Assessing Postharvest Losses of Tropical Fruits at Different Handling Stages in the Supply Chain of Ethiopia

Assessing Postharvest Losses of Tropical Fruits at Different Handling Stages in the Supply Chain of Ethiopia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Assessing Postharvest Losses of Tropical Fruits at Different Handling Stages in the Supply Chain of Ethiopia Muluken Bantayehu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7663815/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Agriculture forms the backbone of Ethiopia’s economy, supplying essential food products, raw materials for food industries, and commodities for export. Key export products include coffee, oilseeds, spices, fresh fruits and vegetables. Commonly produced perishable tropical fruits for both local consumption and export markets include tomato, papaya, avocado, banana, mango, and guava. Nonetheless, ensuring that these fruits meet the quality standards of different markets continues to be a significant challenge. This research assessed postharvest losses of tropical fruits along the market chain in northwestern Ethiopia. Data were collected from 180 producers and 80 traders on six tropical fruits: avocado ( Persea americana ), banana ( Musa spp.), guava ( Psidium guajava ), mango ( Mangifera indica ), papaya ( Carica papaya ), and tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum ). Purposive sampling was employed to select key production and trading areas, while respondents were chosen using random sampling. Postharvest losses, as estimated by farmers, ranged from 18% to 28%, with the greatest losses occurring during harvesting, followed by storage and transportation. Trader level postharvest losses ranged from 18% to 25%, with losses being higher during storage than during transportation and marketing. The fruits most affected were avocado, tomato, and mango, especially during the peak harvest periods. The primary causes of postharvest losses at the farm level included physical damage from harvesting tall varieties, sunburn, harvesting at immature stages, and the use of inappropriate containers. Storage losses were primarily attributed to mechanical damage, insect infestations, diseases, and physiological disorders. During transportation, the main contributors to losses were sunburn and damage incurred during loading and unloading. At the trader level, losses were primarily caused by mechanical damage, postharvest pests, physiological disorders, and inadequate handling during transportation and marketing. The findings highlight the critical influence of postharvest practices on fruit quality and underscore the need for improved technologies, infrastructure, and farmer education to reduce postharvest losses and maintain fruit quality throughout the supply chain. Horticulture Tropical fruits Postharvest losses Market chain Storage Harvesting practices Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 1. INTRODUCTION Fresh produce, especially fruits, plays a crucial role in ensuring food and nutrition security. It also contributes to global trade and economic growth (Karoney et al., 2024 ). Despite its economic potential, fruits face significant postharvest losses, which threaten food security. This issue is especially pronounced in low- and middle-income countries (Opara et al., 2021 ). Even with notable advancements in global food production, nearly half of the population in developing nations lacks adequate food supplies. Malnutrition presents a significant health challenge worldwide, among other issues (Jarman et al., 2023 ). One major reason for this is the food loss that occurs in the postharvest and marketing systems. Fruits and vegetables experience higher rates of postharvest loss and waste due to their high moisture content, which often exceeds 80%, along with high respiration rates and vulnerability to handling damage (WHO, 2024 ). Estimates suggest that postharvest losses for fruits and vegetables are between 5% to 20% in developed countries and 20% to 50% in developing countries (Mashav, 2010 ). Additionally, the FAO ( 2011 ) estimated global postharvest losses of 32% and 37% in sub-Saharan Africa, where hunger and food insecurity are most severe. FAO ( 2019 ) reported that 820 million people worldwide face hungry every day. In 2023, about 2.33 billion people faced moderate to severe food insecurity, a number that has remained largely unchanged since the spike in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic (Food and Agriculture Organizations of the United Nations, 2024). Of these, over 864 million experienced severe food insecurity, sometimes going a full day without food (UN Environment Programme, 2020 ). The FAO, 2019 also noted that global losses of fruits and vegetables between harvest and retail were estimated at 22% (FAO, 2019 ). A substantial portion of losses occurs due to a combination of biological and human-related factors throughout the stages from harvest to final consumption (Anon, 1969 ). These include losses that take place on the farm during harvesting, drying, and threshing, as well as those that arise during storage and transportation. In particular, on-farm losses may happen when farmers store crops for household use or delay selling in anticipation of improved market prices (Shepherd, 2012 ).. Agriculture plays a central role in Ethiopia’s economy, providing food for consumption, raw materials for agro-industries, and high-value goods for export. The country has vast agricultural resources and potential. More than 90% of Ethiopia’s foreign exchange earnings are derived from agricultural exports, primarily coffee, oilseeds, spices, and fresh produce such as fruits and vegetables. Of the 39.7 million tonnes of crops produced nationwide, 23.1 million tonnes are classified as non-perishable, while 6.6 million tonnes are highly perishable. Within the perishable category, approximately 0.5 million tonnes are tropical fruits such as tomatoes, bananas, mangoes, papayas, avocados, guavas, and pineapples (CSA, 2012). Due to their biological nature, tropical fruits tend to experience high postharvest losses. Despite this, they are also characterized by high productivity levels: tomatoes yield 29.5 quintals per hectare, papayas 170.5 Q/ha, avocados 81.0 Q/ha, bananas 81.2 Q/ha, and mangoes 90.3 Q/ha—significantly exceeding the national average of 20.0 Q/ha (CSA, 2012). When produced in large volumes and managed effectively after harvest, tropical and subtropical fruits can deliver considerable economic and environmental advantages. Ethiopia’s favorable climate offers strong potential for expanding both the yield and production of these fruits. Moreover, increasing fruit production can play a role in conserving natural resources, addressing climate change chalenges, improving fresh fruit export earnings, and supporting the growth of fruit processing industries. Research by Seid et al. ( 2013 ) in South Wollo reported postharvest losses for bananas (1.5%, 1.2%, and 4.5%), tomatoes (2.5%, 2.5%, and 5.9%), mangoes (1.6%, 1%, and 3.7%), and papayas (1.5%, 1%, and 3.3%) occurring at the farm level, during transportation and storage respectively. These losses are primarily attributed to pre-harvest infections and physical damage. Furthermore, the use of improper handling and packaging techniques such as transporting produce in non-palletized sacks and tightly packed bundles contributes to mechanical injuries. Transportation is often done using pack animals or carried manually, resulting in bruising during loading and unloading. In terms of marketing, most farmers sell their produce at nearby markets or directly from their farms. However, the marketing environment is often unfavorable due to issues like market saturation, exploitation by middlemen, the perishable nature of the produce and a lack of adequate storage infrastructure. A separate study on tomato postharvest losses revealed that farmers typically harvested only when buyers were available, collected the fruits at full ripeness, and relied on traditional packaging materials such as baskets and sacks. These practices contributed significant to postharvest losses, reaching as high as 62.5% (Olayemi et al., 2012 ). Although several studies have done on fruits in various countries and regions, little research was conducted on the production and marketing systems of Northwestern Ethiopia. Therefore, this research aims to assess postharvest losses of tropical fruits at different handling stages in the market chain of northwestern Ethiopia and to identify and prioritize the major factors contributing to postharvest losses at farmers and trader levels. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Area Description The research was carried out in the West Gojam and South Gondar Zones located in northwestern Ethiopia. These regions are known for their favorable agroecological conditions and hold significant potential for tropical fruit production, marketing, and agro-processing development. The study focused on key fruit-producing districts including Burie, Bahirdar Zuria, Zegie, Woreta, Dangla, and Finoteselam. In addition to the production sites, data were also collected from towns actively engaged in fruit trade namely Bahirdar, Finoteselam, Burie, Woreta and Dangla where both wholesalers and retailers were surveyed. The research involved the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data on major tropical fruit crops such as avocado ( Persea americana ), banana ( Musa spp. ), guava ( Psidium guajava ), mango ( Mangifera indica ), papaya ( Carica papaya ), and tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum ). 2.2 Sampling Methods and Data Collection A purposive sampling approach was employed to identify key fruit producing and trading areas, while random sampling was used to select respondent farmers and traders. Six tropical fruit producing districts across the two administrative zones were selected for the study. From these districts, a total of 180 fruit producing farmers were randomly selected, with 30 farmers from each district. In addition, 80 fruit traders comprising 20 wholesalers and 60 retailers were randomly chosen from the towns of Bahirdar, Burie, Finoteselam, Dangila, and Woreta. To collect primary data, the researchers used a semi-structured questionnaire tailored for both farmers and traders. Supplementary data were gathered through direct observation and key informant interviews, allowing for deeper insights into postharvest handling practices and losses. 2.3 Data Analysis The collected data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22. Descriptive statistics, including means, minimum and maximum values, standard deviations, and percentages, were calculated to summarize key variables. To assess relationships between estimated postharvest losses and various socio-economic and production related factors, a simple correlation analysis was performed. The research findings were presented using tables, graphs, and charts. 3. RESULTS 3.1 Socio-Economic Status of Fruit Producers and Fruit Production As shown in Table 1 , the average age of fruit producers is 45.6 years, with family sizes averaging 5.5 members and approximately 3.94 working individuals per household. The ages of respondents in the sample ranged from 24 to 73 years. On average, producers cultivate 1.38 hectares of land, of which 0.29 hectares (about 21%) is allocated to fruit production. The sampled households have an average of nine years of experience in fruit farming. Storage duration for harvested fruits ranges from zero to 15 days, indicating that farmers typically need to consume or sell their produce within less than a month. Furthermore, simultaneous harvesting by all farmers often leads to negative impacts on market prices. Table 1 Descriptive statistics of household and farm characteristics Variable Mean Std. Dev. Min Max Age (years) 45.90 9.41 24.00 73.00 Family size (persons) 5.50 2.12 1.00 12.00 Working persons in household 3.94 1.55 1.00 8.00 Distance to market (hours on foot) 8.34 5.97 0.50 30.00 Total cropland (hectares) 1.38 0.94 0.25 7.00 Total fruit land (hectares) 0.29 0.18 0.01 1.50 Experience in fruit production (years) 9.09 5.15 2.00 30.00 Storage duration (days) 3.98 3.17 0.00 15.00 As shown in Fig. 1 , the major tropical fruits produced in Ethiopia include banana, tomato, mango, papaya, avocado, and guava. Data on fruit production from the Central Statistical Agency (CSA) covering the years 1997 to 2005 reveal that banana is the most widely produced fruit, exhibiting an increasing production trend. Mango and tomato follow in production volume. Avocado and papaya rank fourth and fifth respectively, while guava production remains low and relatively constant over the years. 3.2 Losses of Fruits at Famers Level The assessment revealed that the mean percentage of fruit loss at the farmers’ level in northwestern Ethiopia ranged from 15% to 30%. Losses were highest for avocado (28%), followed by tomato (22%), mango (21%), papaya (19%), banana (18%), and guava (16%) (Fig. 2 ). Postharvest losses varied across different handling stages at the farm level. During harvesting, 83% of producers reported experiencing losses, while 17% reported none. Among respondents, 48%, 34%, and 18% estimated losses of 1–5%, 6–10%, and 11–35%, respectively. At farmers’ storage, 71% experienced losses, with the remaining 29% reporting none; 68%, 18%, and 14% estimated losses of 1–5%, 6–10%, and 11–40%, respectively. During transportation and marketing, 65%, 22%, and 13% of farmers estimated losses of 1–5%, 6–10%, and 11–30%, respectively. reported by farmers Figure 3 illustrates the monthly variation in fruit losses throughout the year. The highest losses were recorded during February, March, April, May, and June, which correspond to the peak production period. During this time, fruit prices are at their lowest while postharvest losses are at their maximum. Conversely, in periods of low production, demand and prices increase. Given the year-round consumer demand for these fruits, measures to ensure a consistent supply throughout the year are essential. Postharvest losses also varied across different handling stages, with the greatest losses occurring during harvesting, followed by storage, and subsequently during marketing and transportation (Fig. 4 ). According to respondents, the primary causes of loss during harvesting include fruits falling from tall trees, injury from harvesting sticks, and exposure to high temperatures and sunburn during temporary field storage, and picking of immature fruits (Fig. 5). Most of the fruit varieties cultivated by farmers are tall, and in the absence of advanced harvesting technologies, long sticks are commonly used to dislodge ripe fruits from trees. Fruits are often pulled down and allowed to fall to the ground before being collected in containers, leading to mechanical damage and accelerated postharvest decay. Additionally, harvesting is ideally conducted during cooler periods to minimize heat stress; however, it is routinely performed during daytime hours under high temperatures, low relative humidity, and intense sunlight, conditions that promote wilting. Furthermore, no cold or temporary field storage facilities are available for pre-cooling, exacerbating postharvest losses fruits at the farm level . Figure 5. Factors contributing to postharvest losses of tropical fruits during the harvesting stage At the farmers’ storage level, the highest postharvest losses were attributed to mechanical injury, followed by postharvest diseases, insect infestation and physiological disorders (Fig. 6 ). Table 2 Factors responsible for postharvest loss at farmers’ storage Rank Mechanical injury Postharvest diseases Insect pests Physiological disorders 1st Animal damage (rats, ants, termites, domestic animals) Rust Worms Chilling injury 2nd Over crowding Microbial decay Fly Fruit cracking 3rd Compaction Anthracnose thrips High temperature 4th Roughness of container Powdery mildew injury 5th Fast ripening and decay Shrinking 6th Fall on the ground Fruit curling 7th Over ripened damage 8th Falling immature fruits At the farmers’ storage level, mechanical damage was a major contributor to postharvest loss. Key factors included damage by vertebrate and invertebrate pests such as rodents, ants, termites, and domesticated animals, as well as compaction, overcrowding, and hardness of containers (Table 2 ). Fruits are typically transported to the farmers’ home and temporarily stored until ripening before being moved to the market. However, storage facilities are generally inadequate, lacking proper cooling and ventilation. The other major source of postharvest loss includes diseases such as powdery mildew, anthracnose, rust, and microbial decay and insect pests (e.g., flies, thrips, and worms). High rates of injury from tomato and guava worms highlight the need for effective control measures to reduce losses. As highly perishable commodities, fruits require optimal temperature and relative humidity during postharvest handling; deviations from these conditions can lead to physiological disorders. The primary causes of such disorders include chilling injury, cracking, shrinkage, heat injury, and sunburn. After temporary storage at the farmers’ homes, fruits are transported to nearby markets. The assessment revealed that significant postharvest losses occurred during both transportation and marketing. The major contributing factors included fruit over-piling during transport, mechanical damage caused by consumers’ handling, and the use of inappropriate transportation methods such as carrying on the backs of animals or women. Additional causes of loss were poor road conditions, absence of fruit packaging or waxing, rapid ripening, injuries sustained during loading and unloading, and inadequate market infrastructure characterized by high temperature, low relative humidity, and direct sun exposure. Economic and handling-related issues, such as market price fluctuations, long transportation distances, mixing of different fruit types during transport, and the lack of sorting by ripeness or health status (ripe/unripe, diseased/healthy), further exacerbated postharvest losses (Fig. 7 ). 3.3 2 Losses of Fruits at Wholesaler and Retailer Level The average percentage of fruit loss at the trader level ranged from 5% to 25%, with the highest losses occurring during storage, followed by transportation and marketing at both the wholesaler (local collector) and retailer levels. As illustrated in Fig. 8 , mango experienced the most substantial estimated loss, reaching up to 25%, while losses in other fruits were relatively similar. The particularly high loss observed in mango was primarily associated with the postharvest transportation and marketing stages. At the wholesale level, mechanical damages were identified as the leading cause of postharvest fruit loss, followed by postharvest diseases, insect infestation, and physiological disorders. The most significant sources of mechanical injury included rodent damage, overcrowding, compression, and bruising from container edges (Table 3 ). Postharvest insect pests, especially worms, were prevalent across fruits stored at the trader level, highlighting the urgent need for detailed studies on their biology and management. Postharvest diseases most notably; rots, molds, and decay were strongly associated with mechanically injured and microbially infected fruits. Further investigation is required to identify causal pathogens, assess the presence and levels of mycotoxins and develop effective control strategies within the postharvest chain. Physiological disorders, including heat injury, sunburn, fruit shrinkage, and accelerated ripening and decay were also observed. Table 3 Ranked factors contributing to postharvest losses of tropical fruits at the wholesaler level Rank Mechanical injury Postharvest diseases Postharvest Insect Physiological disorder 1st Overcrowded storage Decay Worms High temperature 2nd Container damage Rot Roddents Sun burning 3rd Compaction Moulds Fast ripening 4th Hand scraching Low temperature 5th Overloading Shrinking The principal causes of postharvest loss during transportation and marketing were identified as high temperature, sunburn, overcrowding and overloading during transport, fruit dropping, poor road conditions, accelerated ripening, use of unsuitable or damaged containers, inappropriate transportation practices, and mechanical injury during loading and unloading. In addition, unstable wholesale market prices further contributed to losses (Fig. 9 ). To minimize these challenges, improved storage and transportation infrastructure, adoption of proper packaging systems, and capacity-building programs for local collectors and wholesalers on postharvest handling, quality maintenance, and fruit marketing are essential. As shown in Fig. 10 , the predominant causes of postharvest loss at the retailer level were mechanical damage, postharvest diseases, physiological disorders, and insect infestation. Mechanical injuries primarily resulted from vertebrate pests such as rats, ants, termites, and domestic animals, as well as from overcrowding, compression, and container damage. Postharvest diseases, particularly microbial rot, decay, and mold development, were identified as the most critical contributors to losses. Physiological disorders were mainly associated with high-temperature injury, chilling injury, and sunburn (Table 4 ). retail storage Table 4 Ranking of factors responsible for postharvest loss at retailer temporary storage Priority (rank) Mechanical injury Postharvest disease Postharvest insect Physiological disorder 1st Rodents damage Rot Worm High temperature injury 2nd Overcrowding and overloading Decay Chilling injury 3rd Container damage (roughness of container) Wilting Sun burning 4th Compaction Blackening 5th Break during transport 6th Hand touching and scratching 7th Poor storage media 8th Domestic animal damage (poultry, sheep, goats, cows) 9th Children damage 10th Crush by human leg 11th Dropping on the ground 12th High temperature At the retailer level, the leading causes of postharvest loss during transport and marketing were identified and prioritized as overloading, overcrowding, and over-piling of fruits, improper handling during loading and unloading, compression damage, mechanical injury from consumer handling, and exposure to high temperatures and direct sunlight (Fig. 11 ). 3.4 Correlation of Variables with fruit Loss According to the findings presented in Table 5 , several socioeconomic characteristics of farmers were found to have significant correlations with postharvest losses. Notably, variables such as the producer’s education level, proximity to the nearest market, farming experience, agro-ecological conditions, marital status, age, and primary sources of income have showed strong to very strong associations with estimated fruit losses. Among these, agro-ecology and market distance exhibited relatively higher correlation coefficients, suggesting their critical influence. Variations in agro-ecological zones affect climate conditions, market accessibility, and the availability of transport and storage infrastructure, all of which contribute to postharvest losses. The observed strong correlations between postharvest losses and variables such as education level, experience, age, marital status, gender, and income sources point to the potential for reducing losses through capacity building measures. Enhancing growers' knowledge and skills in postharvest handling could significantly improve outcomes. In addition, several production related factors including the source of irrigation water, land type, labor availability, use of organic fertilizers, access to improved seed varieties, and pesticide application were found to be significantly or highly significantly associated with postharvest losses. Among these, the source of irrigation water and labor scarcity showed particularly strong correlations. These inputs influence both fruit yield and postharvest quality. The interrelationship between organic fertilizer use (e.g., compost/manure), pesticide application, and postharvest loss highlights the importance of integrating sound agronomic practices during production to mitigate postharvest losses effectively. Table 5 Simple correlations between socio-economic and production variables with estimated postharvest losses Variables Loss during harvest Loss during storage Loss during transportation and sell Socio-economic Variables Zone -0.18* Wereda -0.24* -0.39** Educational level -0.19* Distance from the nearest market 0.23* 0.24* Experience of fruit production -0.26** Age of the respondent -0.18* Means of income 0.21* Marital status 0.23** Male family size 0.19* Production Variables Use of compost/ manure for fruit production 0.36** Source of irrigation water 0.30** 0.36** Labour shortage 0.18* 0.31** Type of land for fruit production -0.16* Use of pesticide 0.21* Source of improved seed -0.44** Access to improved seed 0.28** * significant ** highly significant As presented in Table 6 , several postharvest handling practices demonstrated significant and highly significant correlations with postharvest loss. These include the method of fruit harvesting and collection during harvest; the type of container and the use of sorting and grading during storage; as well as the method of transportation, the transport container type, and fruit ripening problem during marketing. The findings of this study clearly highlight the need for improved practices at the farmers and traders level, such as the adoption of appropriate harvesting methods and technologies, effective sorting and grading before storage, enhanced storage infrastructure, upgraded transportation and packaging systems, and proper ripening techniques. Implementing these measures is essential for minimizing estimated postharvest losses. Table 6 Simple correlations between postharvest handling variables and estimated postharvest losses Method of fruit harvest Method of fruit collection Type of container for home storage Sorting and grading before storage Method of transport Container used to transport to the market Fruit ripening problem Loss during harvest 0.35** 0.20* Loss at storage 0.21* 0.47** Loss at transport and marketing 0.34* 0.35** 0.54** * significant ** highly significant 4. DISCUSSION Agriculture remains the backbone of Ethiopia’s economy, serving as the primary source of food, raw materials for agro-industries, and high-quality products for the export market. Among the top contributors to export earnings are coffee, oilseeds, spices, and a range of fresh fruits and vegetables. Perishable tropical and subtropical fruits such as tomato, papaya, avocado, banana, mango, and guava are widely cultivated for both domestic consumption and export. However, meeting international quality standards remains a critical challenge, particularly due to substantial postharvest losses in both quantity and quality. At the farm level, postharvest losses are estimated to range between 20% and 25%, significantly affecting the availability and marketability of these commodities. According to Mashav ( 2010 ), postharvest fruit losses range from 5% to 20% in developed countries, while in developing countries, the figure rises dramatically to 20%–50%. In Ethiopia, Seid et al. ( 2013 ) estimated postharvest losses at different stages for key fruits: banana losses were 1.5% at the farm, 1.2% during transportation, and 4.5% in storage; tomato losses were 2.5%, 2.5%, and 5.9%, respectively; mango showed 1.6%, 1%, and 3.7% losses; and papaya losses were reported as 1.5%, 1%, and 3.3% at the corresponding stages. Significant postharvest losses occur at the producer level, particularly during the harvesting stage. This is largely due to the use of tall fruit varieties and the lack of improved harvesting and collection technologies. Introducing shorter varieties or adopting top-working practices, along with cost-effective harvesting and collection tools, is essential to mitigate losses at this stage. Harvesting should ideally be conducted during cooler parts of the day, and temporary field storage facilities are necessary to safely hold harvested fruits prior to transport.Mechanical injuries, postharvest insect pests, diseases, and physiological disorders all contribute to varying degrees of loss during on-farm storage. The most critical factors identified at this stage include the absence of cold storage facilities and the common practice of storing fruits without prior sorting or grading to separate healthy fruits from those that are diseased, damaged, or immature. Losses during transportation and marketing are primarily caused by inappropriate packaging materials, inadequate transportation systems, poor road infrastructure, high temperatures, sun exposure, low relative humidity, long distances to market, and market inefficiencies. Supporting these findings, Olayemi et al. ( 2012 ) reported in a study conducted in Nigeria that 82.7% of producers used sacks without palletizing, resulting in tightly packed produce with limited air circulation. Additionally, 64.5% relied on pack animals or manual transport, which often caused bruising during loading and unloading. Most farmers harvest only when a buyer is available, with 90% harvesting at the fully ripe stage. Traditional baskets and sacks remain the primary packaging materials used for transporting produce, contributing to postharvest losses estimated at 62.5%. To address these issues, the introduction of improved, low-cost fruit storage and transport technologies is necessary. Furthermore, existing marketing and transport infrastructures must be upgraded to support a reliable cold chain. Providing comprehensive postharvest training and education to both producers and technical personnel is also crucial, given the complex knowledge and skills required in this field. Postharvest losses at the traders' level—encompassing both wholesalers or local collectors and retailers—are significant, with estimates ranging between 20% and 25%. These losses are primarily attributed to the absence of adequate market infrastructure, including cold storage facilities, controlled atmosphere storage, appropriate packaging materials, and reliable transportation systems. The naturally high respiration rate of tropical fruits, combined with their short green life and limited shelf life, exacerbates deterioration, especially under the high temperatures, low relative humidity, and direct sunlight exposure typical of local market conditions. At the retail level, these environmental factors contribute substantially to postharvest losses. Additionally, mechanical damages such as bruising, cracking, and surface blemishes play a major role in reducing fruit quality and marketability. The marketing environment itself is often unfavorable, particularly during peak harvest months—March, April, and May—when oversupply leads to further quality degradation and economic losses. Postharvest handling practices and environmental conditions play a critical role in determining the quality and shelf life of fruits. Maintaining fruits within their optimal temperature and relative humidity ranges is essential to preserve quality and reduce postharvest losses. For non-chilling-sensitive fruits, and those sensitive to chilling when stored above their minimum safe temperature, each 10°C rise in temperature (above freezing) can accelerate deterioration and degrade nutritional quality by two to three times. Delays between harvest and cooling or processing contribute to both direct losses—such as water loss and decay—and indirect losses, including diminished flavor and nutrient content. The extent of these losses is influenced by the condition of the fruit at harvest and its internal temperature, which is often significantly higher than ambient levels, particularly when exposed to direct sunlight. The distribution chain generally lacks the capacity to maintain ideal storage conditions for every type of fruit, forcing handlers to compromise on temperature and humidity settings. These compromises can induce physiological stress, reducing shelf life and overall quality (Paull, 1999 ). The weakest point in the postharvest handling chain is typically the household level, where significant improvements can be made through the advancement of home handling technologies and consumer education (Shewfelt et al., 2000 ). 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Food Chain 2(2):149–163 Shewfelt RL, Prussia SE, Dooley JH (2000) Quality of fruits and vegetables in home handling systems. In: Florkowski WJ et al (eds) Integrated view of fruit and vegetable quality. Technomic Publishing Co., pp 273–283 UN Environment Programme (2020) Food loss and waste must be reduced for greater food security and environmental sustainability. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/food-loss-and-waste-must-be-reduced-greater-food-security-and WHO (2024) Hunger numbers stubbornly high for three consecutive years as global crises deepen: UN report. :text=Despite%20some%20progress%20in%20specific,Caribbean%2C%20and%20most%20African%20subregions. https://www.who.int/news/item/24-07-2024-hunger-numbers-stubbornly-high-for-three-consecutive-years-as-global-crises-deepen--un-report#:~ Declarations Participant Consent Statement All participants were informed about the purpose of the study and voluntarily agreed to take part. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Ethics Approval Statement This study involving human participants was reviewed and approved by research and community service division of Bahir Dar University. Participation was voluntary, and informed consent was obtained from all respondents prior to data collection. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7663815","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":519870448,"identity":"2787a187-471e-45b9-ba2e-5a463d941404","order_by":0,"name":"Muluken Bantayehu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAwElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACgwPMbUDqvxwDAw+RWiwPMIK0MBsTr8UeqiWxgWgtZjcS2x783MGWvuH42YMPPjDYyek2ENbSbth7hid3w5m8ZMMZDMnGZgeIsEWCt00id8OBHDNpHoYDidsIaTEAapH822aQbnD+DQlapHnbEhIMbhBty5mH7caybQcMZ954Y2w4w4AIvxgcTz728G3bAXm+8zmGDz5U2MkR1AIHCmCVBsQqBwH5BlJUj4JRMApGwYgCAEgLSFjPlTPrAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Bahirdar University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muluken","middleName":"","lastName":"Bantayehu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-20 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13:43:02","extension":"xml","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":85930,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs76638150structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/60a9a74dedc1eac28a3ed042.xml"},{"id":92656659,"identity":"6a160a08-fadb-437b-b757-8c4d6d670ffb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 13:43:03","extension":"html","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":93178,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/c0121bc632ed81dfbb7a2a5a.html"},{"id":92656637,"identity":"92d6352e-ec70-42a8-b038-4bd2e2d9286a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 13:43:02","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":134525,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTrends in the production of six major tropical fruits in Ethiopia from 1997 to 2005 (Gregorian calendar)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/927a62a46f6be6be4b415f0a.png"},{"id":92656646,"identity":"a05bd162-cdb8-48b2-a862-efaade0a2326","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 13:43:02","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":194354,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEstimated postharvest losses of different tropical fruits as reported by farmers\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/76163d80db695ab58ba15471.jpeg"},{"id":92656641,"identity":"55510ebf-c6d4-4ff9-afe0-9ef2e5232868","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 13:43:02","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":314473,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMonthly distribution of postharvest losses of tropical\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003efruits at the farm level\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/ff0872a256e975f4737d8c1c.jpeg"},{"id":92656639,"identity":"0eb40ccd-a37e-47a4-8a32-3888ef3e0916","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 13:43:02","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":152677,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEstimation of fruit losses across different postharvest handling practices at the farm level\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/e0851d97165bd713c9b6c9fc.jpeg"},{"id":92656644,"identity":"cd4be928-2798-4a7d-a275-b00759139b23","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 13:43:02","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":53776,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFactors contributing to postharvest losses of tropical fruits during the harvesting stage\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fruit5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/f6958fb430134e6d7565236e.png"},{"id":92656867,"identity":"6d04a3d6-a848-4ab9-9488-b89513b34ea9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 13:51:02","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":30181,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFactors contributing to fruit losses during storage at the farmer level, ranked according to their relative frequency as reported by farmers.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fruit6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/925787fa1e9aa71dbb5532f3.png"},{"id":92656866,"identity":"33b25834-1169-4646-9798-ceb4fd213dd0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 13:51:02","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":92021,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRanked factors contributing to postharvest losses of tropical fruits during transportation and marketing.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fruit7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/7eedd7e800ac103bb45bf07a.png"},{"id":92656654,"identity":"d915e012-9506-429c-8217-357f9954fb33","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 13:43:02","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":208301,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFruit loss estimation of different tropical fruits at traders level.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/6ffe97e858236df0763917ae.jpeg"},{"id":92656650,"identity":"034060cf-721a-4ff0-bfbc-5fb3389c4974","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 13:43:02","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":73625,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRated factors contributing to fruit losses at the wholesaler level\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fruit9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/d333c188fc06161f011fff93.png"},{"id":92656649,"identity":"318424f6-d202-4e6c-a0b0-f5e410bd8cf2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 13:43:02","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":33753,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRated factors contributing to fruit losses during\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eretail storage\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fruit10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/0f1f0e17d8a55f9a074c3924.png"},{"id":92657644,"identity":"0e21e9cc-8729-4110-aa23-4447031dfead","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 13:59:02","extension":"jpeg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":404391,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRated factors contributing to fruit losses at the retail level during transportation and marketing.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/3f74553b8056e6631f935a7c.jpeg"},{"id":92658035,"identity":"63e3907f-0b5e-4215-9e4c-25570bf8d314","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-02 14:07:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2528124,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7663815/v1/8c6b2ae9-bb06-49c7-b571-16ff0de41962.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eAssessing Postharvest Losses of Tropical Fruits at Different Handling Stages in the Supply Chain of Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eFresh produce, especially fruits, plays a crucial role in ensuring food and nutrition security. It also contributes to global trade and economic growth (Karoney et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Despite its economic potential, fruits face significant postharvest losses, which threaten food security. This issue is especially pronounced in low- and middle-income countries (Opara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Even with notable advancements in global food production, nearly half of the population in developing nations lacks adequate food supplies. Malnutrition presents a significant health challenge worldwide, among other issues (Jarman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). One major reason for this is the food loss that occurs in the postharvest and marketing systems. Fruits and vegetables experience higher rates of postharvest loss and waste due to their high moisture content, which often exceeds 80%, along with high respiration rates and vulnerability to handling damage (WHO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Estimates suggest that postharvest losses for fruits and vegetables are between 5% to 20% in developed countries and 20% to 50% in developing countries (Mashav, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the FAO (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) estimated global postharvest losses of 32% and 37% in sub-Saharan Africa, where hunger and food insecurity are most severe. FAO (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) reported that 820\u0026nbsp;million people worldwide face hungry every day. In 2023, about 2.33\u0026nbsp;billion people faced moderate to severe food insecurity, a number that has remained largely unchanged since the spike in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic (Food and Agriculture Organizations of the United Nations, 2024). Of these, over 864\u0026nbsp;million experienced severe food insecurity, sometimes going a full day without food (UN Environment Programme, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e also noted that global losses of fruits and vegetables between harvest and retail were estimated at 22% (FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). A substantial portion of losses occurs due to a combination of biological and human-related factors throughout the stages from harvest to final consumption (Anon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1969\u003c/span\u003e). These include losses that take place on the farm during harvesting, drying, and threshing, as well as those that arise during storage and transportation. In particular, on-farm losses may happen when farmers store crops for household use or delay selling in anticipation of improved market prices (Shepherd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)..\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgriculture plays a central role in Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s economy, providing food for consumption, raw materials for agro-industries, and high-value goods for export. The country has vast agricultural resources and potential. More than 90% of Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s foreign exchange earnings are derived from agricultural exports, primarily coffee, oilseeds, spices, and fresh produce such as fruits and vegetables. Of the 39.7\u0026nbsp;million tonnes of crops produced nationwide, 23.1\u0026nbsp;million tonnes are classified as non-perishable, while 6.6\u0026nbsp;million tonnes are highly perishable. Within the perishable category, approximately 0.5\u0026nbsp;million tonnes are tropical fruits such as tomatoes, bananas, mangoes, papayas, avocados, guavas, and pineapples (CSA, 2012). Due to their biological nature, tropical fruits tend to experience high postharvest losses. Despite this, they are also characterized by high productivity levels: tomatoes yield 29.5 quintals per hectare, papayas 170.5 Q/ha, avocados 81.0 Q/ha, bananas 81.2 Q/ha, and mangoes 90.3 Q/ha\u0026mdash;significantly exceeding the national average of 20.0 Q/ha (CSA, 2012). When produced in large volumes and managed effectively after harvest, tropical and subtropical fruits can deliver considerable economic and environmental advantages. Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s favorable climate offers strong potential for expanding both the yield and production of these fruits. Moreover, increasing fruit production can play a role in conserving natural resources, addressing climate change chalenges, improving fresh fruit export earnings, and supporting the growth of fruit processing industries. Research by Seid et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) in South Wollo reported postharvest losses for bananas (1.5%, 1.2%, and 4.5%), tomatoes (2.5%, 2.5%, and 5.9%), mangoes (1.6%, 1%, and 3.7%), and papayas (1.5%, 1%, and 3.3%) occurring at the farm level, during transportation and storage respectively. These losses are primarily attributed to pre-harvest infections and physical damage. Furthermore, the use of improper handling and packaging techniques such as transporting produce in non-palletized sacks and tightly packed bundles contributes to mechanical injuries. Transportation is often done using pack animals or carried manually, resulting in bruising during loading and unloading. In terms of marketing, most farmers sell their produce at nearby markets or directly from their farms. However, the marketing environment is often unfavorable due to issues like market saturation, exploitation by middlemen, the perishable nature of the produce and a lack of adequate storage infrastructure. A separate study on tomato postharvest losses revealed that farmers typically harvested only when buyers were available, collected the fruits at full ripeness, and relied on traditional packaging materials such as baskets and sacks. These practices contributed significant to postharvest losses, reaching as high as 62.5% (Olayemi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Although several studies have done on fruits in various countries and regions, little research was conducted on the production and marketing systems of Northwestern Ethiopia. Therefore, this research aims to assess postharvest losses of tropical fruits at different handling stages in the market chain of northwestern Ethiopia and to identify and prioritize the major factors contributing to postharvest losses at farmers and trader levels.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Area Description\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe research was carried out in the West Gojam and South Gondar Zones located in northwestern Ethiopia. These regions are known for their favorable agroecological conditions and hold significant potential for tropical fruit production, marketing, and agro-processing development. The study focused on key fruit-producing districts including Burie, Bahirdar Zuria, Zegie, Woreta, Dangla, and Finoteselam. In addition to the production sites, data were also collected from towns actively engaged in fruit trade namely Bahirdar, Finoteselam, Burie, Woreta and Dangla where both wholesalers and retailers were surveyed. The research involved the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data on major tropical fruit crops such as avocado (\u003cem\u003ePersea americana\u003c/em\u003e), banana (\u003cem\u003eMusa spp.\u003c/em\u003e), guava (\u003cem\u003ePsidium guajava\u003c/em\u003e), mango (\u003cem\u003eMangifera indica\u003c/em\u003e), papaya (\u003cem\u003eCarica papaya\u003c/em\u003e), and tomato (\u003cem\u003eSolanum lycopersicum\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Sampling Methods and Data Collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA purposive sampling approach was employed to identify key fruit producing and trading areas, while random sampling was used to select respondent farmers and traders. Six tropical fruit producing districts across the two administrative zones were selected for the study. From these districts, a total of 180 fruit producing farmers were randomly selected, with 30 farmers from each district. In addition, 80 fruit traders comprising 20 wholesalers and 60 retailers were randomly chosen from the towns of Bahirdar, Burie, Finoteselam, Dangila, and Woreta. To collect primary data, the researchers used a semi-structured questionnaire tailored for both farmers and traders. Supplementary data were gathered through direct observation and key informant interviews, allowing for deeper insights into postharvest handling practices and losses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe collected data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22. Descriptive statistics, including means, minimum and maximum values, standard deviations, and percentages, were calculated to summarize key variables. To assess relationships between estimated postharvest losses and various socio-economic and production related factors, a simple correlation analysis was performed. The research findings were presented using tables, graphs, and charts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Socio-Economic Status of Fruit Producers and Fruit Production\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the average age of fruit producers is 45.6 years, with family sizes averaging 5.5 members and approximately 3.94 working individuals per household. The ages of respondents in the sample ranged from 24 to 73 years. On average, producers cultivate 1.38 hectares of land, of which 0.29 hectares (about 21%) is allocated to fruit production. The sampled households have an average of nine years of experience in fruit farming. Storage duration for harvested fruits ranges from zero to 15 days, indicating that farmers typically need to consume or sell their produce within less than a month. Furthermore, simultaneous harvesting by all farmers often leads to negative impacts on market prices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics of household and farm characteristics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStd. Dev.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFamily size (persons)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorking persons in household\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistance to market (hours on foot)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal cropland (hectares)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal fruit land (hectares)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperience in fruit production (years)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStorage duration (days)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the major tropical fruits produced in Ethiopia include banana, tomato, mango, papaya, avocado, and guava. Data on fruit production from the Central Statistical Agency (CSA) covering the years 1997 to 2005 reveal that banana is the most widely produced fruit, exhibiting an increasing production trend. Mango and tomato follow in production volume. Avocado and papaya rank fourth and fifth respectively, while guava production remains low and relatively constant over the years.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Losses of Fruits at Famers Level\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe assessment revealed that the mean percentage of fruit loss at the farmers\u0026rsquo; level in northwestern Ethiopia ranged from 15% to 30%. Losses were highest for avocado (28%), followed by tomato (22%), mango (21%), papaya (19%), banana (18%), and guava (16%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Postharvest losses varied across different handling stages at the farm level. During harvesting, 83% of producers reported experiencing losses, while 17% reported none. Among respondents, 48%, 34%, and 18% estimated losses of 1\u0026ndash;5%, 6\u0026ndash;10%, and 11\u0026ndash;35%, respectively. At farmers\u0026rsquo; storage, 71% experienced losses, with the remaining 29% reporting none; 68%, 18%, and 14% estimated losses of 1\u0026ndash;5%, 6\u0026ndash;10%, and 11\u0026ndash;40%, respectively. During transportation and marketing, 65%, 22%, and 13% of farmers estimated losses of 1\u0026ndash;5%, 6\u0026ndash;10%, and 11\u0026ndash;30%, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ereported by farmers\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the monthly variation in fruit losses throughout the year. The highest losses were recorded during February, March, April, May, and June, which correspond to the peak production period. During this time, fruit prices are at their lowest while postharvest losses are at their maximum. Conversely, in periods of low production, demand and prices increase. Given the year-round consumer demand for these fruits, measures to ensure a consistent supply throughout the year are essential.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePostharvest losses also varied across different handling stages, with the greatest losses occurring during harvesting, followed by storage, and subsequently during marketing and transportation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). According to respondents, the primary causes of loss during harvesting include fruits falling from tall trees, injury from harvesting sticks, and exposure to high temperatures and sunburn during temporary field storage, and picking of immature fruits (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5). Most of the fruit varieties cultivated by farmers are tall, and in the absence of advanced harvesting technologies, long sticks are commonly used to dislodge ripe fruits from trees. Fruits are often pulled down and allowed to fall to the ground before being collected in containers, leading to mechanical damage and accelerated postharvest decay. Additionally, harvesting is ideally conducted during cooler periods to minimize heat stress; however, it is routinely performed during daytime hours under high temperatures, low relative humidity, and intense sunlight, conditions that promote wilting. Furthermore, no cold or temporary field storage facilities are available for pre-cooling, exacerbating postharvest losses\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003efruits at the farm level\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e. Figure\u0026nbsp;5. Factors contributing to postharvest losses of tropical fruits\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eduring the harvesting stage\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the farmers\u0026rsquo; storage level, the highest postharvest losses were attributed to mechanical injury, followed by postharvest diseases, insect infestation and physiological disorders (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFactors responsible for postharvest loss at farmers\u0026rsquo; storage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMechanical injury\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePostharvest\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ediseases\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInsect\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003epests\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhysiological\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003edisorders\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1st\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnimal damage (rats, ants, termites, domestic animals)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRust\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChilling injury\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2nd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOver crowding\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMicrobial decay\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFly\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFruit cracking\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3rd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompaction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnthracnose\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ethrips\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh temperature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRoughness of container\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePowdery mildew\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003einjury\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFast ripening and decay\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShrinking\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFall on the ground\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFruit curling\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOver ripened damage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFalling immature fruits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the farmers\u0026rsquo; storage level, mechanical damage was a major contributor to postharvest loss. Key factors included damage by vertebrate and invertebrate pests such as rodents, ants, termites, and domesticated animals, as well as compaction, overcrowding, and hardness of containers (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Fruits are typically transported to the farmers\u0026rsquo; home and temporarily stored until ripening before being moved to the market. However, storage facilities are generally inadequate, lacking proper cooling and ventilation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe other major source of postharvest loss includes diseases such as powdery mildew, anthracnose, rust, and microbial decay and insect pests (e.g., flies, thrips, and worms). High rates of injury from tomato and guava worms highlight the need for effective control measures to reduce losses. As highly perishable commodities, fruits require optimal temperature and relative humidity during postharvest handling; deviations from these conditions can lead to physiological disorders. The primary causes of such disorders include chilling injury, cracking, shrinkage, heat injury, and sunburn.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter temporary storage at the farmers\u0026rsquo; homes, fruits are transported to nearby markets. The assessment revealed that significant postharvest losses occurred during both transportation and marketing. The major contributing factors included fruit over-piling during transport, mechanical damage caused by consumers\u0026rsquo; handling, and the use of inappropriate transportation methods such as carrying on the backs of animals or women. Additional causes of loss were poor road conditions, absence of fruit packaging or waxing, rapid ripening, injuries sustained during loading and unloading, and inadequate market infrastructure characterized by high temperature, low relative humidity, and direct sun exposure. Economic and handling-related issues, such as market price fluctuations, long transportation distances, mixing of different fruit types during transport, and the lack of sorting by ripeness or health status (ripe/unripe, diseased/healthy), further exacerbated postharvest losses (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.3 2 Losses of Fruits at Wholesaler and Retailer Level\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe average percentage of fruit loss at the trader level ranged from 5% to 25%, with the highest losses occurring during storage, followed by transportation and marketing at both the wholesaler (local collector) and retailer levels. As illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, mango experienced the most substantial estimated loss, reaching up to 25%, while losses in other fruits were relatively similar. The particularly high loss observed in mango was primarily associated with the postharvest transportation and marketing stages.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the wholesale level, mechanical damages were identified as the leading cause of postharvest fruit loss, followed by postharvest diseases, insect infestation, and physiological disorders. The most significant sources of mechanical injury included rodent damage, overcrowding, compression, and bruising from container edges (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Postharvest insect pests, especially worms, were prevalent across fruits stored at the trader level, highlighting the urgent need for detailed studies on their biology and management. Postharvest diseases most notably; rots, molds, and decay were strongly associated with mechanically injured and microbially infected fruits. Further investigation is required to identify causal pathogens, assess the presence and levels of mycotoxins and develop effective control strategies within the postharvest chain. Physiological disorders, including heat injury, sunburn, fruit shrinkage, and accelerated ripening and decay were also observed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRanked factors contributing to postharvest losses of tropical fruits at the wholesaler level\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMechanical injury\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePostharvest diseases\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePostharvest Insect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhysiological disorder\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1st\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOvercrowded storage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDecay\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh temperature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2nd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContainer damage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRot\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRoddents\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSun burning\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3rd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompaction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoulds\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFast ripening\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHand scraching\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow temperature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverloading\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShrinking\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe principal causes of postharvest loss during transportation and marketing were identified as high temperature, sunburn, overcrowding and overloading during transport, fruit dropping, poor road conditions, accelerated ripening, use of unsuitable or damaged containers, inappropriate transportation practices, and mechanical injury during loading and unloading. In addition, unstable wholesale market prices further contributed to losses (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). To minimize these challenges, improved storage and transportation infrastructure, adoption of proper packaging systems, and capacity-building programs for local collectors and wholesalers on postharvest handling, quality maintenance, and fruit marketing are essential.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, the predominant causes of postharvest loss at the retailer level were mechanical damage, postharvest diseases, physiological disorders, and insect infestation. Mechanical injuries primarily resulted from vertebrate pests such as rats, ants, termites, and domestic animals, as well as from overcrowding, compression, and container damage. Postharvest diseases, particularly microbial rot, decay, and mold development, were identified as the most critical contributors to losses. Physiological disorders were mainly associated with high-temperature injury, chilling injury, and\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003esunburn (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eretail storage\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRanking of factors responsible for postharvest loss at retailer temporary storage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePriority\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(rank)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMechanical injury\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePostharvest\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003edisease\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePostharvest\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003einsect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhysiological\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003edisorder\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1st\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRodents damage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRot\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh temperature injury\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2nd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOvercrowding and overloading\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDecay\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChilling injury\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3rd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContainer damage\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(roughness of container)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWilting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSun burning\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompaction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlackening\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBreak during transport\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHand touching and scratching\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePoor storage media\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDomestic animal damage (poultry, sheep, goats, cows)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChildren damage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrush by human leg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDropping on the ground\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh temperature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the retailer level, the leading causes of postharvest loss during transport and marketing were identified and prioritized as overloading, overcrowding, and over-piling of fruits, improper handling during loading and unloading, compression damage, mechanical injury from consumer handling, and exposure to high temperatures and direct sunlight (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Correlation of Variables with fruit Loss\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the findings presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, several socioeconomic characteristics of farmers were found to have significant correlations with postharvest losses. Notably, variables such as the producer\u0026rsquo;s education level, proximity to the nearest market, farming experience, agro-ecological conditions, marital status, age, and primary sources of income have showed strong to very strong associations with estimated fruit losses. Among these, agro-ecology and market distance exhibited relatively higher correlation coefficients, suggesting their critical influence. Variations in agro-ecological zones affect climate conditions, market accessibility, and the availability of transport and storage infrastructure, all of which contribute to postharvest losses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe observed strong correlations between postharvest losses and variables such as education level, experience, age, marital status, gender, and income sources point to the potential for reducing losses through capacity building measures. Enhancing growers' knowledge and skills in postharvest handling could significantly improve outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, several production related factors including the source of irrigation water, land type, labor availability, use of organic fertilizers, access to improved seed varieties, and pesticide application were found to be significantly or highly significantly associated with postharvest losses. Among these, the source of irrigation water and labor scarcity showed particularly strong correlations. These inputs influence both fruit yield and postharvest quality. The interrelationship between organic fertilizer use (e.g., compost/manure), pesticide application, and postharvest loss highlights the importance of integrating sound agronomic practices during production to mitigate postharvest losses effectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimple correlations between socio-economic and production variables with estimated postharvest losses\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoss during harvest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoss during storage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoss during transportation and sell\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSocio-economic Variables\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZone\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.18*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWereda\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.24*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.39**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducational level\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.19*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistance from the nearest market\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.24*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperience of fruit production\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.26**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge of the respondent\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.18*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans of income\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.21*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale family size\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.19*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProduction Variables\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse of compost/ manure for fruit production\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.36**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSource of irrigation water\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.36**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLabour shortage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.18*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.31**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eType of land for fruit production\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.16*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse of pesticide\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.21*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSource of improved seed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.44**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccess to improved seed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cem\u003e* significant ** highly significant\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, several postharvest handling practices demonstrated significant and highly significant correlations with postharvest loss. These include the method of fruit harvesting and collection during harvest; the type of container and the use of sorting and grading during storage; as well as the method of transportation, the transport container type, and fruit ripening problem during marketing. The findings of this study clearly highlight the need for improved practices at the farmers and traders level, such as the adoption of appropriate harvesting methods and technologies, effective sorting and grading before storage, enhanced storage infrastructure, upgraded transportation and packaging systems, and proper ripening techniques. Implementing these measures is essential for minimizing estimated postharvest losses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimple correlations between postharvest handling variables and estimated postharvest losses\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethod of fruit harvest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethod of fruit collection\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eType of container for home storage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSorting and grading before storage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethod of transport\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContainer used to transport to the market\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFruit ripening problem\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLoss during harvest\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.35**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLoss at storage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.21*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLoss at transport and marketing\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.34*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.35**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.54**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cem\u003e* significant ** highly significant\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eAgriculture remains the backbone of Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s economy, serving as the primary source of food, raw materials for agro-industries, and high-quality products for the export market. Among the top contributors to export earnings are coffee, oilseeds, spices, and a range of fresh fruits and vegetables. Perishable tropical and subtropical fruits such as tomato, papaya, avocado, banana, mango, and guava are widely cultivated for both domestic consumption and export. However, meeting international quality standards remains a critical challenge, particularly due to substantial postharvest losses in both quantity and quality. At the farm level, postharvest losses are estimated to range between 20% and 25%, significantly affecting the availability and marketability of these commodities. According to Mashav (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), postharvest fruit losses range from 5% to 20% in developed countries, while in developing countries, the figure rises dramatically to 20%\u0026ndash;50%. In Ethiopia, Seid et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) estimated postharvest losses at different stages for key fruits: banana losses were 1.5% at the farm, 1.2% during transportation, and 4.5% in storage; tomato losses were 2.5%, 2.5%, and 5.9%, respectively; mango showed 1.6%, 1%, and 3.7% losses; and papaya losses were reported as 1.5%, 1%, and 3.3% at the corresponding stages. Significant postharvest losses occur at the producer level, particularly during the harvesting stage. This is largely due to the use of tall fruit varieties and the lack of improved harvesting and collection technologies. Introducing shorter varieties or adopting top-working practices, along with cost-effective harvesting and collection tools, is essential to mitigate losses at this stage. Harvesting should ideally be conducted during cooler parts of the day, and temporary field storage facilities are necessary to safely hold harvested fruits prior to transport.Mechanical injuries, postharvest insect pests, diseases, and physiological disorders all contribute to varying degrees of loss during on-farm storage. The most critical factors identified at this stage include the absence of cold storage facilities and the common practice of storing fruits without prior sorting or grading to separate healthy fruits from those that are diseased, damaged, or immature. Losses during transportation and marketing are primarily caused by inappropriate packaging materials, inadequate transportation systems, poor road infrastructure, high temperatures, sun exposure, low relative humidity, long distances to market, and market inefficiencies. Supporting these findings, Olayemi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) reported in a study conducted in Nigeria that 82.7% of producers used sacks without palletizing, resulting in tightly packed produce with limited air circulation. Additionally, 64.5% relied on pack animals or manual transport, which often caused bruising during loading and unloading. Most farmers harvest only when a buyer is available, with 90% harvesting at the fully ripe stage. Traditional baskets and sacks remain the primary packaging materials used for transporting produce, contributing to postharvest losses estimated at 62.5%. To address these issues, the introduction of improved, low-cost fruit storage and transport technologies is necessary. Furthermore, existing marketing and transport infrastructures must be upgraded to support a reliable cold chain. Providing comprehensive postharvest training and education to both producers and technical personnel is also crucial, given the complex knowledge and skills required in this field.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePostharvest losses at the traders' level\u0026mdash;encompassing both wholesalers or local collectors and retailers\u0026mdash;are significant, with estimates ranging between 20% and 25%. These losses are primarily attributed to the absence of adequate market infrastructure, including cold storage facilities, controlled atmosphere storage, appropriate packaging materials, and reliable transportation systems. The naturally high respiration rate of tropical fruits, combined with their short green life and limited shelf life, exacerbates deterioration, especially under the high temperatures, low relative humidity, and direct sunlight exposure typical of local market conditions. At the retail level, these environmental factors contribute substantially to postharvest losses. Additionally, mechanical damages such as bruising, cracking, and surface blemishes play a major role in reducing fruit quality and marketability. The marketing environment itself is often unfavorable, particularly during peak harvest months\u0026mdash;March, April, and May\u0026mdash;when oversupply leads to further quality degradation and economic losses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePostharvest handling practices and environmental conditions play a critical role in determining the quality and shelf life of fruits. Maintaining fruits within their optimal temperature and relative humidity ranges is essential to preserve quality and reduce postharvest losses. For non-chilling-sensitive fruits, and those sensitive to chilling when stored above their minimum safe temperature, each 10\u0026deg;C rise in temperature (above freezing) can accelerate deterioration and degrade nutritional quality by two to three times. Delays between harvest and cooling or processing contribute to both direct losses\u0026mdash;such as water loss and decay\u0026mdash;and indirect losses, including diminished flavor and nutrient content. The extent of these losses is influenced by the condition of the fruit at harvest and its internal temperature, which is often significantly higher than ambient levels, particularly when exposed to direct sunlight. The distribution chain generally lacks the capacity to maintain ideal storage conditions for every type of fruit, forcing handlers to compromise on temperature and humidity settings. These compromises can induce physiological stress, reducing shelf life and overall quality (Paull, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). The weakest point in the postharvest handling chain is typically the household level, where significant improvements can be made through the advancement of home handling technologies and consumer education (Shewfelt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Additional postharvest treatments\u0026mdash;such as cleaning, defect removal, sorting by maturity or ripeness, sizing, waxing, insect fumigation, and ethylene application for uniform ripening\u0026mdash;are also effective in preserving fruit quality and extending shelf life (Kader, 1988).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnon (1969) Analysis of survey on postharvest crop losses in developing countries. AGPP.MISC/23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCSA (Central Statistical Authority), Volume III (2013) Area and production of crops (Private peasant holdings, Meher season). Statistical Bulletin, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEthiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) (2000) Food science and postharvest technology research strategy. Nazareth, Ethiopia\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFAO (2011) Global food losses and food waste extent. Causes and prevention. Rome, Italy\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFAO (2019) \u003cem\u003eMoving forward on food loss and waste reduction: Food and agriculture \u0026ndash; the state of\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ehttps://\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003eopenknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/11f9288f-dc78-4171-8d02-92235b8d7dc7/content\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/11f9288f-dc78-4171-8d02-92235b8d7dc7/content\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2024) Hunger numbers stubbornly high for three consecutive years as global crises deepen: UN report. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/hunger-numbers-stubbornly-high-for-three-consecutive-years-as-global-crises-deepen--un-report/en\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/hunger-numbers-stubbornly-high-for-three-consecutive-years-as-global-crises-deepen--un-report/en\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGudila A, Monica L, Hadijah A, Richard J, Carolyne C (2013) \u003cem\u003eAssessment of post-harvest handling practices: Knowledge and losses of fruits in Bagamoyo District of Tanzania\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJarman A, Thompson J, McGuire E, Reid M, Rubsam S, Becker K, Mitcham E (2023) Postharvest technologies for small-scale farmers in low-and middle-income countries: A call to action. Postharvest Biol Technol 206:112491\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKadar AA (1988) Influence of preharvest and postharvest environment on nutritional composition of fruits and vegetables. In: Quebedeaux B, Bliss FA (eds) Horticulture and human health, contributions of fruits and vegetables. Prentice-Hall, pp 18\u0026ndash;32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKadar AA (2002) Pre and postharvest factors affecting fresh quality, nutritional value, and implication for human health. In \u003cem\u003eProceedings of the International Congress Food Production and the Quality of Life, Sassari (Italy), September 4\u0026ndash;8\u003c/em\u003e (Vol. 1, pp. 109\u0026ndash;119)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKaroney EM, Molelekoa T, Bill M, Siyoum N, Korsten L (2024) Global research network analysis of fresh produce postharvest technology: Innovative trends for loss reduction. Postharvest Biol Technol 208:112642\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMashav (2010) \u003cem\u003ePostharvest losses of fruits and vegetables\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.mashav.mfa.gov.il/mfm/web/main/document.asp?documentID=42327\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.mashav.mfa.gov.il/mfm/web/main/document.asp?documentID=42327\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOlayemi FF, Adegbola JA, Bamishaiye EI, Awagu EF (2012) Assessment of post harvest losses of some selected crops in eight local government areas of Rivers State, Nigeria. Asian J Rural Dev 2(1):13\u0026ndash;23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOpara IK, Fawole OA, Kelly C, Opara UL (2021) Quantification of on-farm pomegranate fruit postharvest losses and waste, and implications on sustainability indicators: South African case study. Sustainability 13(9):5168\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePaull RE (1999) Effect of temperature and relative humidity on fresh commodity quality. Postharvest Biol Technol 15:263\u0026ndash;277\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSeid H, Hassen B, Yitbarek W (2013) Postharvest loss assessment of commercial crops in South Wollo, Ethiopia: Challenges and opportunities. Feed Sci Qual Manage 17:34\u0026ndash;38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShepherd A (2012) Grain storage in Africa: Learning from past experience. Food Chain 2(2):149\u0026ndash;163\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShewfelt RL, Prussia SE, Dooley JH (2000) Quality of fruits and vegetables in home handling systems. In: Florkowski WJ et al (eds) Integrated view of fruit and vegetable quality. Technomic Publishing Co., pp 273\u0026ndash;283\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUN Environment Programme (2020) Food loss and waste must be reduced for greater food security and environmental sustainability. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/food-loss-and-waste-must-be-reduced-greater-food-security-and\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/food-loss-and-waste-must-be-reduced-greater-food-security-and\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWHO (2024) Hunger numbers stubbornly high for three consecutive years as global crises deepen: UN report. :text=Despite%20some%20progress%20in%20specific,Caribbean%2C%20and%20most%20African%20subregions. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.who.int/news/item/24-07-2024-hunger-numbers-stubbornly-high-for-three-consecutive-years-as-global-crises-deepen--un-report#:~\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.who.int/news/item/24-07-2024-hunger-numbers-stubbornly-high-for-three-consecutive-years-as-global-crises-deepen--un-report#:~\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eParticipant Consent Statement\n\nAll participants were informed about the purpose of the study and voluntarily agreed to take part. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection.\n\nEthics Approval Statement\n\nThis study involving human participants was reviewed and approved by research and community service division of Bahir Dar University. Participation was voluntary, and informed consent was obtained from all respondents prior to data collection.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Tropical fruits, Postharvest losses, Market chain, Storage, Harvesting practices","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7663815/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7663815/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAgriculture forms the backbone of Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s economy, supplying essential food products, raw materials for food industries, and commodities for export. Key export products include coffee, oilseeds, spices, fresh fruits and vegetables. Commonly produced perishable tropical fruits for both local consumption and export markets include tomato, papaya, avocado, banana, mango, and guava. Nonetheless, ensuring that these fruits meet the quality standards of different markets continues to be a significant challenge. This research assessed postharvest losses of tropical fruits along the market chain in northwestern Ethiopia. Data were collected from 180 producers and 80 traders on six tropical fruits: avocado (\u003c/em\u003ePersea americana\u003cem\u003e), banana (\u003c/em\u003eMusa \u003cem\u003espp.), guava (\u003c/em\u003ePsidium guajava\u003cem\u003e), mango (\u003c/em\u003eMangifera indica\u003cem\u003e), papaya (\u003c/em\u003eCarica papaya\u003cem\u003e), and tomato (\u003c/em\u003eSolanum lycopersicum\u003cem\u003e). Purposive sampling was employed to select key production and trading areas, while respondents were chosen using random sampling. Postharvest losses, as estimated by farmers, ranged from 18% to 28%, with the greatest losses occurring during harvesting, followed by storage and transportation. Trader level postharvest losses ranged from 18% to 25%, with losses being higher during storage than during transportation and marketing. The fruits most affected were avocado, tomato, and mango, especially during the peak harvest periods. The primary causes of postharvest losses at the farm level included physical damage from harvesting tall varieties, sunburn, harvesting at immature stages, and the use of inappropriate containers. Storage losses were primarily attributed to mechanical damage, insect infestations, diseases, and physiological disorders. During transportation, the main contributors to losses were sunburn and damage incurred during loading and unloading. At the trader level, losses were primarily caused by mechanical damage, postharvest pests, physiological disorders, and inadequate handling during transportation and marketing. The findings highlight the critical influence of postharvest practices on fruit quality and underscore the need for improved technologies, infrastructure, and farmer education to reduce postharvest losses and maintain fruit quality throughout the supply chain.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessing Postharvest Losses of Tropical Fruits at Different Handling Stages in the Supply Chain of Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-02 13:42:58","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7663815/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b4276204-728c-4470-901e-f6253928ed2e","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 2nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":55251667,"name":"Horticulture"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-02T13:42:58+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-02 13:42:58","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7663815","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7663815","identity":"rs-7663815","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}