Exploring the stem and root wood anatomy of Wrightia coccinea Sims (Apocynaceae) in relation to their sustainability and resilience

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It is currently classified as least concern by IUCN. Qualitatively, both organs exhibited heterocellular rays with rhomboidal crystals and starch grains, vestured pits, diffuse-apotracheal axial parenchyma, diffuse-porous vessels, and simple perforation plates. Based on quantitative research, stem wood had more fibers (700) and a storied vessel arrangement, indicating mechanical reinforcing and evolutionary specialization, while root wood had larger vessel sizes, and a higher vessel frequency. The formation of storied vessel arrangement as well as coalescent pits is crucial ecological distinctiveness of stem wood. The estimated values (including v & m ) indices shows adaptability to mesic environments, and the vulnerability and mesomorphy indices were marginally higher in roots (VI = 333; MI = 1.07) than in stems (VI = 328; MI = 1.025). Enhanced hydraulic efficiency and embolism repair are implied by vestured pits and starch reserves. Practically a majority of individuals are aware of the anatomy of the Apocynaceae family, not much is known about the anatomy of W. coccinea's stem wood, despite nothing has been identified about its root wood. These integrated qualitative and quantitative results offer crucial diagnostic attributes for W. coccinea taxonomy, adaptive ecology, and conservation. Wrightia coccinea Wood anatomy ecological adaptation vulnerability indexaa Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 INTRODUCTION Understanding wood anatomy is essential in forestry and the wood industry. It provides valuable insights into the evolutionary history and diversity of plant species. By examining the cellular structure and arrangement of tissues within the wood, scientists can trace the evolutionary relationships among different plant taxa and understand how plants have adapted to various environments over time. Baas ( 1973 ) said that,secondary xylem structure is influenced by environmental factors. Woody plants' secondary xylem structural variety can be directly linked to both changing atmospheric circumstances and plant morphology, and it has a functional and adaptive explanation. Almost every element of xylem structure is susceptible to qualitative or quantitative effects from environmental factors. Additionally, due to the intricacy of the structure of dicotyledonous wood, a variety of characteristics, such as the presence or absence of vessels, the distribution of vessels within tissues, the types of rays, the distribution of axial parenchyma, the types of perforation plates, pits, and their configurations, can be used to identify them. Wrightia coccinea Sims belonging to family Apocynaceae (Dogbane) is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree with glossy, dark green leaves attaining a height of 16–20 meters. Endress et al., ( 2014 ) presented the classification of the Apocynaceae, in which Wrightia is placed under the subtribe Wrightieae of the subfamily Apocynoideae. It is typically grown in tropical or subtropical regions. In India it is distributed in the eastern Himalaya, Sikkim, Assam and Meghalaya and grows particularly in warm the humid climate. It prefers well-drained soil and full to partial sunlight. Each plant’s organ serves an imperative purpose for accomplishing all physiological and metabolic functions across its respective environment. Plant produces clusters of small, tubular, red-orange flowers that are fragrant and attractive to pollinators like butterflies and bees. In addition to being grown as an ornamental plant, W. coccinea have several traditional medicinal uses in some cultures. Different parts of the plant are used to treat various ailments. The pharmacological as well as chemical profile of W. coccinea by Jannat and coworkers, ( 2022 ) focuses on its analgesic, cytotoxic, antidiarrheal, hypoglycemic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Some local populations of W. coccinea may face habitat loss due to human activities such as deforestation. In their attempt to determine hazards to the Eastern Himalayan region's medicinal benefits, Ray and Saini ( 2022 ) classified W. coccinea as rare. IUCN red list of threatened species (IUCN, 2023) considered that, W. coccinea is not a threatened species. It is currently classified as "Least Concern". It can be conserved by seed banking, natural population monitoring, and community-based education campaigns emphasizing its ecological and therapeutic value. The ability of plants to adapt their anatomical structures and functions to survive desiccation should be the key element in their survival. (Maximov and Yapp 1929 ; Jonathan et al., 2019 ). Early investigators Solereder ( 1908 ), Metcalfe, and Chalk ( 1950 ) contributed to general knowledge on the wood anatomy of the Apocynaceae family. Pearson and Brown (1981) presented wood anatomy of Apocynaceae including Alstonia and Holarrhena and two species of Wrightia viz. W. tomentosa and W. tinctoria . Lens et al. ( 2009 ) explored the wood anatomy of 56 species in the subfamily Apocynoideae, whereas Elavarasan et al. (2022) documented the vegetative anatomy of W. tinctoria R.Br. and the endemic W. indica Ngan that occurs in peninsular India. To the best of our ability to comprehend, an investigation on the anatomy of W. coccinea appears to be limited and, there may be some studies or papers that have investigated this aspect of the plant. Despite this, knowledge on W. coccinea wood anatomy is favoured more. Furthermore, no information referring to the anatomy of its root wood has been documented. The objectives of the present study were: (a) to examine the stem and root anatomy of W. coocinea and (b) to provide insights on how these traits may play important roles in adapting and survibing ability in different environment conditions. The present work on W.coocinea is undertaken to study the structural variations in the stem and root wood of a tree species in order to understand their functional and adaptive significance. MATERIAL AND METHODS i. Preparation of Permanent Slides The Roxburgh Botanical Garden at the University of Allahabad was the source of fresh root and stem materials (Located at 25°28'N, 81°54'E). As reported by Berlyn and Miksche ( 1976 ), after being cut into small pieces, the stem and root wood was fixed in FAA. Sections of three different types were prepared: transverse sections (TS), tangential longitudinal sections (TLS), as well as radial longitudinal sections (RLS). These include by hand and with a microtome, sections were created. Materials were dried in order to prepare them for microtome using a graded series of tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA). For three days, the dehydrated components were imbedded in paraffin wax, which has a melting point of 58°C. After five minutes of staining with 2.0% safranin in 50% ethanol, the sections were dehydrated repeatedly for three minutes each in an ethanol sequence after being washed with distilled water. of 50%, 70%, 95%, and 100%. After two minutes of 1.0% quick green counterstaining in absolute ethanol, the sections were moved through graded xylene–ethanol solutions (25:75, 50:50, and 75:25) and then onto pure xylene. Canada balsam was used to mount permanent slides. ii. Maceration Individual xylem elements were separated by macerating selected root and stem wood sections in Jeffrey's fluid (equal portions of 10% nitric acid and 10% chromic acid). The supplier of all chemicals and dyes was Sigma-Aldrich®, headquartered in Saint Louis, Missouri, USA. In order to evaluate the length of the xylem vessel component and the libriform fiber, the macerated materials were carefully washed with water and dyed with 1.0% water- based safranin. Transverse sections were used to measure the diameters of the tangential vascular lumen. iii. Observations Anatomical sections were studied using an Olympus binocular compound microscope (Model: CH2i), and photographs were taken using a Leica binocular compound microscope (Model: DM2500). Each parameter's lowest, mean, and maximum values were noted after measurements were made from 30 replicates. Micrometres (µm) were used to convert ocular micrometre measurements. Measurements, cell counts, and anatomical descriptions adhere to IAWA Committee ( 1989 ) standards. To facilitate uniform comparison of wood anatomical data across species, the IAWA Committee established a classification system for vessel size and fibre length .Three main groupings of fibre length has been distinguished by their average length in micrometres (µm): short, medium-sized, and long. Very short (less than 500 µm), very short (between 500 and 700 µm), and moderately short (between 700 and 900 µm) are other classifications for short fibres. The range of medium-sized fibres is 900 µm to 1600 µm. There are three subcategories for long fibres: very long (2200–3000 µm), extremely long (> 3000 µm), and moderately long (1600–2200 µm). In a similar manner, the tangential diameter of the vessel lumen is used for determining vessel size. Extremely small (less than 25 µm), very small (between 25 and 50 µm), and moderately small (between 50 and 100 µm) are all considered small vessels. The diameters of medium vessels range from 100 µm to 200 µm. Moderately large (200–300 µm), very large (300–400 µm), and extremely large (> 400 µm) are the three subcategories through which large vessels come. Vulnerability index (v) was computed as xylem vessel diameter divided by vessel frequency after Carlquist ( 1977 ), and xylem vessel size and fiber length were divided into three groups. The calculation of the mesomorphy index (m) was v × average vessel element length. To determine the F/V ratio, the mean fibre length was divided by the mean vessel element length. iv. Photographs To document qualitative and quantitative anatomical features, photomicrographs of TS, RLS, and TLS were obtained using the Leica DM2500 microscope, along with macerated materials. v. Evolutionary and Ecological Trends Carlquist's interpretation states that xeric adaptations are indicated by low vulnerability (< 1) and mesomorphy ( 1 and > 800, respectively). In light of environmental adaptations and evolutionary tendencies in xylem structure, which represent habitat-specific functional strategies of the species under investigation, the anatomical parameters documented in this study are analyzed. RESULTS Stem wood Vessels Mostly seen in radial multiples of 2–6, the diffuse-porous vessels can occasionally be found alone or in clusters. There are between 30–37 vessels per mm². Each vascular element has a slightly oval cross section, a diameter of 25–38–50 µm, and a length of 300–350 µm. A storied pattern is a prevalent arrangement for vessels. The perforation plate might be terminal, sub-terminal, or simple. Intervascular pits are small to minute, vestured, alternating, and occasionally coalescent, with a diameter of 4–5 µm. There are occasionally tyloses in the vessels. (Fig. 1 A-E, K). Table 1 Dimensions of wood elements (stem and root) of Wrightia coccinea ; values are the mean ± standard error (n = 30) S. No. Wood elements Stem wood Root wood 1 Vessel diamter 38 ± 3.41 42 ± 1.9 2 Vessel frequency 37 ± 0.54 39 ± 0.72 3 Fiber length 700.33 ± 8.23 610.33 ± 8.71 4 Ray height 18 ± 1.44 14.33 ± 1.36 5 Ray frequency 53 ± 0.72 65 ± 3.03 6 Vulnerability index 338 ± 3.2 333.33 ± 9.39 7 Mesomorphy index 1.02 ± 0.03 1.07 ± 0.03 Vulnerability index (v)- The mesomorphy index (m) is 328 and the vulnerability index (v) is 1.025. Fibres : Both septate and non-septate libriform fibers are extremely short to medium in height (450-700-1200 µm); two to five fibers divide neighboring rays (Fig. 1 F, L). F/V ratio: 2. 18. Tracheids and Fibre-tracheids Not observed. Parenchyma Axial parenchyma tends to be diffuse and apotracheal, with scanty paratracheal areas at occasionally. Rays are primarily heterocellular, but they can also be homocellular with square cells; they are biseriate (6–8 cells height), compound (12–18–22 cells tall), and uniseriate (5–15 cells height); they are upright, square, and procumbent, and their frequency is 50–53–55/mm2 (as observed in R. L. S). Ray cells include rhomboidal crystals and starch grains. (Fig. 1 F, G-J). Root wood Vessels Arranged in a diffuse porous pattern; they can be found in solitary or clustered radial multiples of 2–5; the frequency of vessels is 38–39 to 40/mm²; the cross-section of individual vessels is circular to oval; their diameters range from very small to moderately small (32-42-63µm); their lengths are 270 to 310–340µm; and their perforation plates are simple, terminal, or sub-terminal. Small to minute, vestured, 4–5 µm in diameter, alternating intervascular pits that occasionally coalescent. (Figure. 2A-B, D, H, Table 1 ). Mesomorphy index (m) is – 333 and vulnerability index (v) is − 1. 07, Fibres Extremely short to medium in length (320-610-1002 µm) are both septate and non-septate libriform fibres; two to three fibres divide adjacent rays. (Fig. 2 C, I). F/V ratio- 1. 96. Tracheids and Fibre-tracheids Not observed. Parenhyma With occasional sparse paratracheal parenchyma, the axial parenchyma is mainly diffuse and apotracheal. The majority of rays are heterocellular, though they can also be homocellular with upright cells. Compound rays range in height from 9 -14- 16 cells, biseriate rays from 5 to 9 cells, and uniseriate rays from 6 to 8 cells. Ray cells are square, procumbent, and upright. Rays occur at a frequency of 62–6.5–67 per mm² (as measured in R.L.S. The ray cells include starch grains and rhomboidal crystals. (Fig. 2 E-G). DISCUSSION The current study offers a comprehensive anatomical description of W. coccinea's stem and root wood. The present investigation also found previously reported features of Apocynaceae stem wood, including diffuse-porous wood, numerous vessels arranged radially, and simple perforated plates, alternating, small to minute intervascular pitting, vestured, axial parenchyma, apotracheal and scanty paratracheal, and rays heterocellular (Metcalfe and Chalk, 1950 ; Pearson and Brown, 1981). These properties have also been observed by Lens et al. ( 2009 ) in the subfamily Apocynoideae. Pearson and Brown (1981) noted a similar characteristic in Wrightia , whereas Metcalfe and Chalk ( 1950 ) found that wood with uniseriate or biseriate to triseriate rays lacks septate fibers. Nevertheless, the wood of W. coccinea , which possesses uniseriate and biseriate rays, is discovered to have septate fibers in the current study. The presence of storied vessels in the stem wood is another characteristic mentioned in this study. With the exception of the presence of storied vessels, which are exclusively seen in the stem wood, structural variations between the root and stem wood are primarily quantitative. In comparison to stem wood, root wood exhibits more axial and ray parenchyma, broader vessels, and a higher frequency of vessels. Reconstructing climate variations across time can be done by using the growth pattern record found in tree rings. This can evaluate the effects of climate change on ecosystems and recreate historical settings by examining wood anatomy in combination with other proxy data. According to some reports, the larger vessels found in the roots of diffuse-porous trees may make them more susceptible to drought-induced embolism than the stems (Zimmermann, 1983; Langui et al., 2018). In water-limited situations, plants with diffuse porosity root systems would be better able to compete for water, which could have an impact on community composition and species distribution patterns. Diffuse porous roots' effectiveness in transporting water can also affects ecosystem functions including carbon sequestration and nitrogen cycling. W. coccinea's root wood contains starch grains in its parenchyma cells, which are useful for eliminating embolism, which improves water conduction in capillaries. Carlquist ( 2001 ) and Mooney and Gartner ( 1991 ), claim that starch hydrolyzes into sugar, which raises the osmotic potential when it is carried into vessels. This system might draw water and aid in the air embolism's healing. The transport efficiency in stem wood may be balanced by the presence of additional radial multiples of vessels. Additionally, the presence of a basic perforated plate facilitates frictionless water conduction. In the stem wood of W. coccinea , the storied pattern of vessels demonstrates a high degree of evolutionary specialization and organized cambial activity. The pattern, which arranges vessel components in horizontal tiers, demonstrates the vascular cambium's well-coordinated cell division process. This amazing structure suggests that the wood's structural organization is more efficient. It is believed to be a sophisticated anatomical property commonly seen in highly evolved dicotyledonous plants. It might not directly improve water conduction, but it usually coexists with other adaption traits that help the plant's overall stability and mechanical strength. to guarantee that the storied vessel arrangement has significant taxonomic and diagnostic relevance in addition to the identification and classification of woody species. The arrangement of the containers' stories reveals the plant's propensity to endure in arid environments (Carlquist, 1966 ).Furthermore, vestured pits found in W. coccinea's stem and root wood play a significant part in enhancing vascular performance by preventing cavitations and assisting in the repair of embolisms (Dickison, 2000 ; Jansen et al., 2003 ; Costa et al., 2006 ). The proportion of fibers in stems of trees is generally higher than that of roots (Reidl, 1937 ; Stokke and Manwiller, 1994 ; Tripathi and cowerkers, 2023). The only mechanical tissue found in W. coccinea stem wood is fibers; tracheids are not present. The higher frequency of fiber content in the stem wood relative to the root wood, which reflects the structural difference between the stem and root tissues, indicates the plant's adaptation for stronger mechanical support in aerial sections. As indicated by Carlquist's (1977) computed vulnerability and mesomorphy indices, W. coccinea has adapted to mesic conditions. CONCLUSION The present investigation illustrates W. coccinea's anatomical advancements that strike a balance between environmental resistance, hydraulic efficiency, and mechanical strength. All the parameters viz. measurements of vessel size and fiber length, cell count are followed by IAWA committee's. Moreover, the higher vessel frequency ( 38–40/mm²) and parenchyma content of the root wood enhance water storage and conduction, helping survival under varying moisture conditions. The storied vessel arrangement in particular reflects advanced cambial organization and mechanical reinforcement for aerial support. Vestured pits and starch reserves strengthen the plant's ability to sustain hydraulic function through contributing to embolism resistance. In addition to their ecological importance, the observed structural patterns offer significant diagnostic characteristics for identifying wood in the Apocynaceae family. The plant being used to treat an array of health conditions in different parts. Various structural characteristics may be significant in plant identification because it is frequently observed that incorrectly recognised plants result in mortality. In combination with alleviating taxonomic issues along with offering insight into the physiological activities of plants, this framework may also be essential for pharmacology and in the understanding of evolutionary interactions. In addition, by offering a uniform framework for characterising wood structure, this categorisation aids in the connection of anatomical characteristics with mechanical characteristics, species identification, and environmental adaptations. The current investigation addresses a knowledge gap for W. coccinea by documenting the anatomical features of both stem as well as root wood subsequently also provides a reference for future studies in plant functional anatomy, adaption strategies, and conservation approach. Declarations Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Funding: None Author Contribution S. N.T. - Conceptualization, Original Drafting, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing;A.T. -Editing and Review;S.W.- Formal analysis.all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Data Availability Statement: Not applicable References Berlyn GP, Miksche JP (1976) Botanical Microtechnique and Cytochemistry. Iowa State University, Ames, p 326 Carlquist S (1966) Wood anatomy of Compositae: A summary, with comments on factors controlling wood evolution. Aliso: A Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, 6 (2) 25–44 Carlquist S (1977) Ecological factors in wood evolution: a floristic approach. Am J Bot 64(7):887–896 Carlquist S (2001) Comparative wood anatomy: Systematic, ecological and evolutionary aspects of dicotyledon wood, 2nd edn. London, Springer-Verlag Costa CG, Callado CH, Coradin VTR, Carmello-Guerreiro SM (2006) Xilema. In: Apezzato-Da-Glória B, Carmello-Guerreiro SM (eds) Anatomia Vegetal, 2nd edn. Viçosa, Editora UFV Dickison WC (2000) Integrative plant anatomy. California, Academy Endress ME, Schumann SL, Meve U (2014) An updated classification for Apocynaceae. Phytotaxa 159(3):175–194 IAWA Committee (1989) List of microscopic features of hard wood identification. IAWA Bull 10(3):219–332 Jannat T, Hossain MJ, El-Shehawi AM, Kuddus MR, Rashid MA, Albogami S, Jafri I, El-Shazly M, Haque MR (2022) Chemical and Pharmacological Profiling of Wrightia coccinea (Roxb. Ex Hornem.) Sims Focusing Antioxidant, Cytotoxic, Antidiarrheal, Hypoglycemic, and Analgesic Properties. Molecules 27(13):4024. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134024 Jansen S, Baas P, Gasson P, Smets E (2003) Vestured pits: do they promote safer water transport? Int J Plant Sci 164:405–413 Jonathan O, Hernandez MO, Quimado ES, Fernando DE, Pulan PL, Malabrigo Jr., Lerma SJ Maldia (2019) Functional Traits of Stem and Leaf of Wrightia candollei S. Vidal. Philippine J Sci 148(2):307–314 ;ISSN 0031–7683 Lens F, Endress ME, Jansen S, Smets E (2009) Vessel grouping patterns in sub families Apocynoideae and periplocoideae confirm Phylogenetic value of wood stracture within Apocynaceae. Am J Bot 96(12):2168–2183 Longui EL, Galão ATD, Rajput KS, Melo ACG (2018) Anatomical investigation of root, stem and branch wood in 10-year-old Inga laurina in the context of anatomical adaptation to hydraulic and mechanical stresses. Anales de Biología 40:31–39 Maximov NA, Yapp RH (1929) The plant in relation to water. George Allen & Unwin, London Metcalfe CR, Chalk L (1950) The Anatomy of Dicotyledons: Vols 1 and 2. Clarendon, Oxford, p 1500 Mooney HA, Gartner BL (1991) Reserve economy of vines. In: Putz FE, Mooney HA (eds) The biology of vines. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 166–179 Pearson RS, Brow HP (1981) Commercial timbers of India. A. J Reprint Agency. 723–737 Ray S, Saini MK (2022) Impending threats to the plants with medicinal value in the Eastern Himalayas Region: An analysis on the alternatives to its non-availability. Phytomedicine Plus Volume 2(1):100151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phyplu.2021.100151 Reidl H (1937) Bau and Leistungen des Wurzelholzes. Jahrb Wiss Bot 85:1–75 Solereder H (1908) Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Vols 1 and 2. Clarendon, Oxford, p 1175 Stokke DD, Manwiller FG (1994) Proportions of wood elements in stem, branch and root wood of black oak ( Quercus velutina) . IAWA J 15:301–310 Zimmermann MH Xylem Structure and the Ascent of Sap. Springer-Verlag, Elavarasan B, Thangavelu S, Sekar M (1983) T. 2022. Comparative vegetative anatomy of Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. and the endemic Wrightia indica Ngan (Apocynaceae Juss.) occurring in peninsular India. Flora 290:152043. 10.1016/j.flora.2022.152043 Tripathi SN, Sahney M, Tripathi A, Pandey P, Jatav HS, Minkina T, Rajput VD (2023) Elucidating the Anatomical Features, Adaptive and Ecological Significance of Kopsia fruticosa Roxb. (Apocynaceae) Horticulturae 9(3):387. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9030387 Baas P (1973) The wood anatomical range in ilex (Aquifoliaceae) and its ecological and phylogenetic significance. Blumea 21:193–258 Plates Plate 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Plates.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 20 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Journal of the Indian Academy of Wood Science → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7483087","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":514261433,"identity":"dd6ea120-060e-4f58-95e2-29267173c02d","order_by":0,"name":"Shakti Nath Tripathi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nehru Gram Bharati (Deemed to Be University)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shakti","middleName":"Nath","lastName":"Tripathi","suffix":""},{"id":514261434,"identity":"a28e9f6b-5ce5-4ea1-ad24-24b222d485a9","order_by":1,"name":"Arpita Tripathi","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Teerthanker Mahaveer University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Arpita","middleName":"","lastName":"Tripathi","suffix":""},{"id":514261435,"identity":"2f0478a7-a177-480b-ad6e-a95632e54a65","order_by":2,"name":"Swati Shukla","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nehru Gram Bharati (Deemed to Be University)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Swati","middleName":"","lastName":"Shukla","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-28 20:08:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7483087/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7483087/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13196-025-00394-1","type":"published","date":"2025-11-20T15:57:52+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":91442484,"identity":"5ffc55ae-e1ca-4781-9c53-2bcbbd4a6a65","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-16 14:19:39","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4957492,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Wrightiacoccineamanuscript21.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7483087/v1/9e36740103dc09e97d9bd9ab.png"},{"id":91444849,"identity":"19d329ae-2f26-4b35-9fd3-eca781160da7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-16 14:35:39","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1821241,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Wrightiacoccineamanuscript23.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7483087/v1/18de0dbd050786a4eb058fad.png"},{"id":96650137,"identity":"9043b419-a5e6-4cf6-8a8a-8e0b6d6447f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-24 16:08:34","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":9051780,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7483087/v1/f7b1cd43-99c9-4677-b1aa-3ebd0153a84d.pdf"},{"id":91444240,"identity":"444af7de-3a84-4622-9545-fa4333163912","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-16 14:27:39","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1975602,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Plates.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7483087/v1/9381046d13430778255dee6f.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Exploring the stem and root wood anatomy of Wrightia coccinea Sims (Apocynaceae) in relation to their sustainability and resilience","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eUnderstanding wood anatomy is essential in forestry and the wood industry. It provides valuable insights into the evolutionary history and diversity of plant species. By examining the cellular structure and arrangement of tissues within the wood, scientists can trace the evolutionary relationships among different plant taxa and understand how plants have adapted to various environments over time. Baas (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1973\u003c/span\u003e) said that,secondary xylem structure is influenced by environmental factors. Woody plants' secondary xylem structural variety can be directly linked to both changing atmospheric circumstances and plant morphology, and it has a functional and adaptive explanation. Almost every element of xylem structure is susceptible to qualitative or quantitative effects from environmental factors. Additionally, due to the intricacy of the structure of dicotyledonous wood, a variety of characteristics, such as the presence or absence of vessels, the distribution of vessels within tissues, the types of rays, the distribution of axial parenchyma, the types of perforation plates, pits, and their configurations, can be used to identify them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWrightia coccinea\u003c/em\u003e Sims belonging to family Apocynaceae (Dogbane) is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree with glossy, dark green leaves attaining a height of 16\u0026ndash;20 meters. Endress et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) presented the classification of the Apocynaceae, in which \u003cem\u003eWrightia\u003c/em\u003e is placed under the subtribe Wrightieae of the subfamily Apocynoideae. It is typically grown in tropical or subtropical regions. In India it is distributed in the eastern Himalaya, Sikkim, Assam and Meghalaya and grows particularly in warm the humid climate. It prefers well-drained soil and full to partial sunlight. Each plant\u0026rsquo;s organ serves an imperative purpose for accomplishing all physiological and metabolic functions across its respective environment. Plant produces clusters of small, tubular, red-orange flowers that are fragrant and attractive to pollinators like butterflies and bees. In addition to being grown as an ornamental plant, \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea\u003c/em\u003e have several traditional medicinal uses in some cultures. Different parts of the plant are used to treat various ailments. The pharmacological as well as chemical profile of \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea\u003c/em\u003e by Jannat and coworkers, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) focuses on its analgesic, cytotoxic, antidiarrheal, hypoglycemic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Some local populations of \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea\u003c/em\u003e may face habitat loss due to human activities such as deforestation. In their attempt to determine hazards to the Eastern Himalayan region's medicinal benefits, Ray and Saini (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) classified W. coccinea as rare. IUCN red list of threatened species (IUCN, 2023) considered that, W. \u003cem\u003ecoccinea\u003c/em\u003e is not a threatened species. It is currently classified as \"Least Concern\". It can be conserved by seed banking, natural population monitoring, and community-based education campaigns emphasizing its ecological and therapeutic value.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe ability of plants to adapt their anatomical structures and functions to survive desiccation should be the key element in their survival. (Maximov and Yapp \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1929\u003c/span\u003e; Jonathan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Early investigators Solereder (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1908\u003c/span\u003e), Metcalfe, and Chalk (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1950\u003c/span\u003e) contributed to general knowledge on the wood anatomy of the Apocynaceae family. Pearson and Brown (1981) presented wood anatomy of Apocynaceae including \u003cem\u003eAlstonia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHolarrhena\u003c/em\u003e and two species of \u003cem\u003eWrightia\u003c/em\u003e viz. \u003cem\u003eW. tomentosa and W. tinctoria\u003c/em\u003e. Lens et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) explored the wood anatomy of 56 species in the subfamily Apocynoideae, whereas Elavarasan et al. (2022) documented the vegetative anatomy of \u003cem\u003eW. tinctoria\u003c/em\u003e R.Br. and the endemic \u003cem\u003eW. indica\u003c/em\u003e Ngan that occurs in peninsular India.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo the best of our ability to comprehend, an investigation on the anatomy of \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea\u003c/em\u003e appears to be limited and, there may be some studies or papers that have investigated this aspect of the plant. Despite this, knowledge on \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea\u003c/em\u003e wood anatomy is favoured more. Furthermore, no information referring to the anatomy of its root wood has been documented. The objectives of the present study were: (a) to examine the stem and root anatomy of \u003cem\u003eW. coocinea\u003c/em\u003e and (b) to provide insights on how these traits may play important roles in adapting and survibing ability in different environment conditions. The present work on \u003cem\u003eW.coocinea\u003c/em\u003e is undertaken to study the structural variations in the stem and root wood of a tree species in order to understand their functional and adaptive significance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIAL AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ei. Preparation of Permanent Slides\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Roxburgh Botanical Garden at the University of Allahabad was the source of fresh root and stem materials (Located at 25\u0026deg;28'N, 81\u0026deg;54'E). As reported by Berlyn and Miksche (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1976\u003c/span\u003e), after being cut into small pieces, the stem and root wood was fixed in FAA. Sections of three different types were prepared: transverse sections (TS), tangential longitudinal sections (TLS), as well as radial longitudinal sections (RLS). These include by hand and with a microtome, sections were created. Materials were dried in order to prepare them for microtome using a graded series of tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA). For three days, the dehydrated components were imbedded in paraffin wax, which has a melting point of 58\u0026deg;C. After five minutes of staining with 2.0% safranin in 50% ethanol, the sections were dehydrated repeatedly for three minutes each in an ethanol sequence after being washed with distilled water. of 50%, 70%, 95%, and 100%. After two minutes of 1.0% quick green counterstaining in absolute ethanol, the sections were moved through graded xylene\u0026ndash;ethanol solutions (25:75, 50:50, and 75:25) and then onto pure xylene. Canada balsam was used to mount permanent slides.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eii. Maceration\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndividual xylem elements were separated by macerating selected root and stem wood sections in Jeffrey's fluid (equal portions of 10% nitric acid and 10% chromic acid). The supplier of all chemicals and dyes was Sigma-Aldrich\u0026reg;, headquartered in Saint Louis, Missouri, USA. In order to evaluate the length of the xylem vessel component and the libriform fiber, the macerated materials were carefully washed with water and dyed with 1.0% water- based safranin. Transverse sections were used to measure the diameters of the tangential vascular lumen.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eiii. Observations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnatomical sections were studied using an Olympus binocular compound microscope (Model: CH2i), and photographs were taken using a Leica binocular compound microscope (Model: DM2500). Each parameter's lowest, mean, and maximum values were noted after measurements were made from 30 replicates. Micrometres (\u0026micro;m) were used to convert ocular micrometre measurements.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeasurements, cell counts, and anatomical descriptions adhere to IAWA Committee (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e) standards. To facilitate uniform comparison of wood anatomical data across species, the IAWA Committee established a classification system for vessel size and fibre length .Three main groupings of fibre length has been distinguished by their average length in micrometres (\u0026micro;m): short, medium-sized, and long. Very short (less than 500 \u0026micro;m), very short (between 500 and 700 \u0026micro;m), and moderately short (between 700 and 900 \u0026micro;m) are other classifications for short fibres. The range of medium-sized fibres is 900 \u0026micro;m to 1600 \u0026micro;m. There are three subcategories for long fibres: very long (2200\u0026ndash;3000 \u0026micro;m), extremely long (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;3000 \u0026micro;m), and moderately long (1600\u0026ndash;2200 \u0026micro;m).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn a similar manner, the tangential diameter of the vessel lumen is used for determining vessel size. Extremely small (less than 25 \u0026micro;m), very small (between 25 and 50 \u0026micro;m), and moderately small (between 50 and 100 \u0026micro;m) are all considered small vessels. The diameters of medium vessels range from 100 \u0026micro;m to 200 \u0026micro;m. Moderately large (200\u0026ndash;300 \u0026micro;m), very large (300\u0026ndash;400 \u0026micro;m), and extremely large (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;400 \u0026micro;m) are the three subcategories through which large vessels come. Vulnerability index (v) was computed as xylem vessel diameter divided by vessel frequency after Carlquist (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e), and xylem vessel size and fiber length were divided into three groups. The calculation of the mesomorphy index (m) was v \u0026times; average vessel element length. To determine the F/V ratio, the mean fibre length was divided by the mean vessel element length.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eiv. Photographs\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo document qualitative and quantitative anatomical features, photomicrographs of TS, RLS, and TLS were obtained using the Leica DM2500 microscope, along with macerated materials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ev. Evolutionary and Ecological Trends\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCarlquist's interpretation states that xeric adaptations are indicated by low vulnerability (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1) and mesomorphy (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50) values, but a shift towards mesic ecological conditions is suggested by high values (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1 and \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;800, respectively). In light of environmental adaptations and evolutionary tendencies in xylem structure, which represent habitat-specific functional strategies of the species under investigation, the anatomical parameters documented in this study are analyzed.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStem wood\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVessels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eMostly seen in radial multiples of 2\u0026ndash;6, the diffuse-porous vessels can occasionally be found alone or in clusters. There are between 30\u0026ndash;37 vessels per mm\u0026sup2;. Each vascular element has a slightly oval cross section, a diameter of 25\u0026ndash;38\u0026ndash;50 \u0026micro;m, and a length of 300\u0026ndash;350 \u0026micro;m. A storied pattern is a prevalent arrangement for vessels. The perforation plate might be terminal, sub-terminal, or simple. Intervascular pits are small to minute, vestured, alternating, and occasionally coalescent, with a diameter of 4\u0026ndash;5 \u0026micro;m. There are occasionally tyloses in the vessels. (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA-E, K).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDimensions of wood elements (stem and root) of \u003cem\u003eWrightia coccinea\u003c/em\u003e ; values are the mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard error (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS. No.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWood elements\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStem wood\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRoot wood\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVessel diamter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVessel frequency\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFiber length\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e700.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e610.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRay height\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRay frequency\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVulnerability index\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e338\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e333.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMesomorphy index\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVulnerability index (v)-\u003c/b\u003e The mesomorphy index (m) is 328 and the vulnerability index (v) is 1.025.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFibres\u003c/b\u003e: Both septate and non-septate libriform fibers are extremely short to medium in height (450-700-1200 \u0026micro;m); two to five fibers divide neighboring rays (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eF, L). F/V ratio: 2. 18.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTracheids and Fibre-tracheids\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot observed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParenchyma\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eAxial parenchyma tends to be diffuse and apotracheal, with scanty paratracheal areas at occasionally. Rays are primarily heterocellular, but they can also be homocellular with square cells; they are biseriate (6\u0026ndash;8 cells height), compound (12\u0026ndash;18\u0026ndash;22 cells tall), and uniseriate (5\u0026ndash;15 cells height); they are upright, square, and procumbent, and their frequency is 50\u0026ndash;53\u0026ndash;55/mm2 (as observed in R. L. S). Ray cells include rhomboidal crystals and starch grains. (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eF, G-J).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRoot wood\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVessels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eArranged in a diffuse porous pattern; they can be found in solitary or clustered radial multiples of 2\u0026ndash;5; the frequency of vessels is 38\u0026ndash;39 to 40/mm\u0026sup2;; the cross-section of individual vessels is circular to oval; their diameters range from very small to moderately small (32-42-63\u0026micro;m); their lengths are 270 to 310\u0026ndash;340\u0026micro;m; and their perforation plates are simple, terminal, or sub-terminal. Small to minute, vestured, 4\u0026ndash;5 \u0026micro;m in diameter, alternating intervascular pits that occasionally coalescent. (Figure. 2A-B, D, H, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMesomorphy index (m) is \u0026ndash; 333 and vulnerability index (v) is \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1. 07,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFibres\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eExtremely short to medium in length (320-610-1002 \u0026micro;m) are both septate and non-septate libriform fibres; two to three fibres divide adjacent rays. (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eC, I). F/V ratio- 1. 96.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTracheids and Fibre-tracheids\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot observed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParenhyma\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith occasional sparse paratracheal parenchyma, the axial parenchyma is mainly diffuse and apotracheal. The majority of rays are heterocellular, though they can also be homocellular with upright cells. Compound rays range in height from 9 -14- 16 cells, biseriate rays from 5 to 9 cells, and uniseriate rays from 6 to 8 cells. Ray cells are square, procumbent, and upright. Rays occur at a frequency of 62\u0026ndash;6.5\u0026ndash;67 per mm\u0026sup2; (as measured in R.L.S. The ray cells include starch grains and rhomboidal crystals. (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eE-G).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current study offers a comprehensive anatomical description of \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea's\u003c/em\u003e stem and root wood. The present investigation also found previously reported features of Apocynaceae stem wood, including diffuse-porous wood, numerous vessels arranged radially, and simple perforated plates, alternating, small to minute intervascular pitting, vestured, axial parenchyma, apotracheal and scanty paratracheal, and rays heterocellular (Metcalfe and Chalk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1950\u003c/span\u003e; Pearson and Brown, 1981). These properties have also been observed by Lens et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) in the subfamily Apocynoideae. Pearson and Brown (1981) noted a similar characteristic in \u003cem\u003eWrightia\u003c/em\u003e, whereas Metcalfe and Chalk (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1950\u003c/span\u003e) found that wood with uniseriate or biseriate to triseriate rays lacks septate fibers. Nevertheless, the wood of \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea\u003c/em\u003e, which possesses uniseriate and biseriate rays, is discovered to have septate fibers in the current study. The presence of storied vessels in the stem wood is another characteristic mentioned in this study. With the exception of the presence of storied vessels, which are exclusively seen in the stem wood, structural variations between the root and stem wood are primarily quantitative. In comparison to stem wood, root wood exhibits more axial and ray parenchyma, broader vessels, and a higher frequency of vessels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eReconstructing climate variations across time can be done by using the growth pattern record found in tree rings. This can evaluate the effects of climate change on ecosystems and recreate historical settings by examining wood anatomy in combination with other proxy data. According to some reports, the larger vessels found in the roots of diffuse-porous trees may make them more susceptible to drought-induced embolism than the stems (Zimmermann, 1983; Langui et al., 2018). In water-limited situations, plants with diffuse porosity root systems would be better able to compete for water, which could have an impact on community composition and species distribution patterns. Diffuse porous roots' effectiveness in transporting water can also affects ecosystem functions including carbon sequestration and nitrogen cycling. \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea's\u003c/em\u003e root wood contains starch grains in its parenchyma cells, which are useful for eliminating embolism, which improves water conduction in capillaries. Carlquist (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) and Mooney and Gartner (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), claim that starch hydrolyzes into sugar, which raises the osmotic potential when it is carried into vessels. This system might draw water and aid in the air embolism's healing. The transport efficiency in stem wood may be balanced by the presence of additional radial multiples of vessels. Additionally, the presence of a basic perforated plate facilitates frictionless water conduction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the stem wood of \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea\u003c/em\u003e, the storied pattern of vessels demonstrates a high degree of evolutionary specialization and organized cambial activity. The pattern, which arranges vessel components in horizontal tiers, demonstrates the vascular cambium's well-coordinated cell division process. This amazing structure suggests that the wood's structural organization is more efficient. It is believed to be a sophisticated anatomical property commonly seen in highly evolved dicotyledonous plants. It might not directly improve water conduction, but it usually coexists with other adaption traits that help the plant's overall stability and mechanical strength. to guarantee that the storied vessel arrangement has significant taxonomic and diagnostic relevance in addition to the identification and classification of woody species. The arrangement of the containers' stories reveals the plant's propensity to endure in arid environments (Carlquist, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1966\u003c/span\u003e).Furthermore, vestured pits found in \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea's\u003c/em\u003e stem and root wood play a significant part in enhancing vascular performance by preventing cavitations and assisting in the repair of embolisms (Dickison, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Jansen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Costa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe proportion of fibers in stems of trees is generally higher than that of roots (Reidl, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1937\u003c/span\u003e; Stokke and Manwiller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Tripathi and cowerkers, 2023). The only mechanical tissue found in \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea\u003c/em\u003e stem wood is fibers; tracheids are not present. The higher frequency of fiber content in the stem wood relative to the root wood, which reflects the structural difference between the stem and root tissues, indicates the plant's adaptation for stronger mechanical support in aerial sections. As indicated by Carlquist's (1977) computed vulnerability and mesomorphy indices, \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea\u003c/em\u003e has adapted to mesic conditions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present investigation illustrates \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea's\u003c/em\u003e anatomical advancements that strike a balance between environmental resistance, hydraulic efficiency, and mechanical strength. All the parameters viz. measurements of vessel size and fiber length, cell count are followed by IAWA committee's. Moreover, the higher vessel frequency ( 38\u0026ndash;40/mm\u0026sup2;) and parenchyma content of the root wood enhance water storage and conduction, helping survival under varying moisture conditions. The storied vessel arrangement in particular reflects advanced cambial organization and mechanical reinforcement for aerial support. Vestured pits and starch reserves strengthen the plant's ability to sustain hydraulic function through contributing to embolism resistance. In addition to their ecological importance, the observed structural patterns offer significant diagnostic characteristics for identifying wood in the Apocynaceae family. The plant being used to treat an array of health conditions in different parts. Various structural characteristics may be significant in plant identification because it is frequently observed that incorrectly recognised plants result in mortality. In combination with alleviating taxonomic issues along with offering insight into the physiological activities of plants, this framework may also be essential for pharmacology and in the understanding of evolutionary interactions. In addition, by offering a uniform framework for characterising wood structure, this categorisation aids in the connection of anatomical characteristics with mechanical characteristics, species identification, and environmental adaptations. The current investigation addresses a knowledge gap for \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea\u003c/em\u003e by documenting the anatomical features of both stem as well as root wood subsequently also provides a reference for future studies in plant functional anatomy, adaption strategies, and conservation approach.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConflicts of Interest:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eS. N.T. - Conceptualization, Original Drafting, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing;A.T. -Editing and Review;S.W.- Formal analysis.all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability Statement:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBerlyn GP, Miksche JP (1976) Botanical Microtechnique and Cytochemistry. Iowa State University, Ames, p 326\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCarlquist S (1966) Wood anatomy of Compositae: A summary, with comments on factors controlling wood evolution. Aliso: A Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, 6 (2) 25\u0026ndash;44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCarlquist S (1977) Ecological factors in wood evolution: a floristic approach. Am J Bot 64(7):887\u0026ndash;896\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCarlquist S (2001) Comparative wood anatomy: Systematic, ecological and evolutionary aspects of dicotyledon wood, 2nd edn. London, Springer-Verlag\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCosta CG, Callado CH, Coradin VTR, Carmello-Guerreiro SM (2006) Xilema. In: Apezzato-Da-Gl\u0026oacute;ria B, Carmello-Guerreiro SM (eds) Anatomia Vegetal, 2nd edn. Vi\u0026ccedil;osa, Editora UFV\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDickison WC (2000) Integrative plant anatomy. California, Academy\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEndress ME, Schumann SL, Meve U (2014) An updated classification for Apocynaceae. Phytotaxa 159(3):175\u0026ndash;194\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIAWA Committee (1989) List of microscopic features of hard wood identification. IAWA Bull 10(3):219\u0026ndash;332\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJannat T, Hossain MJ, El-Shehawi AM, Kuddus MR, Rashid MA, Albogami S, Jafri I, El-Shazly M, Haque MR (2022) Chemical and Pharmacological Profiling of \u003cem\u003eWrightia coccinea\u003c/em\u003e (Roxb. Ex Hornem.) Sims Focusing Antioxidant, Cytotoxic, Antidiarrheal, Hypoglycemic, and Analgesic Properties. Molecules 27(13):4024. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134024\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/molecules27134024\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJansen S, Baas P, Gasson P, Smets E (2003) Vestured pits: do they promote safer water transport? 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Blumea 21:193\u0026ndash;258\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Plates","content":"\u003cp\u003ePlate 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Wrightia coccinea, Wood anatomy, ecological adaptation, vulnerability indexaa","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7483087/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7483087/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe present analysis offers the first comparison of the both quantitative and qualitative approaches aspects of wood anatomy of the stem and root in the significant deciduous tree \u003cem\u003eWrightia coccinea\u003c/em\u003e Sims (Apocynaceae), which has ecological, ornamental, and therapeutic applications. It is currently classified as least concern by IUCN. Qualitatively, both organs exhibited heterocellular rays with rhomboidal crystals and starch grains, vestured pits, diffuse-apotracheal axial parenchyma, diffuse-porous vessels, and simple perforation plates. Based on quantitative research, stem wood had more fibers (700) and a storied vessel arrangement, indicating mechanical reinforcing and evolutionary specialization, while root wood had larger vessel sizes, and a higher vessel frequency. The formation of storied vessel arrangement as well as coalescent pits is crucial ecological distinctiveness of stem wood. The estimated values (including v \u0026amp; m ) indices shows adaptability to mesic environments, and the vulnerability and mesomorphy indices were marginally higher in roots (VI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;333; MI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.07) than in stems (VI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;328; MI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.025). Enhanced hydraulic efficiency and embolism repair are implied by vestured pits and starch reserves. Practically a majority of individuals are aware of the anatomy of the Apocynaceae family, not much is known about the anatomy of W. coccinea's stem wood, despite nothing has been identified about its root wood. These integrated qualitative and quantitative results offer crucial diagnostic attributes for \u003cem\u003eW. coccinea\u003c/em\u003e taxonomy, adaptive ecology, and conservation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Exploring the stem and root wood anatomy of Wrightia coccinea Sims (Apocynaceae) in relation to their sustainability and resilience","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-16 14:19:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7483087/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ca7276c4-398f-48ba-a462-b30e9bdca070","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 16th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-24T16:02:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7483087","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13196-025-00394-1","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-the-indian-academy-of-wood-science","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of the Indian Academy of Wood Science"},"publishedOn":"2025-11-20 15:57:52","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 20th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-16 14:19:34","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s13196-025-00394-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13196-025-00394-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7483087","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7483087","identity":"rs-7483087","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}