical group (N = 144) 556.035 491.379 B < A *** ,B < C *** C. Control group (N = 128) 1011.938 951.524 C B *** Posthoc comparisons were performed using LSD tests. ***, p < .001; *, p < .05 Country-Level Secondary Data Analysis The robust test further validates the core proposition in this study and its broader generalizability using country-level secondary data from multiple sources. Given that country-level long-term orientation and time perspective have shown similar effects on consumer behavior 20 , 44 , this study used the country-level long-term orientation index from Hofstede Insights 45 as a proxy for the national potency of cyclical time perspective. By integrating secondary data from the Food Sustainability Index 19 and Hofstede Insights 45 , this study examined the extent of the national potency of time perspective on total food waste per person across diverse types of food consumption (e.g., household food waste and business food waste from both restaurant and retail consumption) in each country. Using country-level data to examine the relationship between personality characteristics and individual behaviors has been validated 44 . We conducted linear regression analysis to test the prediction that the cyclical time perspective decreases consumers’ food waste (summarized in Table 3 ). The main effect of the cyclical time perspective on food waste per person (household and business), controlling for GDP per capita, is negative and significant ( β = − .646, SE = .177, t (53) = -3.656, p < .01). This indicates that countries with the cyclical time perspective waste less food than those with the linear time perspective. The effects of the national cyclical time perspective on household and business food waste were separately examined. The results indicate that the main effects of a national cyclical time perspective on per-person household food waste ( β = − .506, SE = .167, t (53) = -3.020, p < .01) and business food waste ( β = − .141, SE = .061, t (53) = -2.301, p < .05) are both negative and significant. Table 3 Regression of food waste index on time perspective Waste quantity Total food waste Household food waste Business Food waste Constant 155.891 108.427 47.464 GDP per capita .00 .00 -6.74E-6 Cyclical Time Perspective − .646** − .506** − .141 * ** p < .01; * p < .05 In general, the field experiment verifies the effectiveness of cyclical time priming over linear time priming or no priming in reducing food waste. The secondary data from 56 countries further supports by revealing that the cyclical time perspective is closely associated with lower per-person total food waste, specifically lower household and business food waste. The combined methodologies provide compelling evidence that a cyclical time perspective is a promising approach to food waste reduction. The significant reduction in plate waste, observed when consumers were exposed to a cyclical time perspective in food consumption settings, validates cyclical time perspective priming as an effective implicit nudging technique. This approach is easily implementable across various dining settings (e.g., business and household) and countries. It also offers a valuable supplement to predominant policies and campaigns that have shown inconsistent effectiveness 22 , 46 . Moreover, the findings highlight the potential of public environmental education from a cyclical time perspective, which could be promoted by governments and educational institutions. Theoretically, this study introduced a novel implicit nudging technique—time perspective priming—that leverages cognitive biases of self-focused attention and provides consumers with a new framework for assessing their food consumption decisions and behaviors. This approach addresses ethical concerns about nudging interventions in pro-sustainability strategies 4 by minimizing interference with consumer autonomy. This further contributes to the nudging literature. These findings indicate that time perspective priming holds the potential for fostering more demanding pro-environmental behaviors, such as food waste reduction 40 . The following limitations of this study and suggested directions for future research are noted. First, future research should assess the cross-cultural efficacy of this technique. Second, while a reduction in leftovers was observed in the experiment, it remains unclear whether this is due to decreased over-ordering or increased food intake. The latter may raise concerns about consumer health related to overeating. Additionally, future research should explore the effectiveness of combining time perspective nudges with existing explicit regulations or campaigns in food services and examine the interactive effects between these nudges and other interventions. Methods Field Experiment A natural field experiment was conducted in a restaurant in China employing a single-factor between-subject design with three groups: cyclical time perspective, linear time perspective, and control. The data were collected from 439 tables, totaling 2,109 observations, over 27 days from November 3 to December 3, 2023 (nine days per group). Time perspectives were manipulated following the existing approach 40 , adapting the experimental materials for the dining setting (Fig. 3). The linear time perspective group received a statement, “Time, once gone, does not return, and the fleeting years do not look back,” illustrating life stages from infancy to old age. The cyclical time perspective group was presented with a declaration, “In the alternation of the four seasons, time cycles endlessly,” depicting the repetitive cycle of seasons. The control group had nothing. Additional details, including participant statistics, experimental set-up, and process, are provided in Fig. 2 (see Research Design for more details). Data and sample representativeness A restaurant serving Chinese cuisine in a round table format was chosen. Data collection spanned over 27 days between November 3 and December 3, 2023, yielding 2,109 observations from 439 tables (692 observations from 144 tables in the cyclical time perspective group, 845 observations from 167 tables in the linear time perspective group, and 572 observations from 128 tables in the control group). Given that this was a natural field experiment with uninformed participants, socio-demographic data could not be collected. The restaurant represents a significant portion of Chinese dining establishments for several reasons. Its location, Quanzhou, is a major urban center with a diverse population, mirroring the socio-economic and cultural dynamics of most Chinese cities. This ensures that the observed behaviors likely reflect broader dining trends across urban China. Additionally, the restaurant’s adherence to typical service patterns and menu offerings common in the country reinforces the generalizability of the findings within the Chinese context. Given China's significant role in the global food system, these findings on the effectiveness of time perspective nudging in reducing food waste can contribute to global sustainability efforts. Research design A natural field experiment was performed with IRB approval from the School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-Sen University IRB board (#STMSYSU20231021). Based on the collaboration with the restaurant, the experiments were conducted without prior notification to the guests, minimizing the confounding influence on guests' dining experiences and decisions. After guests left, the staff collected and moved the leftover food to the kitchen and recorded the total weight of wasted food per table. Only the edible non-liquid portion of the original plate was calculated, excluding food residues. The weighing criteria are detailed in Fig. 4 . A total of 439 tables with 2,109 guests participated in the experiment. Guests were randomly assigned to the treatment groups, with approximately 33% exposed to cyclical time perspective material, 40% to linear time perspective material, and 27% in the control group. The control group served as the reference for assessing the treatment effect. To control for potential contextual variations (e.g., changing table placement) or significant changes (e.g., introducing new dishes or hosting events), the restaurant maintained a consistent setting throughout the study. The well-established existing approach was adopted 40 and adapted for the specific context of this study to manipulate the time perspective (Fig. 2 ). The linear time perspective group received materials emphasizing the scarcity of time, while the cyclical time perspective group was exposed to materials highlighting the repetitiveness of time. The control group received nothing. Experimental materials were posted in various locations within the restaurant, ensuring effective exposure of the treatment groups to the time perspective stimuli, including an easel and a poster at the main entrance, table stickers, and menu cards (Fig. 3). Data on the manipulation effectiveness of the natural field experiment were not collected, preventing potential confounding effects from participants' awareness of the experiment. However, prior to the field study, an online experiment for the manipulation check was carried out. It is verified that the materials (i.e., pictures and words) indeed induce participants' associations with the corresponding time perspectives. Participants were recruited via the Credamo platform, a widely validated data collection platform 47 . Eighty participants (55% female; M age = 34.75, SD = 15.34) were randomly assigned to either the cyclical time perspective group or the linear time perspective group. Participants rated the extent to which the materials conveyed the passage of time on a 7-point scale (1 = not at all, 7 = very much). The linear group encountered statements such as “Time is gone forever” and “Once time passes, it will not come back,” while the cyclical group saw statements like “Time is cyclical” and “Time goes back and forth.” The results indicate the success of the manipulation of time perspectives (M cyclical = 6.45, SD = .65 > M linear = 1.51, SD = .60; t (78) = 35.229, p < .001). Estimation strategy The data from the control group were utilized to quantify food waste per table without interventions. One-way ANOVA analysis was conducted to estimate the treatment effect, examining food waste quantity in relation to variations in time perspective. First, the mean values of the three groups were compared to determine the main effect of the time perspective on food waste quantity. After identifying a statistically significant main effect (Table 1 ), posthoc comparisons were performed (LSD test) to ascertain the role of the cyclical time perspective priming as the most effective intervention for reducing food waste: y ij = µ i + α i + ε ij ε ij ~ (0, ẟ 2 ) Where the dependent variable y ij represents the food waste of group 𝑖 dining at table 𝑗, µ i is the mean value of group i , and ε ij denotes the random error caused by various uncontrollable factors in group 𝑖 dining at table j . The analysis results are detailed in Table 2 . Robust Test This study operationalized the key dependent variable with data from the Food Sustainability Index 19 , which provides sustainable food waste data for 56 countries. Food waste was measured with the food waste per capita per year index, including total food waste (61 to 233kg/person/year, M total = 123.54kg, SD = 31.31), household food waste (33 to 189kg/person/year, M household = 82.46kg, SD = 28.52), and business food waste (food service and retail, 19 to 78kg/person/year, M business = 41.07kg, SD = 9.84). This index captures only the food waste incurred among end consumers at the consumption stage, aligning with the scope of this research. High values indicate greater consumer food waste. The country-level long-term orientation index from Hofstede Insights 45 was adopted as a proxy for the national potency of the cyclical time perspective. According to prior research, country-level long-term orientation, one of six key cultural values across countries, and time perspective exert similar effects on consumer behavior 20 , 44 . Long-term orientation contrasts with short-term orientation. The former represents a society that fosters virtues oriented toward future rewards, such as adaptation, perseverance, and thriving. In contrast, the latter stands for a society that fosters virtues related to the past and present, such as respect for tradition, preservation of prestige, and fulfilling instant desire. This proxy was measured with four questions in the original survey 45 . According to Hofsted and Minkov’s (2013) Values Survey Module 2013 Manual, the index formula can be expressed as: long-term orientation = 40(M 13 – M 14 ) + 25(M 19 – M 22 ) + C(ls) Where M 13 signifies the mean score for question 13, etc. The index ranges from 0 to 100. C(ls) is a constant (positive or negative) that depends on the nature of the samples. It refers to the systematic difference in average answers between samples from different nationalities, which barely affects cross-country comparisons. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4932783","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":345622845,"identity":"0f874ab2-1ca3-4df0-90a0-214eeaa48e78","order_by":0,"name":"Meizhen Lin","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACPmYQacCQwMDAfODghwoJOXlCWtgQWtgSH0ucsTA2bCCkBUoDtfAoG/C2VSQyHCCkhZ336IYPBXV5/NI9bBKS8yQSGBuYHz66gddhfGk3ZxiwFUvOOXtMonCbRB47A5uxcQ5eLTxmt3kMeBI33MhLk5DcJlHM2MDDJk1Qyx8DicT9N3LMJHjnSCQ2HCBGC4OBQeIGiRxjA94GIrXc7DFISJxxIw0YyMckjA2bCfiFn/+M2Y0ff+oS+2ckA6Oypk5Onr354WN8WrAAZtKUj4JRMApGwSjAAgAeYEWMlnz0xQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2239-8817","institution":"Huaqiao University, China","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Meizhen","middleName":"","lastName":"Lin","suffix":""},{"id":345622846,"identity":"49bc681e-302d-466d-93c5-ef59df86cfff","order_by":1,"name":"Yaoqi Li","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-sen University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yaoqi","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":345622847,"identity":"3ea1d23b-f270-4a4c-8de7-0ca98155d7f4","order_by":2,"name":"Ye Zhang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"College of Business, Florida Atlantic University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ye","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhang","suffix":""},{"id":345622848,"identity":"6e4b3a1b-ac12-4372-9782-60631e818ac0","order_by":3,"name":"Qiumin Jiang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-sen University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Qiumin","middleName":"","lastName":"Jiang","suffix":""},{"id":345622849,"identity":"9133ac46-550b-4bd1-8e50-c237062361ce","order_by":4,"name":"Jingqiang Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"College of Tourism, Huaqiao University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jingqiang","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-08-18 09:40:06","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4932783/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4932783/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":68341690,"identity":"db35992e-b5d8-4efc-b395-a7429a9ff81b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-06 09:00:28","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":113695,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTime perspective experiment (n = 439 tables with 2109 consumers). \u003c/strong\u003eAmong the full samples, 144 tables with 692 guests participated in the cyclical group, 167 tables with 845 guests in the linear group, and 128 tables with 572 guests in the control group. Except for the control group, the cyclical group was exposed to the cyclical time perspective material, and the linear time perspective group to the linear time perspective material. As primary outcome variables of interest, the effects of the two time-perspective materials on the quantity of food waste were measured.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4932783/v1/84fb9412481ad5ee8314f492.png"},{"id":68342012,"identity":"c1e77314-97aa-48c9-81b7-4059888eae32","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-06 09:08:28","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":29723,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFood waste quantity as a function of time perspective\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4932783/v1/3aeae86e726c1c606d40f088.png"},{"id":68341693,"identity":"782e6428-939e-4c51-829c-dc54d7ea8ef7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-06 09:00:28","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1734080,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eExperimental materials posted in various locations\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4932783/v1/73eb4fdbc498e1cf2077713e.png"},{"id":68341692,"identity":"8d3ee7b7-5235-4067-97c3-1eff79ad2310","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-06 09:00:28","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":975367,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWeighing standard\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4932783/v1/1b76a761f2c60d6ba9483ac8.png"},{"id":73490326,"identity":"55e4dfea-a30d-4d8c-af2b-bc4981b05e3d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-10 13:11:40","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3227501,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4932783/v1/13102d05-3bdc-4c03-889c-f9f63f5e436c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e Competing Interest.","formattedTitle":"Time to Save: How Time Perspective Nudges Cut Food Waste","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe UN\u0026rsquo;s Sustainable Development Goals aim to halve food waste by 2030, highlighting its importance for\u0026nbsp;economies, businesses, consumers, human health, and the environment. Food waste has become a critical international focus due to global challenges such as hunger alleviation and environmental protection. Over 1.05 billion tons of food are wasted annually, constituting 19% of the world\u0026rsquo;s food supply\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e. The food service sector, including restaurants, cafes, and fast-food chains, accounts for 28% of global food waste. The food retailing sector contributes 12%, while household food waste constitutes 60%. This waste evidently contributes to global warming, producing 8-10% of greenhouse gas emissions\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e. This underscores the urgency of exploring effective strategies to diminish food waste.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNudging, as a behavioral intervention technique, has been identified as a promising approach to addressing such challenges. According to the Nudge Theory\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, nudging involves designing and adapting a favorable choice environment to influence individuals\u0026apos; decision-making and behaviors, thus achieving personally, socially, and environmentally beneficial goals. Policymakers, organizations, and scholars have increasingly recognized the significant potential of nudging in meeting sustainability challenges, including food waste reduction\u003csup\u003e3\u0026ndash;5\u003c/sup\u003e. Explicit nudges that promote their sustainability objectives to the target audience are common in government policies and business strategies, such as sustainability-oriented social norms like China\u0026rsquo;s \u0026lsquo;Clean Plate\u0026rsquo; campaign\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e, the U.K. \u0026lsquo;Love Food Hate Waste\u0026rsquo; initiative\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e, and the U.S. \u0026lsquo;Save the Food\u0026rsquo; campaign\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, many explicit nudges are less effective than implicit ones. The latter establishes the choice environment in a way that individuals can automatically adopt desired behaviors without recognizing underlying intentions\u003csup\u003e9,10\u003c/sup\u003e. The background setting plays a dominant role in inducing unconscious behavioral changes\u003csup\u003e11\u003c/sup\u003e. Contextual priming is well-established as an implicit nudge, using varying contextual features to influence behavior subconsciously\u003csup\u003e12,13\u003c/sup\u003e. Such implicit nudges can prevent consumer resistance, which often arises from perceived autonomy deprivation and distrust of explicit nudges. Implicit nudges have proven effective in encouraging beneficial self-regulatory behaviors that compromise hedonistic pleasures\u003csup\u003e14,15\u003c/sup\u003e. However, existing pro-environmental nudges mainly adopt a quite explicit manner, largely hinging on consumers\u0026apos; conscious awareness of sustainability values. Exploring implicit nudges, such as contextual priming with sensory stimuli below conscious awareness, is essential to enhance nudging effectiveness\u003csup\u003e9,12\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the potential of\u0026nbsp;time-perspective\u0026nbsp;nudging as a novel implicit nudge and efficient contextual priming in the dining environment to subtly propel food waste reduction. Time-perspective priming offers advantages such as cost-effectiveness, ease of implementation, and adaptability across various food consumption contexts to complement existing food waste reduction policies\u003csup\u003e2,11\u003c/sup\u003e. It encompasses two distinct time perspectives: the cyclical time perspective, which views time as unlimited and ongoing, and the\u0026nbsp;linear time perspective, which sees time as a finite, one-way journey\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e. Based on the related literature, compared to those with a linear time perspective, individuals with a cyclical time perspective tend to consider their food consumption through a more sustainable, longitudinal, karmic, and holistic lens, which is conducive to overcoming the urge to splurge\u003csup\u003e17,18\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, the cyclical time perspective is expected to foster prudent food consumption potency, thus reducing food waste. Consequently, time-perspective (particularly the cyclical time perspective) priming holds the potential to be an implicit nudge to curb food waste.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the effectiveness of priming a cyclical versus linear time perspective in food waste reduction. A natural field\u0026nbsp;experiment\u0026nbsp;was conducted using a single-factor (\u003cem\u003ecyclical time perspective group\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003evs.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;linear time perspective group\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003evs.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;control group\u003c/em\u003e) between-subject design in a restaurant in Quanzhou, the second largest GDP in Fujian Province and the starting point of the Silk Road on the Sea in China. The experiment collected 2,109 individual observations from November 3 to December 3, 2023. The selected restaurant is representative of the majority of Chinese dining establishments. Given China\u0026apos;s prominent role in the global food system, exploring effective strategies for reducing food waste in China provides substantial international implications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings demonstrate that the implicit nudge, time-perspective priming, can substantially reduce food waste. Subsequently, secondary data analysis was performed on the 2021 Food Sustainability Index for 56 countries\u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e and their corresponding long-term orientation index from Hofstede Insights\u003csup\u003e20\u003c/sup\u003e. It reveals a remarkable cross-country association between cyclical time perspective and food waste, indicating the global generalizability of cyclical time perspective as a promising nudge for food waste reduction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo sum up, these empirical findings verify cyclical time priming as an effective nudging technique for advancing food waste reduction strategies and policymaking. This approach offers valuable insights for international efforts to combat food waste, which can minimally infringe on consumer choice by implementing effective and ethical interventions. Moreover, it promotes the exploration of optimal practices in global food waste reduction.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Pro-sustainability Behavioral Interventions \u0026 Nudging Techniques","content":"\u003cp\u003ePro-environmental consumption often involves trade-offs between hedonic and utilitarian outcomes. Consequently, policymakers and businesses have endeavored to inspire consumers to embrace environmental values, forging an equilibrium in decision-making\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, despite heightened public awareness of sustainability, significant behavioral changes have yet to materialize\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Nudge Theory\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e presents a potentially more efficient approach to fostering pro-sustainability consumer behaviors. Based on this, nudges have increasingly been integrated into business strategies and public policies\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNudges are interventions that leverage cognitive or affective biases to facilitate positive behaviors without fundamentally altering consumers\u0026rsquo; motives or restricting their options\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These interventions activate System 1 in dual-process brain functioning, which is unconscious, automatic, and rapid, in contrast to the effortful, reflective, and slow System 2\u003csup\u003e25\u003c/sup\u003e. Predominant nudges modify choice architecture (e.g., prominently displaying preferred options) and explicitly state their goals (e.g., prompting individuals to complete an environmental attitude scale; presenting pro-environmental content)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Explicit nudges are frequently employed to shape attitudes and behaviors toward pro-sustainability initiatives, including food waste reduction\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, explicit promotions from governments and businesses can sometimes backfire, as people may perceive these attempts as encroachments on their freedom, which can lead to resistance\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Consumers may also become hostile toward such promotions due to suspicions of greenwashing to enhance profitability\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Implicit nudges, such as contextual priming\u0026mdash;where ideas or values are subtly introduced without the audience's conscious awareness\u0026mdash;are more effective in fostering behaviors that counteract consumer preferences and habits, such as quitting smoking\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Such nudges can gently shift perceptions and behaviors in accordance with the primed concepts, such as using environmental cues to encourage food waste reduction\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, this paper anticipates that implicit priming interventions will more effectively promote food waste reduction behaviors, conflicting with hedonic motivations like food cravings and impulse ordering\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It is crucial to bypass consumer resistance and nudge them toward reducing food waste\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, research on implicit priming interventions remains inadequate.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Time Perspective Priming","content":"\u003cp\u003eScholars have found that beliefs about \u003cem\u003epresent\u003c/em\u003e benefits vary across different demographic groups, accordingly influencing their pro-environmental behaviors\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This highlights the role of time in determining pro-sustainability consumer behaviors. This paper argues that diverse time perspectives among consumers can affect their attitudes toward current food consumption and, consequently, their food waste reduction behaviors. We hypothesize that compared to those with a linear time perspective, individuals with a cyclical time perspective tend to engage in food waste reduction behaviors. This assumption is grounded in the following distinctions between these time perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, the linear time view perceives the present moment as precious due to its one-way nature\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This can lead individuals to prioritize immediate gratification, thus indulging in food consumption\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Consequently, cautious and self-regulatory consumption in this view is less prevalent than in the cyclical time perspective. Second, those with a cyclical time perspective tend to adopt a long-term view of their actions, which heightens their awareness of the enduring environmental consequences of food waste and more mindful food consumption\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Third, the cyclical time perspective resonates with and activates various religious beliefs, infusing food consumption with a sense of sacredness and reverence, thereby viewing food waste as sinful. For instance, Buddhist beliefs consider time as an eternal cycle of transformations, where kind deeds in the present cycle are rewarded in future cycles, while unethical acts like wasting food result in enduring suffering\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Similarly, Catholic traditions treat meals as blessings from God, rendering food waste akin to the sin of squandering a sacred gift\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Fourth, the cyclical time perspective implies interconnectedness, where past and present events influence future outcomes. This broader perspective makes current food waste pertinent to future welfare, suggesting that reducing food waste is crucial for the well-being of both current and future generations. Overall, the cyclical time perspective offers consumers additional motivation for food waste reduction by anchoring it within the context of long-term personal welfare and self-focused concern.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvidence indicates that the cyclical time perspective is associated with more sustainable behaviors (e.g., recycling) in individuals\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and organizations compared to the linear time perspective\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, its effectiveness in motivating effortful and hedonistically compromising behaviors like food waste reduction has not been validated. Dining experiences are highly valued and closely related to fundamental physiological needs outlined in Maslow\u0026rsquo;s hierarchy\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Compared to less demanding sustainable behaviors previously examined, dining experiences present a greater challenge for individuals to resist the temptation for abundant and diverse food. Therefore, the impact of time perspectives needs to be specifically explored in the context of food waste reduction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeveraging contextual cues in dining settings to subtly activate a cyclical time perspective may effectively nudge consumers to reduce food waste while preserving their autonomy. Contextual priming of a cyclical time perspective minimizes perceived interference with personal freedom of choice and allows for easy application across various dining settings (e.g., home versus dining out, individual versus family dining, cross-regional and cross-cultural dining). However, this approach remains underexplored.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the need for more effective implicit nudges for food waste reduction and the unverified potential of time perspective priming, this study investigated cyclical time perspective priming as a novel implicit nudging technique, assessing its efficacy in pro-environmental interventions like food waste reduction and its potential for cross-country applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results \u0026 Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eNatural Field Experiment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e depicts the field experimental design. The findings support the expected effect of time perspective priming (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2, 436\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27.098, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001)(Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, cyclical time perspective priming significantly reduces the quantity of food waste (M\u003csub\u003ecyclical\u003c/sub\u003e = 556.035) compared to linear time perspective priming (M\u003csub\u003elinear\u003c/sub\u003e = 1303.927), achieving a reduction of 747.892 grams, or 57.36% (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Additionally, the cyclical time perspective group exhibits significantly less food waste than the control group (M\u003csub\u003econtrol\u003c/sub\u003e = 1011.938), with a reduction of 455.903 grams, or 45.03% (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Furthermore, the control group wastes less food than the linear time perspective group, with a reduction of 291.982 grams, or 22.39% (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the food waste quantity as a function of time perspective, demonstrating the effectiveness of nudging with a cyclical time perspective in food waste reduction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe boxplots (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;439) display the group-wise distribution of food waste per table in a restaurant with the cyclical time perspective group, linear time perspective group, and control group (time perspective (M\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE). ***, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; *, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The line in the middle of each box represents the median, and the diamond indicates the mean food waste. Each box spans the first quartile to the third quartile, and the whiskers extend up to 1.5 times the interquartile range from the top or bottom of the box.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMain treatment effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType III sum\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eof squares\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean square\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePartial eta squared\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrected Model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43518425.687\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21759212.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.098\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntercept\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e397580978.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e397580978.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e495.137\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.532\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime perspective\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43518425.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21759212.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.098\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eError\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350095971.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e436\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e802972.411\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e809629011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e439\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrected Total\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e393614396.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e438\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePosthoc subgroup analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWaste quantity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost hoc comparisons\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA. Liner group (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;167)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1303.927\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1099.240\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;B\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e, A\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;C\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB. Cyclical group (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;144)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e556.035\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e491.379\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;A\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e,B\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;C\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC. Control group (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;128)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1011.938\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e951.524\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;A\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e, C\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;B\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePosthoc comparisons were performed using LSD tests. ***, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001; *, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCountry-Level Secondary Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe robust test further validates the core proposition in this study and its broader generalizability using country-level secondary data from multiple sources. Given that country-level long-term orientation and time perspective have shown similar effects on consumer behavior\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, this study used the country-level long-term orientation index from Hofstede Insights\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e as a proxy for the national potency of cyclical time perspective. By integrating secondary data from the Food Sustainability Index\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and Hofstede Insights\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, this study examined the extent of the national potency of time perspective on total food waste per person across diverse types of food consumption (e.g., household food waste and business food waste from both restaurant and retail consumption) in each country. Using country-level data to examine the relationship between personality characteristics and individual behaviors has been validated\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted linear regression analysis to test the prediction that the cyclical time perspective decreases consumers\u0026rsquo; food waste (summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The main effect of the cyclical time perspective on food waste per person (household and business), controlling for GDP per capita, is negative and significant (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.646, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.177, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(53) = -3.656, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01). This indicates that countries with the cyclical time perspective waste less food than those with the linear time perspective. The effects of the national cyclical time perspective on household and business food waste were separately examined. The results indicate that the main effects of a national cyclical time perspective on per-person household food waste (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e= \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.506, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.167, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e (53) = -3.020, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01) and business food waste (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e= \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.141, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.061, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e (53) = -2.301, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05) are both negative and significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegression of food waste index on time perspective\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWaste quantity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal food waste\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003efood waste\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBusiness\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood waste\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e155.891\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108.427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.464\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGDP per capita\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-6.74E-6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyclical Time Perspective\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.646**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.506**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.141\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01; * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn general, the field experiment verifies the effectiveness of cyclical time priming over linear time priming or no priming in reducing food waste. The secondary data from 56 countries further supports by revealing that the cyclical time perspective is closely associated with lower per-person total food waste, specifically lower household and business food waste. The combined methodologies provide compelling evidence that a cyclical time perspective is a promising approach to food waste reduction. The significant reduction in plate waste, observed when consumers were exposed to a cyclical time perspective in food consumption settings, validates cyclical time perspective priming as an effective implicit nudging technique. This approach is easily implementable across various dining settings (e.g., business and household) and countries. It also offers a valuable supplement to predominant policies and campaigns that have shown inconsistent effectiveness\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, the findings highlight the potential of public environmental education from a cyclical time perspective, which could be promoted by governments and educational institutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheoretically, this study introduced a novel implicit nudging technique\u0026mdash;time perspective priming\u0026mdash;that leverages cognitive biases of self-focused attention and provides consumers with a new framework for assessing their food consumption decisions and behaviors. This approach addresses ethical concerns about nudging interventions in pro-sustainability strategies\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e by minimizing interference with consumer autonomy. This further contributes to the nudging literature. These findings indicate that time perspective priming holds the potential for fostering more demanding pro-environmental behaviors, such as food waste reduction\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following limitations of this study and suggested directions for future research are noted. First, future research should assess the cross-cultural efficacy of this technique. Second, while a reduction in leftovers was observed in the experiment, it remains unclear whether this is due to decreased over-ordering or increased food intake. The latter may raise concerns about consumer health related to overeating. Additionally, future research should explore the effectiveness of combining time perspective nudges with existing explicit regulations or campaigns in food services and examine the interactive effects between these nudges and other interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eField Experiment\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA natural field experiment was conducted in a restaurant in China employing a single-factor between-subject design with three groups: cyclical time perspective, linear time perspective, and control. The data were collected from 439 tables, totaling 2,109 observations, over 27 days from November 3 to December 3, 2023 (nine days per group). Time perspectives were manipulated following the existing approach\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, adapting the experimental materials for the dining setting (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). The linear time perspective group received a statement, \u0026ldquo;Time, once gone, does not return, and the fleeting years do not look back,\u0026rdquo; illustrating life stages from infancy to old age. The cyclical time perspective group was presented with a declaration, \u0026ldquo;In the alternation of the four seasons, time cycles endlessly,\u0026rdquo; depicting the repetitive cycle of seasons. The control group had nothing. Additional details, including participant statistics, experimental set-up, and process, are provided in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e (see Research Design for more details).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData and sample representativeness\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA restaurant serving Chinese cuisine in a round table format was chosen. Data collection spanned over 27 days between November 3 and December 3, 2023, yielding 2,109 observations from 439 tables (692 observations from 144 tables in the cyclical time perspective group, 845 observations from 167 tables in the linear time perspective group, and 572 observations from 128 tables in the control group). Given that this was a natural field experiment with uninformed participants, socio-demographic data could not be collected.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe restaurant represents a significant portion of Chinese dining establishments for several reasons. Its location, Quanzhou, is a major urban center with a diverse population, mirroring the socio-economic and cultural dynamics of most Chinese cities. This ensures that the observed behaviors likely reflect broader dining trends across urban China. Additionally, the restaurant\u0026rsquo;s adherence to typical service patterns and menu offerings common in the country reinforces the generalizability of the findings within the Chinese context. Given China's significant role in the global food system, these findings on the effectiveness of time perspective nudging in reducing food waste can contribute to global sustainability efforts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eResearch design\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA natural field experiment was performed with IRB approval from the School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-Sen University IRB board (#STMSYSU20231021). Based on the collaboration with the restaurant, the experiments were conducted without prior notification to the guests, minimizing the confounding influence on guests' dining experiences and decisions. After guests left, the staff collected and moved the leftover food to the kitchen and recorded the total weight of wasted food per table. Only the edible non-liquid portion of the original plate was calculated, excluding food residues. The weighing criteria are detailed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 439 tables with 2,109 guests participated in the experiment. Guests were randomly assigned to the treatment groups, with approximately 33% exposed to cyclical time perspective material, 40% to linear time perspective material, and 27% in the control group. The control group served as the reference for assessing the treatment effect. To control for potential contextual variations (e.g., changing table placement) or significant changes (e.g., introducing new dishes or hosting events), the restaurant maintained a consistent setting throughout the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe well-established existing approach was adopted\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and adapted for the specific context of this study to manipulate the time perspective (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The linear time perspective group received materials emphasizing the scarcity of time, while the cyclical time perspective group was exposed to materials highlighting the repetitiveness of time. The control group received nothing. Experimental materials were posted in various locations within the restaurant, ensuring effective exposure of the treatment groups to the time perspective stimuli, including an easel and a poster at the main entrance, table stickers, and menu cards (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData on the manipulation effectiveness of the natural field experiment were not collected, preventing potential confounding effects from participants' awareness of the experiment. However, prior to the field study, an online experiment for the manipulation check was carried out. It is verified that the materials (i.e., pictures and words) indeed induce participants' associations with the corresponding time perspectives. Participants were recruited via the Credamo platform, a widely validated data collection platform\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Eighty participants (55% female; M\u003csub\u003eage\u003c/sub\u003e = 34.75, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15.34) were randomly assigned to either the cyclical time perspective group or the linear time perspective group. Participants rated the extent to which the materials conveyed the passage of time on a 7-point scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not at all, 7\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;very much). The linear group encountered statements such as \u0026ldquo;Time is gone forever\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Once time passes, it will not come back,\u0026rdquo; while the cyclical group saw statements like \u0026ldquo;Time is cyclical\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Time goes back and forth.\u0026rdquo; The results indicate the success of the manipulation of time perspectives (M\u003csub\u003ecyclical\u003c/sub\u003e = 6.45, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;M\u003csub\u003elinear\u003c/sub\u003e = 1.51, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.60; \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(78)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;35.229, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEstimation strategy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data from the control group were utilized to quantify food waste per table without interventions. One-way ANOVA analysis was conducted to estimate the treatment effect, examining food waste quantity in relation to variations in time perspective. First, the mean values of the three groups were compared to determine the main effect of the time perspective on food waste quantity. After identifying a statistically significant main effect (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), posthoc comparisons were performed (LSD test) to ascertain the role of the cyclical time perspective priming as the most effective intervention for reducing food waste:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ey\u003csub\u003eij\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026micro;\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;\u0026alpha;\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;\u0026epsilon;\u003csub\u003eij\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026epsilon;\u003csub\u003eij\u003c/sub\u003e ~ (0, ẟ\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhere the dependent variable y\u003csub\u003eij\u003c/sub\u003e represents the food waste of group 𝑖 dining at table 𝑗, \u0026micro;\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e is the mean value of group \u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e, and \u0026epsilon;\u003csub\u003eij\u003c/sub\u003e denotes the random error caused by various uncontrollable factors in group 𝑖 dining at table \u003cem\u003ej\u003c/em\u003e. The analysis results are detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eRobust Test\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study operationalized the key dependent variable with data from the Food Sustainability Index \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which provides sustainable food waste data for 56 countries. Food waste was measured with the food waste per capita per year index, including total food waste (61 to 233kg/person/year, M\u003csub\u003etotal\u003c/sub\u003e = 123.54kg, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;31.31), household food waste (33 to 189kg/person/year, M\u003csub\u003ehousehold\u003c/sub\u003e = 82.46kg, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;28.52), and business food waste (food service and retail, 19 to 78kg/person/year, M\u003csub\u003ebusiness\u003c/sub\u003e = 41.07kg, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.84). This index captures only the food waste incurred among end consumers at the consumption stage, aligning with the scope of this research. High values indicate greater consumer food waste.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe country-level long-term orientation index from Hofstede Insights \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e was adopted as a proxy for the national potency of the cyclical time perspective. According to prior research, country-level long-term orientation, one of six key cultural values across countries, and time perspective exert similar effects on consumer behavior \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Long-term orientation contrasts with short-term orientation. The former represents a society that fosters virtues oriented toward future rewards, such as adaptation, perseverance, and thriving. In contrast, the latter stands for a society that fosters virtues related to the past and present, such as respect for tradition, preservation of prestige, and fulfilling instant desire. This proxy was measured with four questions in the original survey\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to Hofsted and Minkov\u0026rsquo;s (2013) Values Survey Module 2013 Manual, the index formula can be expressed as:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003elong-term orientation\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;40(M\u003csub\u003e13\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026ndash; M\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;25(M\u003csub\u003e19\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026ndash; M\u003csub\u003e22\u003c/sub\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C(ls)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhere M\u003csub\u003e13\u003c/sub\u003e signifies the mean score for question 13, etc. The index ranges from 0 to 100. C(ls) is a constant (positive or negative) that depends on the nature of the samples. It refers to the systematic difference in average answers between samples from different nationalities, which barely affects cross-country comparisons.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFood waste data were retrieved from countries ranked by GDP per capita in the Food Sustainability Index \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Consumers' food waste tends to be positively related to GDP per capita \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The time orientation dataset was matched with the food waste dataset, yielding 56 country-level observations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUN Environment Programme. \u003cem\u003eFood Waste Index Report 2024\u003c/em\u003e. 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Journal of Consumer Research 48, 333\u0026ndash;351 (2021).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4932783/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4932783/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePredominant endeavors to mitigate food waste involve utilizing regulations and marketing campaigns. However, this kind of explicit advocacy frequently encounters resistance stemming from consumer autonomy, necessitating highly effective implicit interventions. This study explored the potential of time-perspective nudging as a supplementary technique for curbing food waste. Through 2,109 individual observations from a natural field experiment in a restaurant, this study assessed the effectiveness of time-perspective priming in reducing food waste. Additionally, we evaluated the broader applicability of this approach across countries by analyzing secondary data on time perspective and food waste from 56 countries. These findings demonstrate a close cross-country relationship between cyclical time perspective and food waste reduction, as well as the dominant effectiveness of cyclical time perspective nudging in reducing food waste. This implicit nudge throws insights into future food waste reduction initiatives, promoting pro-sustainability dining behaviors ethically and effectively.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Time to Save: How Time Perspective Nudges Cut Food Waste","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-11-06 09:00:23","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4932783/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"8fdd9791-1c76-4e3d-bd9b-faefa7c69da7","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 6th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":36636119,"name":"Social science/Psychology/Human behaviour"},{"id":36636120,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental social sciences/Psychology and behaviour"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-01-10T13:03:33+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-11-06 09:00:23","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4932783","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4932783","identity":"rs-4932783","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}