Environmental and temporal factors affecting record white-tailed deer antler characteristics in Ontario, Canada

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are an ecologically and economically important species in North America. Their antlers, one of their most recognizable features, are used for dominance displays, mate attraction, and defense, with size and shape being key determinants of success. Antler characteristics are influenced by a combination of genetics, age and environmental factors, notably habitat quality and resource availability. In this study, we explored how diverse environmental factors, including climate and land cover composition, impact antler size, tine configuration, and the distribution of record-scoring white-tailed deer across Ontario, Canada, using hunter-submitted data from long-term antler scoring records. We used conditional autoregressive (CAR) models to examine these relationships and found that warmer temperatures the year of harvest were positively associated with larger antlers and more record deer in a given county, while winter precipitation the year of harvest was negatively associated with these characteristics, likely due to reduced forage availability or increased energy expenditure during more severe winters. Rangeland and forest land cover types were positively associated with increased antler size and tine number. We observed no temporal changes in antler size in Ontario, contrasting with broader trends observed in North America. These results show how local environmental conditions and land cover composition influence antler traits and the distribution of record white-tailed deer, highlighting the complexity of environmental influences on trait variation. Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. Footnotes

and Discussion updated to reduce emphasis on genetic effects, clarify the role of age structure and environment, and reorganize first two discussion paragraphs; Methods updated to clarify antler scoring system, inclusion criteria, growing period, and hunter survey details; Figures 2 to 4 revised for color contrast, clarity, and inclusion of modeled relationships; Table S3 moved to main manuscript; Supplemental files updated with correlation matrices.