Orofacial Manifestations of Cysticercosis and Neurocysticercosis: Clinical Implications for Dentistry — An Integrative Review

Orofacial Manifestations of Cysticercosis and Neurocysticercosis: Clinical Implications for Dentistry — An Integrative Review | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review Orofacial Manifestations of Cysticercosis and Neurocysticercosis: Clinical Implications for Dentistry — An Integrative Review Jennifer Ribeiro De Sá, Ayanne Mirelly Ferreira da Silva, Jhonny Carlos Alves Santos, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8723257/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Introduction: Cysticercosis is a parasitic infection caused by the larval stage of Taenia solium , whose neurological form, neurocysticercosis, is a relevant cause of epilepsy in regions with poor sanitation. Although widely studied in the neurological field, its orofacial manifestations are poorly described and may mimic benign lesions such as mucoceles, fibromas, or lipomas. Objective: To investigate, through an integrative review, the oral manifestations of cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis, with emphasis on differential diagnosis in Dentistry and on the repercussions of antiparasitic treatment on oral health. Methodology: A systematic review was conducted between April and May 2025 using the PubMed, BVS, and SciELO databases, employing DeCS-validated descriptors: Oral Manifestations, Taenia solium , Parasitic Infections, and Oral Lesions. Language filters were applied (Portuguese, English, and Spanish). A total of 246 articles were identified, of which 6 met the inclusion criteria after title, abstract, and full-text screening. Results: Clinical manifestations of oral cysticercosis include painless, slow-growing submucosal nodules located in different regions of the oral cavity. These lesions are frequently misdiagnosed as other common benign oral pathologies, which hinders correct diagnosis. Recognition of these characteristics is essential for clinical suspicion and referral for parasitological and imaging evaluation. Conclusion: Oral manifestations of cysticercosis are underdiagnosed and may be easily confused with other benign lesions of the oral cavity. Dental professionals should be aware of these clinical presentations to ensure early diagnosis and avoid inappropriate treatments, promoting integrated management with the medical team. Dentistry Cysticercosis Oral Cavity Differential Diagnosis Neurocysticercosis Parasitic Diseases Diagnostic Imaging INTRODUCTION Cysticercosis is a parasitic infection caused by the larval form of Taenia solium , known as the cysticercus, which can lodge in various human tissues, such as muscles, skin, eyes, and the central nervous system. When it affects the brain, it is referred to as neurocysticercosis, which is considered one of the leading parasitic causes of epilepsy worldwide, particularly in regions with poor sanitary conditions. Although neurocysticercosis is widely studied due to its neurological relevance, its extraparenchymal and muscular manifestations also deserve attention. Subcutaneous or muscular lesions resulting from the presence of cysticerci have been documented in the head and neck region, including the oral cavity. These manifestations may appear as painless, slow-growing nodules and are often misdiagnosed as benign odontogenic or non-odontogenic lesions, such as mucoceles, lipomas, fibromas, or sebaceous cysts. This differential diagnosis is particularly important in the dental context, as the dentist may be the first professional to examine these lesions during clinical care. Furthermore, in cases of neurocysticercosis, symptoms such as paresthesia, facial paralysis, and sensory alterations in the orofacial region may directly interfere with mastication, speech, and oral hygiene, requiring adaptations in dental treatment planning. JUSTIFICATION Cysticercosis and its neurological form, neurocysticercosis, represent significant public health problems, especially in regions with inadequate basic sanitation. Despite extensive discussion of the neurological aspects of the disease, orofacial manifestations remain poorly explored in the scientific literature, which may lead to misdiagnosis and delays in treatment. As the oral cavity may present lesions that mimic other conditions commonly encountered in dental practice, recognition of these manifestations is essential for dentists to establish an accurate differential diagnosis, contribute to appropriate clinical management, and prevent complications. Therefore, this study is justified by the need to compile and analyze scientific evidence on the orofacial manifestations of cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis, aiming to expand clinical knowledge and promote safer and more effective dental practice. GUIDING QUESTION What are the main orofacial manifestations of cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis, and what are their clinical implications for dental diagnosis and treatment? OBJECTIVES 4.1 General Objective To conduct an integrative literature review to identify and analyze the orofacial manifestations of cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis, discussing their clinical implications for dental practice. 4.2 Specific Objectives To identify the types of oral and facial lesions associated with cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis described in the scientific literature; To identify the diagnostic methods used to confirm these orofacial manifestations; To analyze the treatments adopted and their possible side effects on the oral cavity; To discuss the clinical implications for dentists in the management of these lesions, including differential diagnosis and clinical handling. LITERATURE REVIEW 5.1 Orofacial manifestations of cysticercosis Cysticercosis, a parasitic disease caused by the larval stage of Taenia solium , may affect various tissues, including the oral cavity. Although the occurrence of oral lesions is rare, they typically present as painless, mobile, and well-circumscribed nodules, commonly located on the tongue, buccal mucosa, and lips. Differential diagnosis becomes challenging due to the clinical similarity with benign lesions frequently encountered in dental practice, such as mucoceles, sebaceous cysts, fibromas, and lipomas. Additionally, recent case reports of oral cysticercosis in patients with neurocysticercosis highlight the importance of considering this parasitic disease within the diagnostic spectrum of oral nodular lesions (Sagar et al., 2023 ). 5.2 Challenges in the differential diagnosis of oral nodules and cysticercosis Oral cysticercosis often represents a significant diagnostic challenge due to its morphological similarity to other benign oral pathologies. The clinical presentation of painless, slow-growing nodules, predominantly located on the tongue, buccal mucosa, and lips, can easily mimic more common lesions. This difficulty is exacerbated by morphological resemblance to mucoceles, sebaceous cysts, fibromas, and lipomas; the absence of painful symptoms, which may delay the search for professional care and divert clinical suspicion; and the low regional prevalence, which contributes to misdiagnosis. Therefore, the integration of complementary examinations such as ultrasonography, computed tomography, and, most importantly, biopsy for histopathological analysis is imperative for confirming the presence of Taenia solium larvae and ensuring appropriate management of oral cysticercosis (Sagar et al., 2023 ). METHODOLOGY 6.1 Study design This study consists of an integrative literature review. 6.2 Data collection Data collection was conducted between April 20 and May 29, 2025, and articles published within the last five years (2020–2025) were included. A systematic search was carried out in bibliographic databases such as PubMed, BVS, and SciELO. Descriptors indexed in the Health Sciences Descriptors (DeCS) were used, namely: Oral Cysticercosis, Oral Manifestations, Taenia solium , Parasitic Infections, and Oral Lesions. 6.3 Inclusion criteria Studies describing clinical aspects, diagnosis, treatment, or anatomical manifestations of the disease in the head and neck region; Publications with full-text availability; Clinical case reports, narrative reviews, case series reports, or original articles with a clinical focus; Studies published in English, Spanish, or Portuguese. 6.4 Exclusion criteria Studies addressing cysticercosis exclusively in other body regions without mention of the orofacial region; Systematic reviews with low clinical relevance to dentistry; Articles without free access or incomplete texts; Studies with repeated or inconsistent data. 6.5 Search strategy For the selection of articles used in this literature review, Boolean operators AND and OR were applied, resulting in the following search expressions: (“Oral Cysticercosis” OR “Nodular Lesion” OR “Oral Lesions”) AND (“Taenia solium” OR “Human Cysticercosis”) AND (“Oral Cavity” OR “Oral Soft Tissue”), AND (“Stomatitis” OR “Angular Cheilitis”), (“Cysticercosis” AND “Oral Manifestations”) AND (“Diagnostic Pitfalls” OR “Case Report”), (“Oral Nodules” OR “Oral Cysts”) AND (“Parasitic Infections”). Language filters were applied for Portuguese, English, and Spanish in the SciELO and BVS databases, and for English and Spanish in PubMed. After analysis of titles and abstracts, articles with full-text availability published within the last five years were selected based on their relevance to the topic, particularly those addressing oral manifestations of cysticercosis and diagnostic confusion with common oral pathologies. From the selected articles and the search expressions used in BVS, SciELO, and PubMed, Table 1 was constructed. The selection of essential articles for the development of this study resulted in Table 2 . Table 1 – Number of articles identified by database DATABASE RESULTS SCIELO 189 PUBMED 57 BVS 1 TOTAL 246 Source Prepared by the authors (2025). Table 2 – Number of articles selected by database DATABASE RESULTS SCIELO 0 PUBMED 6 BVS 0 TOTAL 6 Source Prepared by the authors (2025). Of the 246 articles identified through electronic searches in the PubMed, SciELO, and BVS databases, 109 were initially selected based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The selection was performed through analysis of titles and abstracts, assessing their relevance to the study topic. Articles that did not exclusively address the subject of interest, totaling 104 studies, were excluded from the analysis. Subsequently, the selected articles underwent full-text reading, and the main findings were organized and presented in the results section, as shown in Table 3. RESULTS For this study, six scientific articles were selected from the databases mentioned above. All stages of processing and conduction of the literature review are detailed in the table below: AUTOR/ANO OBJETIVOS MÉTODOS RESULTADOS CONCLUSÕES Chand, s. et al. ( 2016 ) The objective of this study was to review the main epidemiological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis, emphasizing their prevalence in developing countries and the impact of migration on the spread of these parasitic infections. The study highlights the rarity and diagnostic challenge of oral and perioral manifestations of cysticercosis, illustrated by an isolated clinical case involving the buccinator muscle. Additionally, the study analyzes pathogenesis, variability of host immune response, characteristic lesions in the central nervous system, and advances in diagnostic methods—especially high-resolution ultrasonography—and conservative treatment with oral antiparasitic agents. The importance of including cysticercosis in the differential diagnosis of solitary oral and maxillofacial nodules, particularly in endemic areas, is emphasized. A 14-year-old female patient presented to the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department with a complaint of painless swelling in the right cheek region, with gradual progression over approximately one year. Extraoral clinical examination revealed mild facial swelling without skin changes, while intraoral examination showed a well-defined submucosal nodular lesion with intact mucosa located on the right buccal mucosa, measuring approximately 1.5 cm × 1 cm. Differential diagnoses included fibroma, neurofibroma, focal fibrous hyperplasia, and mucocele. Complementary investigations included panoramic radiography, which revealed no structural alterations, and high-resolution ultrasonography, which identified a well-defined oval intramuscular cystic lesion in the right buccinator muscle measuring 8.7 mm × 7.3 mm, containing an eccentric echogenic mural nodule, along with thickening and inflammation of adjacent muscle fibers. Laboratory tests (complete blood count, urinalysis, and stool parasitological examination) showed no systemic involvement. Conservative treatment with oral albendazole and prednisolone was initiated. Clinical examination confirmed a well-circumscribed, painless, non-compressible submucosal swelling in the right buccal region, without mandibular functional limitation or regional lymphadenopathy. Panoramic radiography was unremarkable, while ultrasonography revealed a cystic lesion suggestive of cysticercosis, confirmed by the presence of an echogenic mural nodule and local inflammatory changes. Laboratory tests showed no signs of systemic infection or involvement of other organs. Conservative management with albendazole and prednisolone was instituted. Cysticercosis should be included in the differential diagnosis of solitary intraoral nodules in the oral and maxillofacial region, particularly in endemic areas. High-resolution ultrasonography is a noninvasive and accessible diagnostic method effective in identifying lesions compatible with Cysticercus cellulosae . Moreover, localized parasitic infections can be successfully treated through conservative approaches using oral antiparasitic agents. Cheruvu, V. P. R.; Khan, M. M. (2021) This study aimed to review the epidemiological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of cysticercosis, a parasitic disease caused by Cysticercus cellulosae , the larval stage of Taenia solium , prevalent in regions with uncontrolled pig farming, poor sanitation, and close human–animal contact. The study highlights its importance as a neglected tropical disease according to the World Health Organization, with high morbidity and mortality in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. It emphasizes human infection through ingestion of undercooked pork or fecal–oral contamination, primarily affecting the central nervous system, eyes, and meninges, as well as the rare involvement of oral and perioral tissues, which poses a diagnostic challenge for clinicians. Advances in diagnostic methods such as high-resolution ultrasonography and effective conservative treatments are also discussed. A 16-year-old female patient presented with progressive, painful swelling in the right temporal region lasting six months, associated with a previous history of mild local trauma. Physical examination revealed a solitary tumor mass with irregular contours, heterogeneous consistency (soft to firm), and mild tenderness on palpation, without trismus or functional impairment. Ultrasonography revealed a hypoechoic intramuscular cystic lesion in the right temporal muscle containing an eccentric hyperechoic nodule. Computed tomography confirmed a well-defined cystic lesion with an eccentric hypointense component. Conservative pharmacological treatment with oral albendazole (15 mg/kg/day) was initiated for 14 days. Due to persistence of symptoms, surgical intervention was performed. Intraoperatively, a purulent collection (~ 5 mL) and an opalescent cyst were observed. Albendazole therapy was continued postoperatively. Preoperative evaluation confirmed a painful tumor in the right temporal region, with no mandibular dysfunction. Imaging examinations demonstrated an intramuscular cystic lesion consistent with cysticercosis. Culture of the purulent exudate showed no bacterial growth. Postoperative healing was satisfactory, and histopathological examination confirmed the diagnosis of Cysticercus cellulosae . No recurrence or complications were observed during a three-year follow-up period. The clinical course of cysticercosis varies according to lesion number, affected tissues, and tissue response, presenting diverse clinical manifestations that may hinder diagnosis, particularly in isolated head and neck cases. Imaging examinations are essential for lesion identification and classification. Treatment should be individualized, using antiparasitic agents such as albendazole and praziquantel, with surgical intervention reserved for specific symptomatic cases. Prognosis in the maxillofacial region is favorable, with no reported recurrence after adequate therapy. Del Brutto, O. H. (2012) The aim of this study is to review the main epidemiological and clinical aspects of neurocysticercosis, emphasizing its high prevalence in developing countries and the impact of increased migration on the spread of the disease. This review also aims to analyze the pathogenesis of neurocysticercosis, highlighting the variability of the host immune response and the characteristic lesions in the central nervous system. In addition, it seeks to present recent advances in diagnostic and therapeutic methods, underscoring the importance of the disease as a significant cause of epilepsy and neurological hospitalizations in both endemic and non-endemic regions. Samples of cerebral and meningeal tissues infected with cysticerci at different evolutionary stages (vesicular, colloidal, granular, and calcified) were analyzed. Histopathological evaluation included the assessment of inflammatory response, presence of collagen capsules, astrocytic gliosis, microglial proliferation, neuronal degenerative changes, and cellular infiltrates, using light microscopy techniques. Vesicular cysticerci cause minimal inflammation in the surrounding tissue, whereas colloidal cysticerci are surrounded by collagen capsules and mononuclear inflammatory reaction. The adjacent brain tissue exhibits gliosis, microglial proliferation, edema, and neuronal alterations. In the granular and calcified stages, edema decreases, while astrocytic changes increase and multinucleated giant cells appear. Meningeal cysticerci provoke intense inflammation with thickening of the leptomeninges, which may affect cranial nerves and cerebral vessels, leading to infarctions and hydrocephalus due to obstruction of the foramina of Luschka and Magendie. Ventricular cysticerci may also cause inflammation and obstruct cerebrospinal fluid flow, particularly near the foramen of Monro or the cerebral aqueduct. Neurocysticercosis is common in areas with conditions that facilitate the transmission of T. solium , such as inadequate disposal of human feces, low levels of education, uncontrolled pig slaughter, and free-roaming pigs near households. The disease can be eradicated; however, control programs must address all stages of the parasite’s life cycle—including human carriers, infected pigs, and environmental eggs—to prevent disease resurgence after treatment. Garcia, H. et al. (2014) The aim of this study is to review the life cycle, natural history, clinical manifestations, and epidemiological impact of neurocysticercosis caused by the larval stage of Taenia solium , highlighting its prevalence in low-income countries and the increasing number of cases in non-endemic areas due to migration. The study also aims to address the immunological mechanisms involved in the persistence and degeneration of cysts in the central nervous system, as well as the diverse clinical manifestations associated with parasite localization, emphasizing the importance of imaging-based diagnostic methods for disease assessment and monitoring. Furthermore, this study seeks to highlight the need for individualized treatment strategies and the relevance of neurocysticercosis as a major cause of seizures and global neurological morbidity. Neuroimaging techniques using Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) were employed to assess the morphological and topographic characteristics of neurocysticercosis cysts. CT allowed the visualization of calcified lesions and the densitometric features of the cysts, whereas MRI, using diffusion-weighted, FLAIR, FIESTA, CISS, and BFFE protocols, was used to provide detailed characterization of intraventricular, subarachnoid, and spinal cystic lesions, as well as to evaluate the degree of inflammation and associated alterations, such as hydrocephalus and arachnoiditis. The imaging findings revealed different cyst stages: viable vesicular cysts appeared as rounded lesions without contrast enhancement or pericystic edema, often with a visible scolex; cysts in the colloidal stage showed ring enhancement and surrounding edema; granular cysts were observed as nodular lesions with hyperintense margins and associated gliosis; calcified cysts were clearly identified on CT as hyperdense nodules without edema. Subarachnoid and intraventricular lesions exhibited specific features, such as structural displacement and hydrocephalus, which were better defined on MRI using dedicated imaging protocols. Spinal neurocysticercosis was also detected, with intramedullary and leptomeningeal cysts identified on MRI. Neurocysticercosis is prevalent in developing countries and also occurs in industrialized nations. Recent advances have improved the understanding of disease subtypes, diagnostic approaches, and individualized treatments, particularly regarding the use of anti-inflammatory therapy and the management of intraparenchymal cysts, leading to better patient prognoses. Control strategies have shown success; however, further research is still needed to develop more accurate etiological diagnostic methods and more effective antiparasitic treatments. Neurocysticercosis serves as a model for epilepsy research, providing insights into genetic predisposition and underlying pathological mechanisms. Confirmation of local transmission elimination may drive global efforts toward the eradication of cysticercosis. Krishnamoorthy, B. et al ( 2012 ) The aim of this study is to describe a rare clinical case of oral cysticercosis located in the lip of a pediatric patient, emphasizing the difficulties in the differential diagnosis of this atypical presentation, as well as to conduct a systematized review of the literature on orofacial manifestations of cysticercosis, focusing on its epidemiology, pathogenesis, and the most frequently affected anatomical sites. A 12-year-old female patient presented to the clinic with a complaint of an asymptomatic nodular swelling of the lower lip, with a two-month history. A detailed clinical examination was performed, identifying a spherical, well-defined nodular lesion, measuring approximately 1.5 × 1.5 cm on the left lower labial mucosa, with an intact mucosal surface. Palpation revealed a tense, non-tender mass The lesion was non-fluctuant. The differential diagnosis included mucocele, lipoma, and fibroma. Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) was performed, and the aspirated content consisted of clear fluid, yielding no conclusive diagnosis. Surgical excision of the lesion under local anesthesia was therefore performed to obtain a definitive diagnosis. The excised specimen was submitted to histopathological analysis using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. Histopathological analysis revealed a cystic lesion containing Cysticercus cellulosae , surrounded by a dense fibrous capsule infiltrated by chronic inflammatory cells, predominantly lymphocytes and plasma cells. The inner layer of the capsule exhibited a double-layered membrane, confirming the larval form of Taenia solium , with identifiable suckers and an invaginated duct-like segment lined by a homogeneous membrane. No areas of dystrophic calcification were observed. The final histopathological diagnosis was labial cysticercosis Due to financial constraints, complementary imaging examinations (computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging) were not performed. The patient was referred for pediatric evaluation and was prescribed albendazole at a dose of 400 mg twice daily for 15 days; however, she was lost to clinical follow-up. It is concluded that cysticercosis represents a significant public health challenge, particularly in developing countries where its prevalence remains high. The scarcity of epidemiological studies, especially those addressing oral cysticercosis, highlights the need for further investigation in India and other endemic regions. Preventive measures—such as improvements in sanitation, proper management of human waste, education on personal hygiene, and strict inspection of slaughterhouses to prevent the commercialization of infected pork—are essential for disease control and potential eradication. Oral cysticercosis should always be considered in the differential diagnosis of intraoral nodular lesions in endemic areas. Initial diagnostic methods, such as fine-needle aspiration, are recommended due to their cost-effectiveness and efficiency, whereas more complex and expensive examinations, such as immunological tests and computed tomography, should be reserved for cases in which a definitive diagnosis cannot be established through pathological analysis. Poudel, B. et al. ( 2023 ) This study aimed to report a rare clinical case of simultaneous presentation of neurocysticercosis and lingual cysticercosis in an adult patient, highlighting the importance of imaging investigations in detecting multiple evolutionary stages of infection caused by the parasite Taenia solium . Magnetic resonance imaging revealed involvement of both the neuroparenchyma and the tongue, emphasizing the need for an individualized therapeutic approach. This case report was conducted at a tertiary healthcare center in Nepal and followed the Surgical Case Report (SCARE) guidelines. A 38-year-old male patient underwent a detailed clinical evaluation after an episode of loss of consciousness lasting 4–5 minutes, accompanied by trismus, upward ocular deviation, and sialorrhea, consistent with a generalized tonic–clonic seizure. Intraoral examination revealed a painless, firm, mobile nodule measuring approximately 2.0 × 2.0 cm, located on the ventral surface of the anterior third of the tongue. Routine laboratory tests were within normal limits. Chest radiography revealed multiple nodular lesions with a “grain-like” appearance, consistent with disseminated muscular cysticercosis. The initial physical examination confirmed the presence of a 2 × 2 cm nodular swelling on the tongue, without signs of inflammation, and with preserved mucosal color and texture. The thoracic skin lesions were painless and erythematous. Brain magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated neurocysticercosis at multiple evolutionary stages (vesicular, colloidal, and granular), with extensive involvement of the cerebral parenchyma and lingual musculature. The presence of a scolex in some lesions confirmed the diagnosis. Oral cysticercosis is an uncommon manifestation of Taenia solium infection and poses a diagnostic challenge, particularly due to the clinical nonspecificity of oral nodules. In endemic regions, such as Nepal, the presence of a nodular lesion on the tongue should raise suspicion of cysticercosis as a differential diagnosis. The present report describes a rare case of mixed infection involving neurocysticercosis and lingual cysticercosis, managed with a conservative approach based on corticosteroid therapy and seizure control. This case highlights the importance of clinical vigilance and the adoption of effective sanitary control strategies for the prevention of taeniasis and subsequent human cysticercosis. DISCUSSION Orofacial cysticercosis is a rare clinical entity, with approximately 34 to 69 cases reported in the literature, predominantly in developing countries, as described by Chand et al. ( 2016 ). Dilip et al. (2011) reported that the tongue is the most frequently affected site (≈ 42%), followed by the lips (≈ 26%) and the buccal mucosa (≈ 19%). This anatomical distribution highlights the importance of careful intraoral examination, particularly in endemic regions. Clinically, Kumar et al. (2016) described that these lesions usually present as well-defined, firm, mobile, and asymptomatic nodules, which often leads to misdiagnosis as common benign oral lesions such as mucocele, fibroma, lipoma, or pyogenic granuloma. This clinical similarity significantly contributes to diagnostic delay. In this context, Ambika et al. ( 2017 ) emphasized that the diagnosis of orofacial cysticercosis is challenging due to its rarity and nonspecific clinical presentation. Fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) may provide suggestive findings and assist in therapeutic planning; however, definitive diagnosis relies on histopathological examination, which demonstrates the presence of the larval form Cysticercus cellulosae surrounded by a fibrous capsule. Sharad et al. (2016) highlighted the importance of complementary imaging studies, such as ultrasonography, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), particularly to investigate systemic involvement, especially of the central nervous system. These modalities may reveal multiple cysts at different evolutionary stages. In addition, immunological tests such as ELISA and EITB show good sensitivity, although false-positive results may occur in asymptomatic patients or in cases of calcified cysticercosis, limiting their diagnostic specificity. Regarding treatment, Singh et al. ( 2018 ) reported that management of isolated orofacial cysticercosis generally involves complete surgical excision of the lesion, with an excellent prognosis and a low recurrence rate. For dental practitioners, it is essential to include cysticercosis in the differential diagnosis when evaluating orofacial nodules in endemic areas, considering the significant impact of early diagnosis on preventing systemic complications, particularly neurological involvement. Lack of familiarity with this condition often results in delayed diagnosis and inappropriate management. CONCLUSION This study enabled the identification of the main types of oral and facial lesions associated with cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis described in the scientific literature, demonstrating that these manifestations predominantly present as nodules or masses located in the tongue, buccal mucosa, lips, and facial muscles. Although considered rare, these lesions are of substantial clinical relevance due to the diagnostic challenges they pose. Diagnostic methods used to confirm orofacial manifestations include fine-needle aspiration, histopathological examination, imaging techniques such as computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, and immunological tests. The combination of these approaches increases diagnostic accuracy and is essential for appropriate therapeutic planning. Regarding treatment, reported protocols generally involve surgical removal of the lesions, with or without the use of antiparasitic agents such as albendazole or praziquantel. Despite their effectiveness, these therapies may be associated with adverse effects, particularly local inflammation and edema, requiring careful clinical management to preserve oral tissue integrity. The clinical implications for dental practitioners are significant, as comprehensive knowledge is required to perform accurate differential diagnosis of oral lesions, given that cysticercosis may mimic various benign or malignant conditions. Furthermore, dentists play a crucial role in appropriate referral and multidisciplinary management, contributing to disease control and improvement of patients’ quality of life. Although most articles included in this review fall outside the most recent five-year period, this choice is justified by the rarity of the condition and the predominance of case reports and clinical series, which still represent the primary source of available evidence. Thus, the present review integrates and systematizes existing knowledge, reinforcing the importance of clinical vigilance and early recognition of orofacial manifestations of cysticercosis. References AMBIKA G et al (2017) Orofacial cysticercosis: a review. 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Available at: National Center for Biotechnology Information. Accessed on: June 27, 2025 KRISHNAMOORTHY B, SUMA GN, DHILLON M, SRIVASTAVA S, SHARMA ML, MALIK SS (2012) Encysted Taenia solium larva of the oral cavity: a case report with a review of the literature. Contemporary Clinical Dentistry , [s.l.], v. 3, suppl. 2, pp. S228–S232. 10.4103/0976-237X.101103 KUMAR BD, DAVE B, MEGHANA SM (July–August 2011) Cysticercosis of the masseter muscle. Indian J Dent Res 617 [s.l.], v. 22, n. 4. 10.4103/0970-9290.90334 POUDEL B et al (2023) Disseminated cysticercosis with tongue involvement: a rare case report from Nepal. Annals Med Surg 85:5704–5708. 10.1097/MS9.0000000000001292 SAGAR M et al (2023) Lower lip cysticercosis: an unusual case report. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology , v. 27, suppl. 1, pp. S95–S97, Feb SINGH A et al (2018) Oral cysticercosis: a case series and review of the literature. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2572–2576 [s.l.], v. 76, n. 12. 10.1016/j.joms.2018.07.012 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8723257","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Systematic Review","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":581943812,"identity":"02cc7222-c8f4-45c5-8255-8619a831cbd2","order_by":0,"name":"Jennifer Ribeiro De Sá","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA4UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgYgkWADYT9gADEkiNKSBmYzGzCkEaEFAiBa2CSI0sLc3nvswYMEm3wG/sPPqnkS7sgxSPc+wO+wnnPpBgkJaZYNEmlmt3kSnhkzyBw3wK9lRo6ZROKPwwZA95jd5v1xOBGoF7/DGOe/MZNISPhvwMB//FsxT8LhesJaZvCAtBwAuiXHjBmoJYGBoJaeHJCWZAM2iZxiyTkJzwzbZI7h12LYfsZM8keCnQE///GNH94k3JHnl24joKUBymCDUAdgDNxAHo1/gJCGUTAKRsEoGIEAAM1XP6MjLWrbAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-4304-0025","institution":"UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE PERNAMBUCO","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jennifer","middleName":"Ribeiro","lastName":"De Sá","suffix":""},{"id":581943813,"identity":"b417a463-f097-4c34-8e61-b0cd2537bbe5","order_by":1,"name":"Ayanne Mirelly Ferreira da Silva","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-2997-9095","institution":"UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE PERNAMBUCO","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ayanne","middleName":"Mirelly Ferreira da","lastName":"Silva","suffix":""},{"id":581943814,"identity":"0bb1b46e-2a2a-49a7-b847-5e6ceeaa0a92","order_by":2,"name":"Jhonny Carlos Alves Santos","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9539-7787","institution":"UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE PERNAMBUCO","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jhonny","middleName":"Carlos Alves","lastName":"Santos","suffix":""},{"id":581943815,"identity":"0654a604-3f5c-444c-855c-2646fb4c2618","order_by":3,"name":"José Rinaldo Santos de Oliveira","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE PERNAMBUCO","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"José","middleName":"Rinaldo Santos","lastName":"de Oliveira","suffix":""},{"id":581943816,"identity":"a60cbc50-ee54-4938-bf03-d3954b0da3f9","order_by":4,"name":"Francisca Janaína Soares Rocha","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7218-174X","institution":"UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE PERNAMBUCO","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Francisca","middleName":"Janaína Soares","lastName":"Rocha","suffix":""},{"id":581943817,"identity":"392e874e-1b39-44d8-b299-c57b9e8b08ac","order_by":5,"name":"Martinho Dinoa Medeiros Junior","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3497-8678","institution":"UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE PERNAMBUCO","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Martinho","middleName":"Dinoa Medeiros","lastName":"Junior","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-28 16:14:59","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8723257/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8723257/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":101880600,"identity":"0961a554-39e8-42d6-bf05-b57e33f1e860","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-04 15:04:20","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":768243,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8723257/v1/c85cbda1-c051-49a3-ba82-e59c1b0ae0f1.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eOrofacial Manifestations of Cysticercosis and Neurocysticercosis: Clinical Implications for Dentistry — An Integrative Review\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eCysticercosis is a parasitic infection caused by the larval form of \u003cem\u003eTaenia solium\u003c/em\u003e, known as the cysticercus, which can lodge in various human tissues, such as muscles, skin, eyes, and the central nervous system. When it affects the brain, it is referred to as neurocysticercosis, which is considered one of the leading parasitic causes of epilepsy worldwide, particularly in regions with poor sanitary conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough neurocysticercosis is widely studied due to its neurological relevance, its extraparenchymal and muscular manifestations also deserve attention. Subcutaneous or muscular lesions resulting from the presence of cysticerci have been documented in the head and neck region, including the oral cavity. These manifestations may appear as painless, slow-growing nodules and are often misdiagnosed as benign odontogenic or non-odontogenic lesions, such as mucoceles, lipomas, fibromas, or sebaceous cysts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis differential diagnosis is particularly important in the dental context, as the dentist may be the first professional to examine these lesions during clinical care. Furthermore, in cases of neurocysticercosis, symptoms such as paresthesia, facial paralysis, and sensory alterations in the orofacial region may directly interfere with mastication, speech, and oral hygiene, requiring adaptations in dental treatment planning.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"JUSTIFICATION","content":"\u003cp\u003eCysticercosis and its neurological form, neurocysticercosis, represent significant public health problems, especially in regions with inadequate basic sanitation. Despite extensive discussion of the neurological aspects of the disease, orofacial manifestations remain poorly explored in the scientific literature, which may lead to misdiagnosis and delays in treatment. As the oral cavity may present lesions that mimic other conditions commonly encountered in dental practice, recognition of these manifestations is essential for dentists to establish an accurate differential diagnosis, contribute to appropriate clinical management, and prevent complications. Therefore, this study is justified by the need to compile and analyze scientific evidence on the orofacial manifestations of cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis, aiming to expand clinical knowledge and promote safer and more effective dental practice.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"GUIDING QUESTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eWhat are the main orofacial manifestations of cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis, and what are their clinical implications for dental diagnosis and treatment?\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"OBJECTIVES","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 General Objective\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo conduct an integrative literature review to identify and analyze the orofacial manifestations of cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis, discussing their clinical implications for dental practice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Specific Objectives\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify the types of oral and facial lesions associated with cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis described in the scientific literature;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify the diagnostic methods used to confirm these orofacial manifestations;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo analyze the treatments adopted and their possible side effects on the oral cavity;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo discuss the clinical implications for dentists in the management of these lesions, including differential diagnosis and clinical handling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"LITERATURE REVIEW","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Orofacial manifestations of cysticercosis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCysticercosis, a parasitic disease caused by the larval stage of \u003cem\u003eTaenia solium\u003c/em\u003e, may affect various tissues, including the oral cavity. Although the occurrence of oral lesions is rare, they typically present as painless, mobile, and well-circumscribed nodules, commonly located on the tongue, buccal mucosa, and lips. Differential diagnosis becomes challenging due to the clinical similarity with benign lesions frequently encountered in dental practice, such as mucoceles, sebaceous cysts, fibromas, and lipomas. Additionally, recent case reports of oral cysticercosis in patients with neurocysticercosis highlight the importance of considering this parasitic disease within the diagnostic spectrum of oral nodular lesions (Sagar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2 Challenges in the differential diagnosis of oral nodules and cysticercosis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOral cysticercosis often represents a significant diagnostic challenge due to its morphological similarity to other benign oral pathologies. The clinical presentation of painless, slow-growing nodules, predominantly located on the tongue, buccal mucosa, and lips, can easily mimic more common lesions. This difficulty is exacerbated by morphological resemblance to mucoceles, sebaceous cysts, fibromas, and lipomas; the absence of painful symptoms, which may delay the search for professional care and divert clinical suspicion; and the low regional prevalence, which contributes to misdiagnosis. Therefore, the integration of complementary examinations such as ultrasonography, computed tomography, and, most importantly, biopsy for histopathological analysis is imperative for confirming the presence of \u003cem\u003eTaenia solium\u003c/em\u003e larvae and ensuring appropriate management of oral cysticercosis (Sagar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.1 Study design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study consists of an integrative literature review.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2 Data collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData collection was conducted between April 20 and May 29, 2025, and articles published within the last five years (2020\u0026ndash;2025) were included. A systematic search was carried out in bibliographic databases such as PubMed, BVS, and SciELO. Descriptors indexed in the Health Sciences Descriptors (DeCS) were used, namely: Oral Cysticercosis, Oral Manifestations, \u003cem\u003eTaenia solium\u003c/em\u003e, Parasitic Infections, and Oral Lesions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.3 Inclusion criteria\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies describing clinical aspects, diagnosis, treatment, or anatomical manifestations of the disease in the head and neck region;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublications with full-text availability;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinical case reports, narrative reviews, case series reports, or original articles with a clinical focus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies published in English, Spanish, or Portuguese.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.4 Exclusion criteria\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies addressing cysticercosis exclusively in other body regions without mention of the orofacial region;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystematic reviews with low clinical relevance to dentistry;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticles without free access or incomplete texts;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies with repeated or inconsistent data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.5 Search strategy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the selection of articles used in this literature review, Boolean operators AND and OR were applied, resulting in the following search expressions: (\u0026ldquo;Oral Cysticercosis\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;Nodular Lesion\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;Oral Lesions\u0026rdquo;) AND (\u0026ldquo;Taenia solium\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;Human Cysticercosis\u0026rdquo;) AND (\u0026ldquo;Oral Cavity\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;Oral Soft Tissue\u0026rdquo;), AND (\u0026ldquo;Stomatitis\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;Angular Cheilitis\u0026rdquo;), (\u0026ldquo;Cysticercosis\u0026rdquo; AND \u0026ldquo;Oral Manifestations\u0026rdquo;) AND (\u0026ldquo;Diagnostic Pitfalls\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;Case Report\u0026rdquo;), (\u0026ldquo;Oral Nodules\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;Oral Cysts\u0026rdquo;) AND (\u0026ldquo;Parasitic Infections\u0026rdquo;). Language filters were applied for Portuguese, English, and Spanish in the SciELO and BVS databases, and for English and Spanish in PubMed. After analysis of titles and abstracts, articles with full-text availability published within the last five years were selected based on their relevance to the topic, particularly those addressing oral manifestations of cysticercosis and diagnostic confusion with common oral pathologies. From the selected articles and the search expressions used in BVS, SciELO, and PubMed, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e was constructed. The selection of essential articles for the development of this study resulted in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Number of articles identified by database\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDATABASE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRESULTS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSCIELO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePUBMED\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBVS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTOTAL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e246\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSource\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrepared by the authors (2025).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Number of articles selected by database\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDATABASE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRESULTS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSCIELO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePUBMED\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBVS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTOTAL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSource\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrepared by the authors (2025).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOf the 246 articles identified through electronic searches in the PubMed, SciELO, and BVS databases, 109 were initially selected based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The selection was performed through analysis of titles and abstracts, assessing their relevance to the study topic. Articles that did not exclusively address the subject of interest, totaling 104 studies, were excluded from the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubsequently, the selected articles underwent full-text reading, and the main findings were organized and presented in the results section, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eFor this study, six scientific articles were selected from the databases mentioned above. All stages of processing and conduction of the literature review are detailed in the table below:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAUTOR/ANO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOBJETIVOS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026Eacute;TODOS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRESULTADOS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCONCLUS\u0026Otilde;ES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChand, s. et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe objective of this study was to review the main epidemiological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis, emphasizing their prevalence in developing countries and the impact of migration on the spread of these parasitic infections. The study highlights the rarity and diagnostic challenge of oral and perioral manifestations of cysticercosis, illustrated by an isolated clinical case involving the buccinator muscle. Additionally, the study analyzes pathogenesis, variability of host immune response, characteristic lesions in the central nervous system, and advances in diagnostic methods\u0026mdash;especially high-resolution ultrasonography\u0026mdash;and conservative treatment with oral antiparasitic agents. The importance of including cysticercosis in the differential diagnosis of solitary oral and maxillofacial nodules, particularly in endemic areas, is emphasized.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA 14-year-old female patient presented to the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department with a complaint of painless swelling in the right cheek region, with gradual progression over approximately one year. Extraoral clinical examination revealed mild facial swelling without skin changes, while intraoral examination showed a well-defined submucosal nodular lesion with intact mucosa located on the right buccal mucosa, measuring approximately 1.5 cm \u0026times; 1 cm. Differential diagnoses included fibroma, neurofibroma, focal fibrous hyperplasia, and mucocele. Complementary investigations included panoramic radiography, which revealed no structural alterations, and high-resolution ultrasonography, which identified a well-defined oval intramuscular cystic lesion in the right buccinator muscle measuring 8.7 mm \u0026times; 7.3 mm, containing an eccentric echogenic mural nodule, along with thickening and inflammation of adjacent muscle fibers. Laboratory tests (complete blood count, urinalysis, and stool parasitological examination) showed no systemic involvement. Conservative treatment with oral albendazole and prednisolone was initiated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinical examination confirmed a well-circumscribed, painless, non-compressible submucosal swelling in the right buccal region, without mandibular functional limitation or regional lymphadenopathy. Panoramic radiography was unremarkable, while ultrasonography revealed a cystic lesion suggestive of cysticercosis, confirmed by the presence of an echogenic mural nodule and local inflammatory changes. Laboratory tests showed no signs of systemic infection or involvement of other organs. Conservative management with albendazole and prednisolone was instituted.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCysticercosis should be included in the differential diagnosis of solitary intraoral nodules in the oral and maxillofacial region, particularly in endemic areas. High-resolution ultrasonography is a noninvasive and accessible diagnostic method effective in identifying lesions compatible with \u003cem\u003eCysticercus cellulosae\u003c/em\u003e. Moreover, localized parasitic infections can be successfully treated through conservative approaches using oral antiparasitic agents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCheruvu, V. P. R.; Khan, M. M. (2021)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to review the epidemiological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of cysticercosis, a parasitic disease caused by \u003cem\u003eCysticercus cellulosae\u003c/em\u003e, the larval stage of \u003cem\u003eTaenia solium\u003c/em\u003e, prevalent in regions with uncontrolled pig farming, poor sanitation, and close human\u0026ndash;animal contact. The study highlights its importance as a neglected tropical disease according to the World Health Organization, with high morbidity and mortality in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. It emphasizes human infection through ingestion of undercooked pork or fecal\u0026ndash;oral contamination, primarily affecting the central nervous system, eyes, and meninges, as well as the rare involvement of oral and perioral tissues, which poses a diagnostic challenge for clinicians. Advances in diagnostic methods such as high-resolution ultrasonography and effective conservative treatments are also discussed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA 16-year-old female patient presented with progressive, painful swelling in the right temporal region lasting six months, associated with a previous history of mild local trauma. Physical examination revealed a solitary tumor mass with irregular contours, heterogeneous consistency (soft to firm), and mild tenderness on palpation, without trismus or functional impairment. Ultrasonography revealed a hypoechoic intramuscular cystic lesion in the right temporal muscle containing an eccentric hyperechoic nodule. Computed tomography confirmed a well-defined cystic lesion with an eccentric hypointense component. Conservative pharmacological treatment with oral albendazole (15 mg/kg/day) was initiated for 14 days. Due to persistence of symptoms, surgical intervention was performed. Intraoperatively, a purulent collection (~\u0026thinsp;5 mL) and an opalescent cyst were observed. Albendazole therapy was continued postoperatively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreoperative evaluation confirmed a painful tumor in the right temporal region, with no mandibular dysfunction. Imaging examinations demonstrated an intramuscular cystic lesion consistent with cysticercosis. Culture of the purulent exudate showed no bacterial growth. Postoperative healing was satisfactory, and histopathological examination confirmed the diagnosis of \u003cem\u003eCysticercus cellulosae\u003c/em\u003e. No recurrence or complications were observed during a three-year follow-up period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe clinical course of cysticercosis varies according to lesion number, affected tissues, and tissue response, presenting diverse clinical manifestations that may hinder diagnosis, particularly in isolated head and neck cases. Imaging examinations are essential for lesion identification and classification. Treatment should be individualized, using antiparasitic agents such as albendazole and praziquantel, with surgical intervention reserved for specific symptomatic cases. Prognosis in the maxillofacial region is favorable, with no reported recurrence after adequate therapy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDel Brutto, O. H. (2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to review the main epidemiological and clinical aspects of neurocysticercosis, emphasizing its high prevalence in developing countries and the impact of increased migration on the spread of the disease. This review also aims to analyze the pathogenesis of neurocysticercosis, highlighting the variability of the host immune response and the characteristic lesions in the central nervous system. In addition, it seeks to present recent advances in diagnostic and therapeutic methods, underscoring the importance of the disease as a significant cause of epilepsy and neurological hospitalizations in both endemic and non-endemic regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples of cerebral and meningeal tissues infected with cysticerci at different evolutionary stages (vesicular, colloidal, granular, and calcified) were analyzed. Histopathological evaluation included the assessment of inflammatory response, presence of collagen capsules, astrocytic gliosis, microglial proliferation, neuronal degenerative changes, and cellular infiltrates, using light microscopy techniques.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVesicular cysticerci cause minimal inflammation in the surrounding tissue, whereas colloidal cysticerci are surrounded by collagen capsules and mononuclear inflammatory reaction. The adjacent brain tissue exhibits gliosis, microglial proliferation, edema, and neuronal alterations. In the granular and calcified stages, edema decreases, while astrocytic changes increase and multinucleated giant cells appear. Meningeal cysticerci provoke intense inflammation with thickening of the leptomeninges, which may affect cranial nerves and cerebral vessels, leading to infarctions and hydrocephalus due to obstruction of the foramina of Luschka and Magendie. Ventricular cysticerci may also cause inflammation and obstruct cerebrospinal fluid flow, particularly near the foramen of Monro or the cerebral aqueduct.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeurocysticercosis is common in areas with conditions that facilitate the transmission of \u003cem\u003eT. solium\u003c/em\u003e, such as inadequate disposal of human feces, low levels of education, uncontrolled pig slaughter, and free-roaming pigs near households. The disease can be eradicated; however, control programs must address all stages of the parasite\u0026rsquo;s life cycle\u0026mdash;including human carriers, infected pigs, and environmental eggs\u0026mdash;to prevent disease resurgence after treatment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGarcia, H. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to review the life cycle, natural history, clinical manifestations, and epidemiological impact of neurocysticercosis caused by the larval stage of \u003cem\u003eTaenia solium\u003c/em\u003e, highlighting its prevalence in low-income countries and the increasing number of cases in non-endemic areas due to migration. The study also aims to address the immunological mechanisms involved in the persistence and degeneration of cysts in the central nervous system, as well as the diverse clinical manifestations associated with parasite localization, emphasizing the importance of imaging-based diagnostic methods for disease assessment and monitoring. Furthermore, this study seeks to highlight the need for individualized treatment strategies and the relevance of neurocysticercosis as a major cause of seizures and global neurological morbidity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeuroimaging techniques using Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) were employed to assess the morphological and topographic characteristics of neurocysticercosis cysts. CT allowed the visualization of calcified lesions and the densitometric features of the cysts, whereas MRI, using diffusion-weighted, FLAIR, FIESTA, CISS, and BFFE protocols, was used to provide detailed characterization of intraventricular, subarachnoid, and spinal cystic lesions, as well as to evaluate the degree of inflammation and associated alterations, such as hydrocephalus and arachnoiditis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe imaging findings revealed different cyst stages: viable vesicular cysts appeared as rounded lesions without contrast enhancement or pericystic edema, often with a visible scolex; cysts in the colloidal stage showed ring enhancement and surrounding edema; granular cysts were observed as nodular lesions with hyperintense margins and associated gliosis; calcified cysts were clearly identified on CT as hyperdense nodules without edema. Subarachnoid and intraventricular lesions exhibited specific features, such as structural displacement and hydrocephalus, which were better defined on MRI using dedicated imaging protocols. Spinal neurocysticercosis was also detected, with intramedullary and leptomeningeal cysts identified on MRI.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeurocysticercosis is prevalent in developing countries and also occurs in industrialized nations. Recent advances have improved the understanding of disease subtypes, diagnostic approaches, and individualized treatments, particularly regarding the use of anti-inflammatory therapy and the management of intraparenchymal cysts, leading to better patient prognoses. Control strategies have shown success; however, further research is still needed to develop more accurate etiological diagnostic methods and more effective antiparasitic treatments. Neurocysticercosis serves as a model for epilepsy research, providing insights into genetic predisposition and underlying pathological mechanisms. Confirmation of local transmission elimination may drive global efforts toward the eradication of cysticercosis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKrishnamoorthy, B. et al (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to describe a rare clinical case of oral cysticercosis located in the lip of a pediatric patient, emphasizing the difficulties in the differential diagnosis of this atypical presentation, as well as to conduct a systematized review of the literature on orofacial manifestations of cysticercosis, focusing on its epidemiology, pathogenesis, and the most frequently affected anatomical sites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA 12-year-old female patient presented to the clinic with a complaint of an asymptomatic nodular swelling of the lower lip, with a two-month history. A detailed clinical examination was performed, identifying a spherical, well-defined nodular lesion, measuring approximately 1.5 \u0026times; 1.5 cm on the left lower labial mucosa, with an intact mucosal surface. Palpation revealed a tense, non-tender mass The lesion was non-fluctuant. The differential diagnosis included mucocele, lipoma, and fibroma. Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) was performed, and the aspirated content consisted of clear fluid, yielding no conclusive diagnosis. Surgical excision of the lesion under local anesthesia was therefore performed to obtain a definitive diagnosis. The excised specimen was submitted to histopathological analysis using hematoxylin and eosin (H\u0026amp;E) staining.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistopathological analysis revealed a cystic lesion containing \u003cem\u003eCysticercus cellulosae\u003c/em\u003e, surrounded by a dense fibrous capsule infiltrated by chronic inflammatory cells, predominantly lymphocytes and plasma cells. The inner layer of the capsule exhibited a double-layered membrane, confirming the larval form of \u003cem\u003eTaenia solium\u003c/em\u003e, with identifiable suckers and an invaginated duct-like segment lined by a homogeneous membrane. No areas of dystrophic calcification were observed. The final histopathological diagnosis was labial cysticercosis Due to financial constraints, complementary imaging examinations (computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging) were not performed. The patient was referred for pediatric evaluation and was prescribed albendazole at a dose of 400 mg twice daily for 15 days; however, she was lost to clinical follow-up.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is concluded that cysticercosis represents a significant public health challenge, particularly in developing countries where its prevalence remains high. The scarcity of epidemiological studies, especially those addressing oral cysticercosis, highlights the need for further investigation in India and other endemic regions. Preventive measures\u0026mdash;such as improvements in sanitation, proper management of human waste, education on personal hygiene, and strict inspection of slaughterhouses to prevent the commercialization of infected pork\u0026mdash;are essential for disease control and potential eradication. Oral cysticercosis should always be considered in the differential diagnosis of intraoral nodular lesions in endemic areas. Initial diagnostic methods, such as fine-needle aspiration, are recommended due to their cost-effectiveness and efficiency, whereas more complex and expensive examinations, such as immunological tests and computed tomography, should be reserved for cases in which a definitive diagnosis cannot be established through pathological analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoudel, B. et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to report a rare clinical case of simultaneous presentation of neurocysticercosis and lingual cysticercosis in an adult patient, highlighting the importance of imaging investigations in detecting multiple evolutionary stages of infection caused by the parasite \u003cem\u003eTaenia solium\u003c/em\u003e. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed involvement of both the neuroparenchyma and the tongue, emphasizing the need for an individualized therapeutic approach.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis case report was conducted at a tertiary healthcare center in Nepal and followed the Surgical Case Report (SCARE) guidelines. A 38-year-old male patient underwent a detailed clinical evaluation after an episode of loss of consciousness lasting 4\u0026ndash;5 minutes, accompanied by trismus, upward ocular deviation, and sialorrhea, consistent with a generalized tonic\u0026ndash;clonic seizure. Intraoral examination revealed a painless, firm, mobile nodule measuring approximately 2.0 \u0026times; 2.0 cm, located on the ventral surface of the anterior third of the tongue. Routine laboratory tests were within normal limits. Chest radiography revealed multiple nodular lesions with a \u0026ldquo;grain-like\u0026rdquo; appearance, consistent with disseminated muscular cysticercosis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe initial physical examination confirmed the presence of a 2 \u0026times; 2 cm nodular swelling on the tongue, without signs of inflammation, and with preserved mucosal color and texture. The thoracic skin lesions were painless and erythematous. Brain magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated neurocysticercosis at multiple evolutionary stages (vesicular, colloidal, and granular), with extensive involvement of the cerebral parenchyma and lingual musculature. The presence of a scolex in some lesions confirmed the diagnosis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOral cysticercosis is an uncommon manifestation of \u003cem\u003eTaenia solium\u003c/em\u003e infection and poses a diagnostic challenge, particularly due to the clinical nonspecificity of oral nodules. In endemic regions, such as Nepal, the presence of a nodular lesion on the tongue should raise suspicion of cysticercosis as a differential diagnosis. The present report describes a rare case of mixed infection involving neurocysticercosis and lingual cysticercosis, managed with a conservative approach based on corticosteroid therapy and seizure control. This case highlights the importance of clinical vigilance and the adoption of effective sanitary control strategies for the prevention of taeniasis and subsequent human cysticercosis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eOrofacial cysticercosis is a rare clinical entity, with approximately 34 to 69 cases reported in the literature, predominantly in developing countries, as described by Chand et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Dilip et al. (2011) reported that the tongue is the most frequently affected site (\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;42%), followed by the lips (\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;26%) and the buccal mucosa (\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;19%). This anatomical distribution highlights the importance of careful intraoral examination, particularly in endemic regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinically, Kumar et al. (2016) described that these lesions usually present as well-defined, firm, mobile, and asymptomatic nodules, which often leads to misdiagnosis as common benign oral lesions such as mucocele, fibroma, lipoma, or pyogenic granuloma. This clinical similarity significantly contributes to diagnostic delay.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this context, Ambika et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized that the diagnosis of orofacial cysticercosis is challenging due to its rarity and nonspecific clinical presentation. Fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) may provide suggestive findings and assist in therapeutic planning; however, definitive diagnosis relies on histopathological examination, which demonstrates the presence of the larval form \u003cem\u003eCysticercus cellulosae\u003c/em\u003e surrounded by a fibrous capsule.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSharad et al. (2016) highlighted the importance of complementary imaging studies, such as ultrasonography, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), particularly to investigate systemic involvement, especially of the central nervous system. These modalities may reveal multiple cysts at different evolutionary stages. In addition, immunological tests such as ELISA and EITB show good sensitivity, although false-positive results may occur in asymptomatic patients or in cases of calcified cysticercosis, limiting their diagnostic specificity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding treatment, Singh et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) reported that management of isolated orofacial cysticercosis generally involves complete surgical excision of the lesion, with an excellent prognosis and a low recurrence rate. For dental practitioners, it is essential to include cysticercosis in the differential diagnosis when evaluating orofacial nodules in endemic areas, considering the significant impact of early diagnosis on preventing systemic complications, particularly neurological involvement. Lack of familiarity with this condition often results in delayed diagnosis and inappropriate management.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study enabled the identification of the main types of oral and facial lesions associated with cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis described in the scientific literature, demonstrating that these manifestations predominantly present as nodules or masses located in the tongue, buccal mucosa, lips, and facial muscles. Although considered rare, these lesions are of substantial clinical relevance due to the diagnostic challenges they pose.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiagnostic methods used to confirm orofacial manifestations include fine-needle aspiration, histopathological examination, imaging techniques such as computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, and immunological tests. The combination of these approaches increases diagnostic accuracy and is essential for appropriate therapeutic planning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding treatment, reported protocols generally involve surgical removal of the lesions, with or without the use of antiparasitic agents such as albendazole or praziquantel. Despite their effectiveness, these therapies may be associated with adverse effects, particularly local inflammation and edema, requiring careful clinical management to preserve oral tissue integrity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe clinical implications for dental practitioners are significant, as comprehensive knowledge is required to perform accurate differential diagnosis of oral lesions, given that cysticercosis may mimic various benign or malignant conditions. Furthermore, dentists play a crucial role in appropriate referral and multidisciplinary management, contributing to disease control and improvement of patients\u0026rsquo; quality of life.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough most articles included in this review fall outside the most recent five-year period, this choice is justified by the rarity of the condition and the predominance of case reports and clinical series, which still represent the primary source of available evidence. Thus, the present review integrates and systematizes existing knowledge, reinforcing the importance of clinical vigilance and early recognition of orofacial manifestations of cysticercosis.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAMBIKA G et al (2017) Orofacial cysticercosis: a review. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Clinical and Experimental Pathology\u003c/em\u003e, [s.l.], v. 7, p. 328. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4172/2161-0681.1000328\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4172/2161-0681.1000328\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCHAND S, MISHRA M, SINGH G, SINGH A, TANDON S (2016) Orofacial cysticercosis: report of a rare case with a review of the literature. Natl J Maxillofacial Surg 7(2):209\u0026ndash;212. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4103/0975-5950.201353\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4103/0975-5950.201353\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCHERUVU VPR, KHAN MM (2021) Solitary cysticercus in the right temporalis muscle: a case report of a rare presentation of cysticercosis. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Surgical Case Reports\u003c/em\u003e, v. n. 6, p. rjab223, 2021. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1093/jscr/rjab223\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1093/jscr/rjab223\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDEL BRUTTO OH Neurocysticercosis: a review. The Sci World Journal 2012 Article ID 159821. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1100/2012/159821\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1100/2012/159821\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGARCIA HH, NASH TE, DEL BRUTTO OH (2014) Clinical symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of neurocysticercosis. Lancet Neurol 1202\u0026ndash;1215 v. 13, n. 12. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70094-8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70094-8\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHOSUR MB et al (2015) Oral cysticercosis: a case report and review of the literature. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Maxillofacial and Oral Surgery\u003c/em\u003e, [s.l.], v. 14, n. 3, pp. 853\u0026ndash;857, Sept. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s12663-015-0745-x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12663-015-0745-x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. Available at: National Center for Biotechnology Information. Accessed on: June 27, 2025\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKRISHNAMOORTHY B, SUMA GN, DHILLON M, SRIVASTAVA S, SHARMA ML, MALIK SS (2012) Encysted \u003cem\u003eTaenia solium\u003c/em\u003e larva of the oral cavity: a case report with a review of the literature. \u003cem\u003eContemporary Clinical Dentistry\u003c/em\u003e, [s.l.], v. 3, suppl. 2, pp. S228\u0026ndash;S232. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4103/0976-237X.101103\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4103/0976-237X.101103\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKUMAR BD, DAVE B, MEGHANA SM (July\u0026ndash;August 2011) Cysticercosis of the masseter muscle. 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Annals Med Surg 85:5704\u0026ndash;5708. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1097/MS9.0000000000001292\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1097/MS9.0000000000001292\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSAGAR M et al (2023) Lower lip cysticercosis: an unusual case report. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology\u003c/em\u003e, v. 27, suppl. 1, pp. S95\u0026ndash;S97, Feb\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSINGH A et al (2018) Oral cysticercosis: a case series and review of the literature. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2572\u0026ndash;2576 [s.l.], v. 76, n. 12. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.joms.2018.07.012\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.joms.2018.07.012\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Universidade Federal de Pernambuco","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Cysticercosis, Oral Cavity, Differential Diagnosis, Neurocysticercosis, Parasitic Diseases, Diagnostic Imaging","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8723257/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8723257/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntroduction:\u003c/strong\u003e Cysticercosis is a parasitic infection caused by the larval stage of \u003cem\u003eTaenia solium\u003c/em\u003e, whose neurological form, neurocysticercosis, is a relevant cause of epilepsy in regions with poor sanitation. Although widely studied in the neurological field, its orofacial manifestations are poorly described and may mimic benign lesions such as mucoceles, fibromas, or lipomas. \u003cstrong\u003eObjective:\u003c/strong\u003e To investigate, through an integrative review, the oral manifestations of cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis, with emphasis on differential diagnosis in Dentistry and on the repercussions of antiparasitic treatment on oral health.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethodology:\u003c/strong\u003e A systematic review was conducted between April and May 2025 using the PubMed, BVS, and SciELO databases, employing DeCS-validated descriptors: Oral Manifestations, \u003cem\u003eTaenia solium\u003c/em\u003e, Parasitic Infections, and Oral Lesions. Language filters were applied (Portuguese, English, and Spanish). A total of 246 articles were identified, of which 6 met the inclusion criteria after title, abstract, and full-text screening.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003eClinical manifestations of oral cysticercosis include painless, slow-growing submucosal nodules located in different regions of the oral cavity. These lesions are frequently misdiagnosed as other common benign oral pathologies, which hinders correct diagnosis. Recognition of these characteristics is essential for clinical suspicion and referral for parasitological and imaging evaluation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion:\u003c/strong\u003e Oral manifestations of cysticercosis are underdiagnosed and may be easily confused with other benign lesions of the oral cavity. Dental professionals should be aware of these clinical presentations to ensure early diagnosis and avoid inappropriate treatments, promoting integrated management with the medical team.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Orofacial Manifestations of Cysticercosis and Neurocysticercosis: Clinical Implications for Dentistry — An Integrative Review","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-29 07:32:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8723257/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"467f2aed-e7d3-4345-82ba-a3849d953dbd","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 29th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":61944257,"name":"Dentistry"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-29T07:32:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-29 07:32:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8723257","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8723257","identity":"rs-8723257","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}