Durability Characteristics of Geopolymer Concrete Produced Using Gold Ore Tailings Along with Recycled Coarse Aggregates

Durability Characteristics of Geopolymer Concrete Produced Using Gold Ore Tailings Along with Recycled Coarse Aggregates | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Durability Characteristics of Geopolymer Concrete Produced Using Gold Ore Tailings Along with Recycled Coarse Aggregates Eshwarayya Bolluru Lokesha, Mangalpady Aruna, Sandi Kumar Reddy This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3850399/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The gold ore tailings (GOTs) are one of the major waste in the mining sector. The disposal of these tailings could be the problem to human health and major environmental concern from several years. Hence, the attempt should be made for effective utilization of industrial waste in the construction industry in different forms. In this research work, the GOTs were used as an alternative material to the river sand (RS) in the production of geopolymer concrete (GPC). The developed GPC samples were tested to know the durability characteristics, such as resistance to sulphates and chlorides. The sulphate attack test was conducted by immersing the conventional concrete (CC) and GPC samples in 5% magnesium sulphate (MgSO 4 ) solution for a period of 28 days, 56 days, 90 days, 180 days, 270 days, and 365 days. In this test, the GPC samples showed the reduction in compressive strength and weight, which is slightly more when compared to CC samples, for 270 and 365 days of exposure condition. The rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT) was also conducted to know the chloride ion penetration in which GPC samples exhibited less chloride penetration when compared to CC samples. Further, the toxic characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) analysis showed that the GOTs has very high concentration of hazardous metals, such as arsenic (As), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and mercury (Hg). But the concentration of cyanide (CN − ) was minimum in GOTs. In this regard, geopolymerization would be a better method for immobilizing the hazardous metals present in GOTs. Gepolymer concrete Gold ore tailings Durability Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 1. Introduction The mining and construction industries generate the majority of the waste in the globe. Especially, the mining industry faces difficulty due to the generation of large volume of waste material and the associated problem in disposing this waste. These waste products contribute to environmental problems, such as soil contamination, acid mine drainage, and so on. Mining wastes, such as tailings of zinc, copper and gold have adverse effect on the environment [ 1 ]. Researchers have made numerous contributions to the reduction of these mine wastes. The gold ore tailings (GOTs) were obtained during the extraction of calaverite ore. The GOTs can be used as filler material in the construction fields to make bricks, tiles, interlocks etc [ 2 ]–[ 6 ]. The GOTs can be used as filler materials in the manufacture of concrete, especially in the geopolymer concrete (GPC), due to its more silica and aluminium [ 7 ]. The various researchers [ 8 ]–[ 22 ] used GOTs as replacement material in the production of various types of concrete and studied the mechanical properties of concrete. Some researchers [ 7 ], [ 23 ]–[ 30 ] utilized the mine ore tailings in the preparation of GPC and evaluated their mechanical properties. A few authors [ 7 ], [ 26 ], [ 31 ]–[ 34 ] contributed their study towards utilization of GOTs in the production of geopolymer mortar and investigated the unconfined compressive strength and Brazilian indirect tensile strength. Shaikh [ 36 ] presented a study on mechanical and durability properties of fly ash (FA) based GPC prepared using recycled coarse aggregates (RCAs).The study revealed that the mechanical and durability characteristics of GPC were unfavourably affected due to the addition of RCAs. A related research was carried out by Kurtoğlu et al. [ 37 ] on mechanical and long-term durability characteristics of GPC which was prepared using fly-ash and slag. They prepared three types of specimens, such as FAGPC (100% FA), SGPC (100% GGBFS), and OPC (i.e. ordinary Portland cement) specimens. The outcome of their research demonstrated that the SGPC has better strength and more durable than FAGPC due to the presence of alumina-silicate materials in the GGBFS. The study also exhibited that the FAGPC has better resistance to the durability performance but lower mechanical properties when compared to OPC specimens. The decrease in strength in FAGPC was mainly due to low calcium content, less reactivity, and more porous structure in FA particles. One more related work was conceded out by Manjunath et al. [ 38 ] on performance GPC mixes subjected to aggressive environment, such as acids, sulphates and chlorides. Their study exhibited that there was reduction in compressive strength due to deterioration of GPC mixes exposed to 5% sulphuric acid solution to one year duration, which was in the range of 36.4–39.1%. Similarly, exposure to 10% MgSO 4 solution showed that the deterioration of compressive strength was in the range of 15.5–20.5% to the end of one year. Further, Waqas et al. [ 39 ] have studied the influence of bentonite on mechanical and durability characteristics of GPC which was manufactured using high calcium fly ash (HCFA) along with natural and recycled aggregates. The study demonstrated that the addition of bentonite by 10% weight to HCFA gives better mechanical, durability, and rheological properties for both geopolymeric recycled aggregate concrete (GRAC) and geopolymeric natural aggregate concrete (GNAC). Sikder and Saha [ 40 ] reviewed the durability properties of GPC prepared using various types of waste materials, such as FA, GGBFS, metakaolin (MK), red mud (RM), ferrochrome slag (FS), rice husk ash (RHA), sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA), and palm oil fuel ash (POFA) as binders. By referring to the various literatures, the authors concluded that the durability properties of GPC prepared with FA, and GGBFS shows better resistance when compared to other wastes. Arpitha and Rajasekaran [ 35 ] have carried out the research on durability properties of concrete of M40 grade, which was prepared using copper slag and GGBFS, as partial substitute to the fine aggregates. They conducted the toxic characteristics leaching procedure (TCLP) test to examine the concentration of sulphates, chlorides and sodium ions in the concrete. Their research study concluded that the developed concrete showed the better strength and durability against sulphate, chlorides and sodium ions up to one year of exposure condition. However, no research has been published on the use of GOTs as finer materials in the production of GPC with RCAs. As a result, this study evaluates the suitability of GOTs and their application in the creation of GPC. The laboratory tests were performed to determine the durability of GPC, such as resistance to sulphate and chloride attack. Since, cyanide is used during the process of extraction of gold it is mandatory to investigate its presence and heavy metals in GOTs before its commercial utilization. The leachability test was carried out to assess the occurrence of hazardous metals in the GOTs. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Raw Materials The GOTs were collected from a gold mine in southern part of India and its geotechnical properties were determined, as per the ASTM Standards [ 41 ], [ 42 ]. The GOTs results obtained from the laboratory study were within the allowable limits as per ASTM Standards [ 43 ]. Further, the hydrometer analysis was performed for GOTs as per ASTM 2007 [ 44 ], in which more than 88.78% of particles were below 75 micron in size which is depicted in Fig. 1 . The locally available fine aggregates i.e., river sand (RS) were used for the preparation of GPC. The physical properties of RS were investigated and obtained values [ 43 ], were within the tolerable bounds as per Indian Standards (IS): 2386 − 1963 Part III [ 45 ]. The sieve analysis was conducted for RS as per IS: 383–1970 [ 46 ], in which sand particles were well graded which is shown in Fig. 1 . The crushed old concrete cubes were utilized as recycled coarse aggregates (RCAs) and their physical properties were determined. The tests conducted on RCAs shown that the obtained values [ 43 ], were within the permissible limits as per BIS: 2386-4 2016; IS:2386 − 1963 1963; IS:2386 Part I 1963; IS: 2386- Part III 1963 [ 45 ], [ 47 ]–[ 49 ]. The sieve analysis was conducted for RCAs as per IS:383 1970 [ 46 ], in which 80% of coarse aggregates were linking 10 mm to 20 mm in size which is depicted in Fig. 1 . The Class F fly ash was utilized as a binding material which is collected from nearby power plant. The physical characteristics of FA were also investigated and the results were within the permissible bounds as per Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) 2004 [ 43 ]. The GGBFS was used as a partial substitute material to the binding material (i.e., FA). The physical characteristics of GGBFS were assessed and obtained values were within the acceptable bounds as per BIS [ 43 ]. The chemical composition of GOTs, FA and GGBFS were ascertained by conducting X-ray florescence (XRF) analysis, which exhibited that the GOTs as well as FA has high silica and alumina content [ 43 ], and the GGBFS has more calcium content [ 51 ]. The Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) analysis also performed to know the morphological view of raw materials (i.e., GOTs, FA and GGBFS). The morphology of FA is smooth spherical shape and, GOTs is looks like an uneven type of structure with small quartz particles were observed which is given in Fig. 2 (a) and, Fig. 2 (b) respectively. The morphology of GGBFS also looks like a crystalline type of structure and is depicted in Fig. 2 (c). The sodium hydroxide pellets (NaOH), sodium silicate (Na 2 SiO 3 ) solutions, and naphthalene based super-plasticizers (SP 575) were obtained from the nearby chemical industries. The chemical properties of NaOH, Na 2 SiO 3 and SP 575 were determined [ 51 ]. 2.2. Experimental Setup For this research work, the 14M NaOH solution was used (i.e., dissolving 404 gm of NaOH pellets in 596 ml of water). Thus, prepared 14M NaOH solution and Na 2 SiO 3 solution were mixed for 5 minutes and kept for 24 hours so as to get alkaline activator solution. The GOTs, RS, FA, GGBFS, and RCAs were mixed in a dry manner for two minutes. After that, alkaline activator solution was added to the dry mixture. Further, mixing was continued to get homogenous mixture. The SP 575 was added to the wet mix to get required workability of geooplymer mix. The wet mix was poured in to the cubes (of size 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm). Totally, 21 cubes were prepared for determining the durability properties of GPC samples. In addition to above samples, for the purpose of comparison, M40 grade of conventional concrete (CC) of 21 cubes was also casted using OPC 43 grade cement with water - cement ratio (i.e., W/C) of 0.45. 2.3. Mix Design For this research work, the mix design was presumed with reference to the available literatures [ 25 ], [ 51 ]. The mass of combined aggregates was taken as 75–80% of total weight of concrete. The 30% weight of concrete was occupied by RS and remaining 70% by RCAs. Further, 15% of RS was replaced by GOTs by weight (i.e., 15% GOTs and 85% RS). Similarly, the FA was replaced by 30% of GGBFS by weight and it was the optimum mix (i.e., 30% GGBFS and 70% FA). The main reason for adding GGBFS in to the FAs is that to speed up the setting time of GPC. The alkaline solution to the binder ratio (i.e., AL/B) was assumed as 0.45. The mix proportions of CC and GPC is given in Table 1 . Table 1 Detailed mix proportion for preparation of CC and GPC samples Raw materials Units Mix Proportion for CC Mix Proportion for GPC FA: GGBFS Kg/m 3 - 70:30 FA - 266.48 GGBFS - 114.2 Cement 350 - GOTs - 83.16 RS 896 471.24 RCAs - 1293.6 NCAs 1140 - NaOH solution - 48.94 Na 2 SiO 3 solution - 122.31 SP 575 7.0 15.22 Extra water - 26.67 (AL/B) or (W/C) ratio 0.45 0.45 2.4. Curing of GPC and CC Samples The prepared GPC samples were demoulded after 24 hours and were cured in an air for 28 days. Similarly, the CC samples were cured in water for 28 days. 2.5. Durability of Concrete The durability is defined as the concrete’s ability to endure the water pressure, chloride attack, acid attack, sulphate attack, and corrosion due to weathering action. In this research work, three types of tests were performed to determine the durability of GPC samples, such as resistance to magnesium sulphate (i.e., magnesium sulphate attack test), resistance to chloride penetration (i.e., rapid chloride permeability test and bulk diffusion test) and leachability test. 3. Laboratory Tests, Results and Discussions 3.1. Sulphate Attack Test After 28 days of ambient curing, 3 GPC and 3 CC cubes were taken and its compressive strength and weight were determined. The remaining 18 samples were immersed in 5% magnesium sulphate solution (i.e., 50 gm MgSO 4 flakes were dissolved in 950 ml of distilled water) for different exposure conditions, such as 28 days, 56 days, 90 days, 180 days, 270 days and 365 days. For every exposure condition, 3 samples were tested for its compressive strength and weight. Figure 3 and Fig. 4 shows the test results of the compressive strength and weight, respectively. As shown in the figures, initially the compressive strength and weight were slightly increasing up to 180 days curing condition. After 180 days there was a gradual decrease in their strength and weight i.e., for 270 days and 365 days exposure conditions. The CC samples shown lesser loss in compressive strength and weight as compared to GPC samples. The presence of calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH) 2 ) with C-A-S-H gel in the CC forms the brucite layer which act as a protective film to the CC [ 38 ], which is observed from FESEM analysis as shown in Fig. 5 . But the nonexistence of brucite layer in GPC, leads to direct environment attack on GPC, due to the presence of magnesium ions in the C-A-S-H structure resulting in the creation of magnesium–silicate-hydrate (M-S-H) and gypsum. These M-S-H and gypsum are generous in nature which cannot accommodate the pore spaces of GPC mixes, resulting in the formation of cracks in the concrete and hence reduction in their strengths. The corrosion of hydrated products in GPC also results in the reduction of strength and weight after 270 days, and 365 days exposure conditions. Further, the FESEM analysis was performed to observe the micro structure view of GPC subjected to sulphate attack (i.e. immersion in MgSO 4 solution) which is shown in Fig. 6. A close look at Fig. 6 exhibits plate-like structure, such as M-S-H gel and fibrous type of structure (gypsum). The morphology of the GPC looks like a rounded, angular and sometimes crystal shapes, with large voids and micro-cracks, after 365 days of exposure in the MgSO 4 solution. From the FESEM analysis, it can be revealed that the decrease in compressive strength and weight were mainly due to the macro-cracks in the hydrated products, such as M-S-H and gypsum. The FESEM-EDAX analysis was also performed to know the trace elements present in the GPC as well as CC samples. The test results proved the presence of Si, Al, O 2 , Mg, Na, C, and S in the GPC mixes. 28 days, (b) 56 days, (c) 90 days, (d) 180 days, (e) 270 days and (f) 365 days (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Figure 6 FESEM of GPC samples immersed in MgSO 4 solution for various curin 28 days, (b) 56 days, (c) 90 days, (d) 180 days, (e) 270 days and (f) 365 days 3.2. Resistance to Chloride Ion Penetration Test The resistance of GPC and CC to chloride ion penetration was ascertained by conducting rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT) as per ASTM C 1202-12 Standards. For this test, 3 GPC and 3 CC cylindrical samples (of size 100 mm diameter and 50 mm height) were considered and the voltage was applied on these cylinders for 6 hours. The current flowing in each cylinder was recorded to find coulombs of that particular cylinder. The voltage passed through the GPC and CC mixes were recorded to determine chloride ion penetration which is indicated in Fig. 7 . These test results indicated that the chloride ion penetration is low in GPC mix (i.e., higher values of charge passed in terms of coulombs) as compared to CC mix. Further, the resistance due to chloride ion penetration was ascertained by conducting bulk diffusion test as per ASTM C 1556-04. For determining depth of chloride ion penetration, 3 GPC and 3 CC cylindrical samples (of size 100 mm diameter and 200 mm height) was employed. After that the cylindrical samples were engrossed in 3.0% sodium chloride (NaCl) solution for a period of 35 days. After 35 days the samples were placed in air curing for 28 days. Then these specimens were halved longitudinally using compression testing machine and 0.1M of AgNO 3 (silver nitrate) solution was sprayed on its surface. The depth of the chloride ion penetration was determined as the colour of concrete turns to white due to AgCl 2 as end product in the reaction mechanism. The cylindrical specimens (i.e., GPC and CC mixes) after halved into two equal parts to know the chloride ions which is shown in Fig. 8 . From the results of depth of penetration of chloride ion in the GPC and CC specimens, the bulk diffusion co-efficient can be determined using Eq. (1). X D = 4(Dt) 0.5 (1) where, X D = depth of chloride penetration metres, D = diffusion co-efficient (in m 2 /s), and t = exposure time (in seconds). The obtained bulk diffusion co-efficient values of GPC and CC mixes are given in Fig. 9 . From the results, it can be seen that the average bulk diffusion co-efficient values of CC mixes were higher than the GPC mixes. 3.3. Leachability Test The leachability test was conducted as per the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 1311Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) Standards to determine the toxic elements present in the GOTs as well as GPC. For this test 25 gm of GOTs which is passing through 9.5 mm sieve size was taken. The GOTs sample was mixed with 0.57% of acetic acid (i.e., solid to liquid ratio 20: 1) and placed in rotary equipment, and the mixture was rotated at 30 ± 2 r.p.m for 18 hours under room temperature. Thus, obtained mixture was poured on 0.45 µm membrane filter and extraction fluid (lechates) was collected. The collected extraction fluid was tested using Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP-MS) analysis to know the presence of toxic elements, such as As, Pb, Cd, Cr, Fe, Hg, Zn etc. The results of the ICP-MS analysis are depicted in Table 2 . As indicated in Table 2 , except Pb the concentration of all the other elements under consideration were above the permissible limits. Further, As, Zn, Fe, and Hg metals may be considered as hazardous materials as their concentration is high. The presence of cyanides (CN − ) was 2.36 mg/L, which is considered as low [ 31 ]. Hence these metals can be immobilized in the process of geopolymerization. These results encourage to utilize GOTs for production of GPC in the construction sector. Table 2 Toxic metals present in GOTs and GPC Elements USEPA limit Concentrations of heavy metals in GOTs (mg/L) Concentrations of heavy metals in GPC (mg/L) As 5 2204.56 104.86 Pb 5 4.24 0.00 Cd 1 4.54 0.00 Cr 5 5.82 0.00 Fe - 30.05 0.01 Hg 0.2 15.09 - 5.59 Zn - 115.82 0.01 CN − - 2.36 0.00 4. Conclusions The developed GPC prepared using GOTs as partial replacement to the RS showed enhanced strength and durability properties when compared to CC. The following are the conclusions drawn from this research work: The physical properties of raw materials were determined according to Bureau of Indian Standards. Hence, the results achieved from the tests were within the allowable limits as per BIS, therefore these materials can be effectively used in the production of geopplymer concrete. The magnesium sulphate attack test results confirmed that the compressive strength and weight of GPC samples were increases for the initial exposure period of 28 days, 56 days, 90 days, and 180 days. But there was loss in compressive strength and weight for 270 days and 365 days exposure to MgSO 4 solution. The GPC samples shown more loss in compressive strength and weight when compared to CC samples. The study demonstrated that the GPC has M-S-H gel and gypsum, which are expansive in nature and hence cannot accommodate the voids of GPC mixes. This results in the formation of cracks in the concrete, which leads to loss in the strength and weight. The deterioration of hydrated products in the GPC also facilitates the decrease in the strength and weight of GPC after 270 days, and 365 days of exposure conditions. The rapid chloride penetration test as well as bulk diffusion test results demonstrated that the chloride penetration rate is less in GPC mixes as compared to CC mixes. The lower diffusion co-efficient values of GPC mixes favour better safeguard against corrosion of rebar’s in the concrete structures. The leachability test revealed that the GOTs comprises high concentration of As, Zn, Fe, and Hg, and hence these metals can be considered as hazardous metals present in GOTs. However, these toxic metals can be effectively immobilized in the process of geopolymerization during the manufacturing of GPC. Further, this test also exhibited that the GOTs contains CN - of 2.36 mg/L, which is considered as within safe limit. Finally, this study concluded that that GPC was showed the better durability properties in terms of alkalis and acids. Hence, the utilization of GOTs in the preparation of GPC saves the natural resources and reduces the consumption of CO 2 gases which leads to the eco friendly environment. Declarations Author Contributions Eshwarayya Bolluru Lokesha: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, validation, writing - original draft preparation. Mangalpady Aruna: Writing - review and editing. Sandi Kumar Reddy: Review Consent for publications All authors confirm the consent for publication. Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests. References Rai A, Rao DBN (2005) Utilisation potentials of industrial/mining rejects and tailings as building materials. Manag Environ Qual An Int J 16(6):605–614. 10.1108/14777830510623673 Roy S, Adhikari GR, Gupta RN (2007) Use of gold mill tailings in making bricks: A feasibility study. Waste Manag Res 25(5):475–482. 10.1177/0734242X07076944 Malatse M, Ndlovu S (2015) The viability of using the Witwatersrand gold mine tailings for brickmaking. 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Mater (Basel) 14(24). 10.3390/ma14247790 Sikder A, Saha P (2021) Effect of different types of Waste as Binder on Durability Properties of Geopolymer Concrete: A Review. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 796(1). 10.1088/1755-1315/796/1/012018 ASTM, D4318–00 (2000) Standards,for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils This c of soils, ASTM D 4318-00. ASTM Int 04:1–14 ASTM D (2000) - Standard Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Water Pycnometer, Astm D854 , vol. 2458000, no. C, pp. 1–7, 10.1520/D0854-14 Lokesha EB, Aruna M, Reddy SK, Srinivasa AS (2023) Physicomechanical Properties and Characterization of Gold Ore Tailings and the Utilization in Manufacturing of Geopolymer Concrete with Class F Fly Ash and Recycled Coarse Aggregates. J Hazard Toxic Radioact Waste 27(4):1–12. 10.1061/jhtrbp.hzeng-1248 ASTM D (2007) Particle Size Analysis of Soils_, Astm , vol. D422-63, no. Reapproved, pp. 1–8, [Online]. Available: papers2://publication/uuid/32E2AE22 -8555-4A27-B8B6-F7217202A1F2 IS 2386- Part III (2002) Method of Test for aggregate for concrete. Part III- Specific gravity, density, voids, absorption and bulking, Bur. Indian Stand. New Delhi , p. 1963 IS:383 (1970) Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates From Natural Sources for Concrete. Indian Stand, pp. 1–24, IS:2386 (Part I) (2002) Method of test for aggregate for concrete (Particle size and shape), Indian Stand. , p. 1963 BIS: 2386-4 (2016) Indian Standards: 2386-4:1963 Method of test for aggregates for concrete-mechanical properties. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. 2016 IS:2386 – 1963 (1963) Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete. Bur Indian Stand 5:1–14 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) (2004) Methods of physical tests for hydraulic cement, Part 2: Determination of fineness by specific surface by Blaine air permeability method, IS 4031 (Part 2) 1999, New Delhi , pp. 1–13, Lokesha EB, Aruna M, Reddy SK, Srinivasa AS (2023) Development of Regression Model and Optimization of Mechanical Properties of Geopolymer Concrete Prepared Using Gold Ore Tailings, J. Hazardous, Toxic, Radioact. Waste , vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 1–14, 10.1061/jhtrbp.hzeng-1259 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3850399","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":269882811,"identity":"f19f366d-31c6-4105-b118-26c421f5a351","order_by":0,"name":"Eshwarayya Bolluru Lokesha","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"National Institute of Technology Karnataka","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eshwarayya","middleName":"Bolluru","lastName":"Lokesha","suffix":""},{"id":269882812,"identity":"9d6874e9-05ff-4b45-be8c-0df7896528c8","order_by":1,"name":"Mangalpady Aruna","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Institute of Technology Karnataka","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mangalpady","middleName":"","lastName":"Aruna","suffix":""},{"id":269882813,"identity":"cd529eb5-559b-499a-8091-28f14ef7dcb2","order_by":2,"name":"Sandi Kumar Reddy","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Institute of Technology Karnataka","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sandi","middleName":"Kumar","lastName":"Reddy","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-01-10 13:29:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3850399/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3850399/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":50420468,"identity":"cf1a298b-cb1a-47fd-8dce-8b29edb63087","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 09:24:12","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":11132,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGrading curve for GOTs, RS and RCAs\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3850399/v1/6521afb943109dc486eee80e.png"},{"id":50420475,"identity":"8b7dea07-bb44-4d5e-b713-81bcd11e4d60","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 09:24:13","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":166934,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFESEM images of (a) FA; (b) GOTs; (c) GGBFS\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3850399/v1/be83264716941b3d716d06b4.png"},{"id":50421026,"identity":"62674d2f-2a8e-4459-a6da-3555ee332acb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 09:32:12","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":9348,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLoss in compressive strength of GPC and CC samples for various exposure conditions in 5% MgSO\u003csub\u003e4 \u003c/sub\u003esolution\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3850399/v1/bd10a6200f15205eb8d28ece.png"},{"id":50420469,"identity":"201c877d-90b4-47bd-8c15-155430f7d6a6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 09:24:12","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":8696,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLoss in weight of GPC and CC samples for various exposure conditions in 5% MgSO\u003csub\u003e4 \u003c/sub\u003esolution\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3850399/v1/611f480ea6d1d44b491df5fe.png"},{"id":50420477,"identity":"9f3a3873-5041-41f2-8e57-8a9fcbc1399f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 09:24:14","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":674507,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFESEM of CC samples immersed in MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e solution for various curing periods\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(a)\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp; 28 days, (b) 56 days, (c) 90 days, (d) 180 days, (e) 270 days and (f) 365 days\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3850399/v1/cbe346f6fbd39348e004fc8f.png"},{"id":50420474,"identity":"ced5cb60-69bc-4cb2-9a64-df673c767d07","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 09:24:13","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":660668,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFESEM of GPC samples immersed in MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e solution for various curin\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(a)\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp; 28 days, (b) 56 days, (c) 90 days, (d) 180 days, (e) 270 days and (f) 365 days\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3850399/v1/334a8ceec39d2f4b53490ad1.png"},{"id":50420476,"identity":"398a25a7-1ebd-428f-9ef4-c08292baba50","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 09:24:13","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":8193,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTotal charge passed after RCPT test for GPC and CC samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3850399/v1/cb688d5306ca455c6cd9e7c1.png"},{"id":50420472,"identity":"24929a2a-9d8e-46df-9ac3-e273db65121f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 09:24:13","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":618110,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCylindrical samples after RCPT test (a) GPC and (b) CC\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3850399/v1/4bea9d754684858e278ccd6f.png"},{"id":50420471,"identity":"d5fe35f9-2e86-4bfb-acac-0116097eb048","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 09:24:13","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":9017,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBulk co-efficient values of CC and GPC samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3850399/v1/91501a377a2e3ca53f864d0b.png"},{"id":50696555,"identity":"b780304c-9235-43b0-b0a6-4f615f9051f8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-06 02:14:59","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2353445,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3850399/v1/9ab9a28d-61c0-4402-9bd4-3b07dd29cc46.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Durability Characteristics of Geopolymer Concrete Produced Using Gold Ore Tailings Along with Recycled Coarse Aggregates","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe mining and construction industries generate the majority of the waste in the globe. Especially, the mining industry faces difficulty due to the generation of large volume of waste material and the associated problem in disposing this waste. These waste products contribute to environmental problems, such as soil contamination, acid mine drainage, and so on. Mining wastes, such as tailings of zinc, copper and gold have adverse effect on the environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Researchers have made numerous contributions to the reduction of these mine wastes. The gold ore tailings (GOTs) were obtained during the extraction of calaverite ore. The GOTs can be used as filler material in the construction fields to make bricks, tiles, interlocks etc [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR3 CR4 CR5\" citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u0026ndash;[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe GOTs can be used as filler materials in the manufacture of concrete, especially in the geopolymer concrete (GPC), due to its more silica and aluminium [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. The various researchers [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9 CR10 CR11 CR12 CR13 CR14 CR15 CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19 CR20 CR21\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]\u0026ndash;[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] used GOTs as replacement material in the production of various types of concrete and studied the mechanical properties of concrete. Some researchers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24 CR25 CR26 CR27 CR28 CR29\" citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]\u0026ndash;[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] utilized the mine ore tailings in the preparation of GPC and evaluated their mechanical properties. A few authors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR32 CR33\" citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]\u0026ndash;[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e] contributed their study towards utilization of GOTs in the production of geopolymer mortar and investigated the unconfined compressive strength and Brazilian indirect tensile strength.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShaikh [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] presented a study on mechanical and durability properties of fly ash (FA) based GPC prepared using recycled coarse aggregates (RCAs).The study revealed that the mechanical and durability characteristics of GPC were unfavourably affected due to the addition of RCAs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA related research was carried out by Kurtoğlu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] on mechanical and long-term durability characteristics of GPC which was prepared using fly-ash and slag. They prepared three types of specimens, such as FAGPC (100% FA), SGPC (100% GGBFS), and OPC (i.e. ordinary Portland cement) specimens. The outcome of their research demonstrated that the SGPC has better strength and more durable than FAGPC due to the presence of alumina-silicate materials in the GGBFS. The study also exhibited that the FAGPC has better resistance to the durability performance but lower mechanical properties when compared to OPC specimens. The decrease in strength in FAGPC was mainly due to low calcium content, less reactivity, and more porous structure in FA particles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne more related work was conceded out by Manjunath et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] on performance GPC mixes subjected to aggressive environment, such as acids, sulphates and chlorides. Their study exhibited that there was reduction in compressive strength due to deterioration of GPC mixes exposed to 5% sulphuric acid solution to one year duration, which was in the range of 36.4\u0026ndash;39.1%. Similarly, exposure to 10% MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e solution showed that the deterioration of compressive strength was in the range of 15.5\u0026ndash;20.5% to the end of one year.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther, Waqas et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] have studied the influence of bentonite on mechanical and durability characteristics of GPC which was manufactured using high calcium fly ash (HCFA) along with natural and recycled aggregates. The study demonstrated that the addition of bentonite by 10% weight to HCFA gives better mechanical, durability, and rheological properties for both geopolymeric recycled aggregate concrete (GRAC) and geopolymeric natural aggregate concrete (GNAC).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSikder and Saha [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e] reviewed the durability properties of GPC prepared using various types of waste materials, such as FA, GGBFS, metakaolin (MK), red mud (RM), ferrochrome slag (FS), rice husk ash (RHA), sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA), and palm oil fuel ash (POFA) as binders. By referring to the various literatures, the authors concluded that the durability properties of GPC prepared with FA, and GGBFS shows better resistance when compared to other wastes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eArpitha and Rajasekaran [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] have carried out the research on durability properties of concrete of M40 grade, which was prepared using copper slag and GGBFS, as partial substitute to the fine aggregates. They conducted the toxic characteristics leaching procedure (TCLP) test to examine the concentration of sulphates, chlorides and sodium ions in the concrete. Their research study concluded that the developed concrete showed the better strength and durability against sulphate, chlorides and sodium ions up to one year of exposure condition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, no research has been published on the use of GOTs as finer materials in the production of GPC with RCAs. As a result, this study evaluates the suitability of GOTs and their application in the creation of GPC. The laboratory tests were performed to determine the durability of GPC, such as resistance to sulphate and chloride attack. Since, cyanide is used during the process of extraction of gold it is mandatory to investigate its presence and heavy metals in GOTs before its commercial utilization. The leachability test was carried out to assess the occurrence of hazardous metals in the GOTs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Raw Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe GOTs were collected from a gold mine in southern part of India and its geotechnical properties were determined, as per the ASTM Standards [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. The GOTs results obtained from the laboratory study were within the allowable limits as per ASTM Standards [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. Further, the hydrometer analysis was performed for GOTs as per ASTM 2007 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e], in which more than 88.78% of particles were below 75 micron in size which is depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe locally available fine aggregates i.e., river sand (RS) were used for the preparation of GPC. The physical properties of RS were investigated and obtained values [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e], were within the tolerable bounds as per Indian Standards (IS): 2386\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1963 Part III [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. The sieve analysis was conducted for RS as per IS: 383\u0026ndash;1970 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], in which sand particles were well graded which is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The crushed old concrete cubes were utilized as recycled coarse aggregates (RCAs) and their physical properties were determined. The tests conducted on RCAs shown that the obtained values [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e], were within the permissible limits as per BIS: 2386-4 2016; IS:2386\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1963 1963; IS:2386 Part I 1963; IS: 2386- Part III 1963 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR48\" citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]\u0026ndash;[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. The sieve analysis was conducted for RCAs as per IS:383 1970 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], in which 80% of coarse aggregates were linking 10 mm to 20 mm in size which is depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Class F fly ash was utilized as a binding material which is collected from nearby power plant. The physical characteristics of FA were also investigated and the results were within the permissible bounds as per Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) 2004 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. The GGBFS was used as a partial substitute material to the binding material (i.e., FA). The physical characteristics of GGBFS were assessed and obtained values were within the acceptable bounds as per BIS [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. The chemical composition of GOTs, FA and GGBFS were ascertained by conducting X-ray florescence (XRF) analysis, which exhibited that the GOTs as well as FA has high silica and alumina content [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e], and the GGBFS has more calcium content [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. The Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) analysis also performed to know the morphological view of raw materials (i.e., GOTs, FA and GGBFS). The morphology of FA is smooth spherical shape and, GOTs is looks like an uneven type of structure with small quartz particles were observed which is given in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e (a) and, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e (b) respectively. The morphology of GGBFS also looks like a crystalline type of structure and is depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e (c).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sodium hydroxide pellets (NaOH), sodium silicate (Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) solutions, and naphthalene based super-plasticizers (SP 575) were obtained from the nearby chemical industries. The chemical properties of NaOH, Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and SP 575 were determined [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Experimental Setup\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor this research work, the 14M NaOH solution was used (i.e., dissolving 404 gm of NaOH pellets in 596 ml of water). Thus, prepared 14M NaOH solution and Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e solution were mixed for 5 minutes and kept for 24 hours so as to get alkaline activator solution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe GOTs, RS, FA, GGBFS, and RCAs were mixed in a dry manner for two minutes. After that, alkaline activator solution was added to the dry mixture. Further, mixing was continued to get homogenous mixture. The SP 575 was added to the wet mix to get required workability of geooplymer mix. The wet mix was poured in to the cubes (of size 150 mm \u0026times; 150 mm \u0026times; 150 mm). Totally, 21 cubes were prepared for determining the durability properties of GPC samples. In addition to above samples, for the purpose of comparison, M40 grade of conventional concrete (CC) of 21 cubes was also casted using OPC 43 grade cement with water - cement ratio (i.e., W/C) of 0.45.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Mix Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor this research work, the mix design was presumed with reference to the available literatures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. The mass of combined aggregates was taken as 75\u0026ndash;80% of total weight of concrete. The 30% weight of concrete was occupied by RS and remaining 70% by RCAs. Further, 15% of RS was replaced by GOTs by weight (i.e., 15% GOTs and 85% RS). Similarly, the FA was replaced by 30% of GGBFS by weight and it was the optimum mix (i.e., 30% GGBFS and 70% FA). The main reason for adding GGBFS in to the FAs is that to speed up the setting time of GPC. The alkaline solution to the binder ratio (i.e., AL/B) was assumed as 0.45. The mix proportions of CC and GPC is given in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDetailed mix proportion for preparation of CC and GPC samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaw materials\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMix Proportion for CC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMix Proportion for GPC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFA: GGBFS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"11\" rowspan=\"12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70:30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e266.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGGBFS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e114.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGOTs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e896\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e471.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRCAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1293.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNCAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNaOH solution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e solution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSP 575\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtra water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(AL/B) or (W/C) ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Curing of GPC and CC Samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe prepared GPC samples were demoulded after 24 hours and were cured in an air for 28 days. Similarly, the CC samples were cured in water for 28 days.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Durability of Concrete\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe durability is defined as the concrete\u0026rsquo;s ability to endure the water pressure, chloride attack, acid attack, sulphate attack, and corrosion due to weathering action. In this research work, three types of tests were performed to determine the durability of GPC samples, such as resistance to magnesium sulphate (i.e., magnesium sulphate attack test), resistance to chloride penetration (i.e., rapid chloride permeability test and bulk diffusion test) and leachability test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Laboratory Tests, Results and Discussions","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Sulphate Attack Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter 28 days of ambient curing, 3 GPC and 3 CC cubes were taken and its compressive strength and weight were determined. The remaining 18 samples were immersed in 5% magnesium sulphate solution (i.e., 50 gm MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e flakes were dissolved in 950 ml of distilled water) for different exposure conditions, such as 28 days, 56 days, 90 days, 180 days, 270 days and 365 days. For every exposure condition, 3 samples were tested for its compressive strength and weight. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows the test results of the compressive strength and weight, respectively. As shown in the figures, initially the compressive strength and weight were slightly increasing up to 180 days curing condition. After 180 days there was a gradual decrease in their strength and weight i.e., for 270 days and 365 days exposure conditions. The CC samples shown lesser loss in compressive strength and weight as compared to GPC samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe presence of calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) with C-A-S-H gel in the CC forms the brucite layer which act as a protective film to the CC [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e], which is observed from FESEM analysis as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. But the nonexistence of brucite layer in GPC, leads to direct environment attack on GPC, due to the presence of magnesium ions in the C-A-S-H structure resulting in the creation of magnesium\u0026ndash;silicate-hydrate (M-S-H) and gypsum. These M-S-H and gypsum are generous in nature which cannot accommodate the pore spaces of GPC mixes, resulting in the formation of cracks in the concrete and hence reduction in their strengths. The corrosion of hydrated products in GPC also results in the reduction of strength and weight after 270 days, and 365 days exposure conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther, the FESEM analysis was performed to observe the micro structure view of GPC subjected to sulphate attack (i.e. immersion in MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e solution) which is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;6. A close look at Fig.\u0026nbsp;6 exhibits plate-like structure, such as M-S-H gel and fibrous type of structure (gypsum). The morphology of the GPC looks like a rounded, angular and sometimes crystal shapes, with large voids and micro-cracks, after 365 days of exposure in the MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e solution. From the FESEM analysis, it can be revealed that the decrease in compressive strength and weight were mainly due to the macro-cracks in the hydrated products, such as M-S-H and gypsum. The FESEM-EDAX analysis was also performed to know the trace elements present in the GPC as well as CC samples. The test results proved the presence of Si, Al, O\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, Mg, Na, C, and S in the GPC mixes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e28 days, (b) 56 days, (c) 90 days, (d) 180 days, (e) 270 days and (f) 365 days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e (a) (b)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e (c) (d)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e (e) (f)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/b\u003e FESEM of GPC samples immersed in MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e solution for various curin\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e28 days, (b) 56 days, (c) 90 days, (d) 180 days, (e) 270 days and (f) 365 days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Resistance to Chloride Ion Penetration Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe resistance of GPC and CC to chloride ion penetration was ascertained by conducting rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT) as per ASTM C 1202-12 Standards. For this test, 3 GPC and 3 CC cylindrical samples (of size 100 mm diameter and 50 mm height) were considered and the voltage was applied on these cylinders for 6 hours. The current flowing in each cylinder was recorded to find coulombs of that particular cylinder. The voltage passed through the GPC and CC mixes were recorded to determine chloride ion penetration which is indicated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. These test results indicated that the chloride ion penetration is low in GPC mix (i.e., higher values of charge passed in terms of coulombs) as compared to CC mix.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther, the resistance due to chloride ion penetration was ascertained by conducting bulk diffusion test as per ASTM C 1556-04. For determining depth of chloride ion penetration, 3 GPC and 3 CC cylindrical samples (of size 100 mm diameter and 200 mm height) was employed. After that the cylindrical samples were engrossed in 3.0% sodium chloride (NaCl) solution for a period of 35 days. After 35 days the samples were placed in air curing for 28 days. Then these specimens were halved longitudinally using compression testing machine and 0.1M of AgNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (silver nitrate) solution was sprayed on its surface. The depth of the chloride ion penetration was determined as the colour of concrete turns to white due to AgCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e as end product in the reaction mechanism. The cylindrical specimens (i.e., GPC and CC mixes) after halved into two equal parts to know the chloride ions which is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the results of depth of penetration of chloride ion in the GPC and CC specimens, the bulk diffusion co-efficient can be determined using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eX\u003csub\u003eD\u003c/sub\u003e= 4(Dt)\u003csup\u003e0.5\u003c/sup\u003e (1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere, X\u003csub\u003eD\u003c/sub\u003e = depth of chloride penetration metres, D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;diffusion co-efficient (in m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s), and\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;exposure time (in seconds).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe obtained bulk diffusion co-efficient values of GPC and CC mixes are given in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e. From the results, it can be seen that the average bulk diffusion co-efficient values of CC mixes were higher than the GPC mixes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Leachability Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe leachability test was conducted as per the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 1311Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) Standards to determine the toxic elements present in the GOTs as well as GPC. For this test 25 gm of GOTs which is passing through 9.5 mm sieve size was taken. The GOTs sample was mixed with 0.57% of acetic acid (i.e., solid to liquid ratio 20: 1) and placed in rotary equipment, and the mixture was rotated at 30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2 r.p.m for 18 hours under room temperature. Thus, obtained mixture was poured on 0.45 \u0026micro;m membrane filter and extraction fluid (lechates) was collected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe collected extraction fluid was tested using Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP-MS) analysis to know the presence of toxic elements, such as As, Pb, Cd, Cr, Fe, Hg, Zn etc. The results of the ICP-MS analysis are depicted in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. As indicated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, except Pb the concentration of all the other elements under consideration were above the permissible limits. Further, As, Zn, Fe, and Hg metals may be considered as hazardous materials as their concentration is high. The presence of cyanides (CN\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) was 2.36 mg/L, which is considered as low [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Hence these metals can be immobilized in the process of geopolymerization. These results encourage to utilize GOTs for production of GPC in the construction sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToxic metals present in GOTs and GPC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElements\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSEPA limit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentrations of heavy metals in GOTs (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentrations of heavy metals in GPC (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2204.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-\u003c/b\u003e5.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCN\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe developed GPC prepared using GOTs as partial replacement to the RS showed enhanced strength and durability properties when compared to CC. The following are the conclusions drawn from this research work:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe physical properties of raw materials were determined according to Bureau of Indian Standards. Hence, the results achieved from the tests were within the allowable limits as per BIS, therefore these materials can be effectively used in the production of geopplymer concrete.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe magnesium sulphate attack test results confirmed that the compressive strength and weight of GPC samples were increases for the initial exposure period of 28 days, 56 days, 90 days, and 180 days. But there was loss in compressive strength and weight for 270 days and 365 days exposure to MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e solution. The GPC samples shown more loss in compressive strength and weight when compared to CC samples. The study demonstrated that the GPC has M-S-H gel and gypsum, which are expansive in nature and hence cannot accommodate the voids of GPC mixes. This results in the formation of cracks in the concrete, which leads to loss in the strength and weight. The deterioration of hydrated products in the GPC also facilitates the decrease in the strength and weight of GPC after 270 days, and 365 days of exposure conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe rapid chloride penetration test as well as bulk diffusion test results demonstrated that the chloride penetration rate is less in GPC mixes as compared to CC mixes. The lower diffusion co-efficient values of GPC mixes favour better safeguard against corrosion of rebar\u0026rsquo;s in the concrete structures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe leachability test revealed that the GOTs comprises high concentration of As, Zn, Fe, and Hg, and hence these metals can be considered as hazardous metals present in GOTs. However, these toxic metals can be effectively immobilized in the process of geopolymerization during the manufacturing of GPC. Further, this test also exhibited that the GOTs contains CN\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e of 2.36 mg/L, which is considered as within safe limit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, this study concluded that that GPC was showed the better durability properties in terms of alkalis and acids. Hence, the utilization of GOTs in the preparation of GPC saves the natural resources and reduces the consumption of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e gases which leads to the eco friendly environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eEshwarayya Bolluru Lokesha: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, validation, writing \u003cstrong\u003e-\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eoriginal draft preparation. Mangalpady Aruna: Writing \u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e review and editing. Sandi Kumar Reddy: Review\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publications\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll authors confirm the consent for publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRai A, Rao DBN (2005) Utilisation potentials of industrial/mining rejects and tailings as building materials. Manag Environ Qual An Int J 16(6):605\u0026ndash;614. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1108/14777830510623673\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1108/14777830510623673\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoy S, Adhikari GR, Gupta RN (2007) Use of gold mill tailings in making bricks: A feasibility study. 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Waste\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 1\u0026ndash;14, \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1061/jhtrbp.hzeng-1259\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1061/jhtrbp.hzeng-1259\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Gepolymer concrete, Gold ore tailings, Durability","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3850399/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3850399/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe gold ore tailings (GOTs) are one of the major waste in the mining sector. The disposal of these tailings could be the problem to human health and major environmental concern from several years. Hence, the attempt should be made for effective utilization of industrial waste in the construction industry in different forms. In this research work, the GOTs were used as an alternative material to the river sand (RS) in the production of geopolymer concrete (GPC). The developed GPC samples were tested to know the durability characteristics, such as resistance to sulphates and chlorides. The sulphate attack test was conducted by immersing the conventional concrete (CC) and GPC samples in 5% magnesium sulphate (MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) solution for a period of 28 days, 56 days, 90 days, 180 days, 270 days, and 365 days. In this test, the GPC samples showed the reduction in compressive strength and weight, which is slightly more when compared to CC samples, for 270 and 365 days of exposure condition. The rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT) was also conducted to know the chloride ion penetration in which GPC samples exhibited less chloride penetration when compared to CC samples. Further, the toxic characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) analysis showed that the GOTs has very high concentration of hazardous metals, such as arsenic (As), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and mercury (Hg). But the concentration of cyanide (CN\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) was minimum in GOTs. In this regard, geopolymerization would be a better method for immobilizing the hazardous metals present in GOTs.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Durability Characteristics of Geopolymer Concrete Produced Using Gold Ore Tailings Along with Recycled Coarse Aggregates","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-01-31 09:24:08","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3850399/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"676a7f05-83ee-4bcc-8569-eb9ee587d107","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 31st, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-02-21T15:17:54+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-01-31 09:24:08","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3850399","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3850399","identity":"rs-3850399","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}