Boosting the Performance of Perovskite Light-Emitting Diodes by Integrating V 2 CT x into the Emissive Layer

Boosting the Performance of Perovskite Light-Emitting Diodes by Integrating V 2 CT x into the Emissive Layer | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Boosting the Performance of Perovskite Light-Emitting Diodes by Integrating V 2 CT x into the Emissive Layer Zhenyang Wang, Hui Zhang, Zhixing Chen, Xingyue Zhang, Yuanming Zhou, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7741760/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 06 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) have garnered significant research interest owing to their high fluorescence quantum yield, excellent color purity, and the simplicity of tuning the emission color. In this study, the two-dimensional layered V 2 CT x MXene was incorporated into the perovskite emissive layer. The excellent properties of this additive were exploited to alter the perovskite emissive layer, thereby increasing the luminous efficiency of the fabricated devices. Experimental results show that when 0.03 mg/mL V 2 CT x is added, the maximum luminance of PeLEDs increases from 2439 cd/m 2 in the reference devices to 3716 cd/m 2 , and the maximum current efficiency (CE) significantly rises from 4.18 cd/A to 8.32 cd/A. The analysis reveals that the addition of a suitable content of V 2 CT x can improve the morphology of the perovskite film, optimize the energy level alignment, and passivate the internal defects in the perovskite emissive layer, thus reducing the defect-assisted non-radiative recombination process and enhancing the luminance efficiency of the device. An experimental basis for the development of PeLEDs is provided by this research. Defect passivation MXene Quasi-two-dimensional perovskite Light emitting diode Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 1. Introduction During the previous decade, due to the excellent optoelectronic properties of perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs), they have shown great promise in display-related and lighting fields 1 – 4 . Current research efforts mainly focus on using material design methods, conducting interface engineering research, and optimizing device structures to further break through the performance bottleneck 5 – 7 . Since Tan et al. fabricated PeLEDs by solution processing in 2014, although the luminance and efficiency were very low at that time, this work opened a new era for the development of PeLEDs 8 . The emissive layer assumes vital importance in the performance of PeLEDs and is the core for achieving high luminance and high efficiency of PeLEDs 9 – 10 . Xiang et al. introduced a trace amount of 12-Crown-4 ether into CsPbBr 3 , achieving a better crystal domain distribution. The green PeLEDs manufactured via this method exhibited a maximum external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 15.5% 11 . Over the last five-year period, the development of PeLEDs has continued to achieve remarkable progress 12 – 14 . However, there are still some issues that need to be solved 15 – 16 . As a typical member of the MXene family, V 2 CT x has spurred much focus on account of its unique chemical and physical properties. This material exhibits a typical two-dimensional (2D) layered structure and has many advantages such as high carrier mobility, electrical conductivity and a tunable work function 17 – 18 . In 2022, Li et al. added V 2 CT x to the lead iodide solution and prepared a perovskite thin film through a one-step spin-coating process. V 2 CT x can not only stimulate the formation of perovskite thin films and enhance the surface properties, but also enhance the hydrophobic properties of the thin film and passivate its defects. After a series of studies, it was found that when the doping content of V 2 CT x was 0.0013 wt%, the device exhibited the best photovoltaic characteristics, and its photoelectric conversion efficiency increased to 17.61% compared with the control device 19 . In this paper, research efforts focus on modifying the perovskite emissive layer and exploring the optoelectronic properties of PeLEDs devices by integrating V 2 CT x into the emissive Layer. Results show that using the two-dimensional material V 2 CT x as an additive can enhance the film morphology and passivate internal defects. Consequently, the radiative recombination efficiency and optoelectronic properties of PeLEDs are significantly improved. When 0.03 mg/mL of V 2 CT x is added, compared with reference devices, the maximum luminance of PeLEDs increases from 2439 cd/m 2 to 3716 cd/m 2 . Moreover, the maximum current efficiency (CE) surges significantly from 4.18 cd/A to 8.32 cd/A. 2. Experimental section 2.1 Materials The chemicals, including methylammonium bromide (MABr, 99.99%), lead bromide (PbBr 2 ), phenylmethylammonium bromide (PEABr, > 99%), 1,3,5-tris(1-phenyl-1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)benzene (TPBi, 99.5%) and PEDOT:PSS (Clevios P AI4083), were all procured from Xi'an Yuri Solar Co., Ltd. Ethyl acetate (EA) was provided by Aladdin, while the aluminum block (Al, 99.99%) was furnished by Alfa Aesar. Sigma-Aldrich served as the supplier for lithium fluoride (LiF, 99.5%) and N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF, 99.9%). The aqueous solution of V 2 CT x with a concentration of 5 mg/mL was obtained from Jilin Yiyi Science and Technology Co. Before the experiment commenced, appropriate amounts of PbBr 2 , MABr, and PEABr were dissociated in DMF carrier liquid according to a stoichiometric proportion of 4:4:1. Subsequently, the V 2 CT x dispersion was diluted to 0.5 mg/mL, and different amounts were added to the perovskite solution. Finally, the prepared perovskite solution was mixed at 60°C for 8 hours before being used. The PEDOT:PSS solution required for the experiment had to be filtered successively through PTFE filters prior to use. 2.2 Device manufacturing In this paper, ITO substrates were utilized as the substrate for the fabrication of PeLEDs. During the preparation process, initially, the ITO substrates underwent thorough surface cleaning procedures. After drying, the substrates underwent 15-minute oxygen plasma exposure for surface pretreatment. Subsequently, inside a glove box under a nitrogen atmosphere, the ITO substrates were spin-coated with a PEDOT:PSS solution at 8000 rpm for 30 s, and then subjected to thermal annealing at 130°C for 15 minutes. The perovskite solution was spin-coated at 4000 rpm for 60 s. The dropwise addition of the antisolvent ethyl acetate (EA) was performed 6 seconds after initiating the spin-coating process. After that, the sample was subjected to thermal annealing treatment at 80°C for 10 minutes. After the solution processing is completed, vacuum thermal evaporation is employed to sequentially deposit the following functional layers: TPBi (40 nm), LiF (1 nm), and Al (100 nm). Upon completion of device fabrication, the samples were extracted for encapsulation followed by comprehensive characterization. 2.3 Characterization and measurement A Panalytic XRD diffractometer was used for X-ray diffraction pattern characterization, while a FEI SEM was employed to examine the surface morphology. The time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) spectra were acquired at 370 nm excitation using an FLS 1000 spectrometer. An absorption spectrum was acquired using a Hitachi U-3900 UV/Vis spectrophotometer. The photoluminescence (PL) spectra stimulated at 370 nm was determined by a Hitachi F-4600 photoluminescence spectrometer. Monochromatic Al Kα radiation was employed to acquire X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra, while ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) measurements were executed with He I ultraviolet radiation as the excitation source. The relevant parameters of the radiation are as follows: the energy is 21.22 eV, the wavelength is 58.4 nm, and the bias is -5 V. Both of these characterizations utilized an X-ray photoelectron spectrometer of the PHI 5000 Versaprobe Ⅲ model. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements of the PeLEDs were conducted with the aid of a CHI 660E electrochemical workstation, covering a frequency range from 10 Hz to 10 6 Hz. The optoelectronic performance of PeLEDs was characterized with the aid of an optoelectronic testing system comprising a silicon photodetector, a Keithley 2000 digital multimeter, and a Keithley 2400 source meter. An Ocean Optics USB 4000-XR-1 optical spectrometer was utilized to record the electroluminescence (EL) spectra. 3. Results and discussion Figure 1 shows the SEM images of V 2 CT x -doped perovskite films. Based on the figure, the surface particles of the undoped perovskite film exhibit an uneven distribution and a rough texture. With the addition of V 2 CT x , it is obvious that the surface particles of the film become uniform. The morphology of the perovskite film is remarkably modulated when the doping concentration attains 0.03 mg/mL. The surface particles are uniformly distributed, and the perovskite film is dense. The dense film can effectively reduce grain boundary defects, thereby suppressing the non-radiative recombination of carriers 20 . Figure 2 presents the absorption spectra and XRD patterns of V 2 CT x -doped perovskite thin films. According to the absorption spectra, the absorption peak at ~ 525 nm is ascribed to the three-dimensional (3D) perovskite phase. The films exhibit exciton absorption peaks at 403 nm, which is the typical characteristic of 2D perovskite phase 21 . From the XRD patterns, diffraction peaks are observed between 3° and 5°, indicating a 2D phase existing in the perovskite, which is consistent with the result from absorption spectra 21 . Moreover, the intensity of these peaks remains almost unchanged. Therefore, appropriate doping of V 2 CT x does not modify the quasi-2D structure of the perovskite. The (100), (110), and (200) crystal planes of the perovskite structure were identified based on the diffraction peaks measured at 15.1°, 21.5°, and 30.3°, respectively. The perovskite thin films with varying V 2 CT x doping concentrations all exhibit peaks at the corresponding positions in the XRD patterns, which suggests that the doping of V 2 CT x at low concentrations does not affect its structure 22 – 23 . Figure 3 a shows the steady-state PL spectra of perovskite films doped with V 2 CT x . In each PL spectrum, the corresponding PL peak is observed at 525 nm. The incorporation of V 2 CT x does not alter the position of the emission peak. The doping of V 2 CT x at different concentrations can enhance the PL intensity, and the doping with 0.03 mg/mL V 2 CT x enables the PL peak intensity to reach the maximum. This phenomenon suggests that the introduction of an optimal quantity of V 2 CT x can improve the film crystallization quality, suppress the interfacial fluorescence quenching effect, and increase the radiative recombination of perovskite 24 . Figure 3 (b) presents the TRPL spectra of V 2 CT x -doped perovskite films, which showing double-exponential decay behavior. In the case of the perovskite film fabricated not incorporating V 2 CT x , the average lifetime (τ avg ) was calculated to be 16.06 ns by fitting the TRPL spectra with a double-exponential decay function. When the optimal doping concentration was 0.03 mg/mL, τ avg increased to 26.86 ns. However, after excessive doping, τ avg of the perovskite film decreased to 21.85 ns. From the calculation results, it can be seen that doping with an optimal quantity of V 2 CT x can suppress the quenching of excitons in the film, passivate the defects in the perovskite film, facilitate radiative recombination, thereby leading to an increase in the PL lifetime 25 – 26 . On the basis of the passivating action of V 2 CT x doping on perovskite films observed in the previous TRPL analysis, we further performed XPS testing and analysis. Figure 4 illustrates the XPS spectra of Pb 4f for both undoped and V 2 CT x -doped perovskite films at the optimal concentration. From the figure, it is evident that the incorporation of V 2 CT x gives rise to a substantial reduction in the proportion of metallic Pb in the Pb 4f spectrum, while the proportion of Pb 2+ increases. This indicates that V 2 CT x interacts with Pb 2+ in the perovskite film, and the reduction in metallic Pb suggests a decrease in defects. The XPS analysis is consistent with the TRPL results, both of which demonstrate that the addition of V 2 CT x can passivate defects in the perovskite film and inhibit defect-assisted non-radiative recombination 27 . To explore the impact of V 2 CT x doping on the energy level alignment of perovskite thin films, UPS characterization was systematically conducted. As evidenced by the tangent intersection analysis in Figs. 5 (a) and 5(b), the calculated work function exhibited a significant enhancement from 4.82 eV to 5.15 eV after doping modification. This elevation in work function value indicates improved charge carrier mobility at the interface, which facilitates efficient charge migration throughout the device framework. As illustrated in Fig. 5 (c), concurrent downward shifts were observed in the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) level, in addition to in the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) level, according to detailed energy level calculations. The reduced HOMO energy level creates an energy barrier that suppresses excessive hole injection, while the lowered LUMO level establishes a deeper potential well that effectively confines electrons within the emissive layer. This synergistic energy level modification promotes spatial confinement of charge carriers, thereby accelerating exciton recombination in the emissive layer. Consequently, the optimized energy level alignment contributes to enhanced radiative recombination efficiency and improved electroluminescent performance of the fabricated devices 28 – 29 . As presented in Fig. 5 (d), this is the structural diagram. Figure 6 shows the EIS of PeLEDs devices fabricated with a V 2 CT x -doped emissive layer. Figure 6 includes an inset showing the equivalent circuit model implemented, where C, R s and R rec represent the interface capacitance, series resistance and recombination resistance. R rec is related to the carrier recombination behavior, while R s characterizes the series resistance in the device structure, and the radius of the Nyquist plot serves as a metric to evaluate the value of R rec . By matching the Nyquist plot to the equivalent-circuit model, the specific values of R s and R rec can be derived. When the content of V 2 CT x doping is 0.03 mg/mL, the carrier recombination resistance R rec reaches a minimum value of 4912 Ω, which implies that the introduction of V 2 CT x enhances the electrical conductivity of PeLEDs. A reduction in recombination resistance indicates an elevated recombination rate. This suggests that the addition of appropriate V 2 CT x can enhance the efficiency of exciton recombination. Therefore, the introduction of V 2 CT x with the characteristics of high mobility and electrical conductivity can effectively passivate the internal defects in the perovskite emissive layer, thus reducing the defect-assisted non-radiative recombination process and enhancing the luminance efficiency of the device 30 . Figure 7 presents the optoelectronic characteristic profiles of PeLEDs fabricated with V 2 CT x doping. All specific parameters are listed in Table 1 . By examining both the figure and the table, it’s evident that as V 2 CT x is added, the performance metrics of the devices improve. Upon the incorporation of V 2 CT x , a significant reduction in the turn-on voltage of devices was exhibited. When the optimal doping content of V 2 CT x is reached, the performance of PeLEDs peaks. The maximum luminance surges from 2439 cd/m² to 3716 cd/m², and the maximum CE significantly increases from 4.18 cd/A to 8.32 cd/A. Moreover, the EQE rises to 1.63%. The advancement in the optoelectronic characteristics of PeLEDs aligns with the data from EIS and TRPL. The addition of V 2 CT x passivates the internal defects in the perovskite emissive layer, promotes radiative recombination, and consequently improves the device performance. Table 1 Device parameters of PeLEDs. Concentration of V 2 CT x (mg/mL) Max. Luminance (cd/m 2 ) Max. CE (cd/A) Max. EQE (%) Turn-on Voltage (V) 0 2439 4.18 0.78 3.21 0.02 2632 6.48 1.27 3.11 0.03 3176 8.32 1.63 3.00 0.04 2589 4.58 0.91 3.15 For the investigation of the influence of V 2 CT x doping on the electroluminescent characteristics of the device, we conducted a detailed spectral analysis. Figure 8 presents the EL spectra of PeLEDs with a V 2 CT x -doped emissive layer and those of PeLEDs with the optimal V 2 CT x doping level under various current densities. The inset in the figure depicts the luminescence images of the devices when powered on. The results demonstrate that doping with V 2 CT x does not change the peak position and enhances the EL intensity. Moreover, as the current density increases, the EL intensity gradually strengthens. These findings indicate that PeLEDs exhibit excellent luminescent color stability 31 . 4. Conclusions In the research of this paper, we introduced a two-dimensional material V 2 CT x from the MXene family into the perovskite light-emitting layer, and systematically explored its influence on the optoelectronic characteristics of perovskite thin films and devices. Through a series of thin film characterization methods, it was found that the incorporation of a suitable dosage of V 2 CT x additive can endow the perovskite thin film with a unique microscopic morphology, characterized by uniform grain size and a dense surface. Meanwhile, the optimized energy level alignment can be obtained, and the surface defects are effectively passivated. In terms of device performance, PeLEDs doped with V 2 CT x exhibit excellent improvements in luminescence performance: the maximum luminance increases from 2439 cd/m 2 to 3716 cd/m 2 , and the maximum CE is greatly enhanced from 4.18 cd/A to 8.32 cd/A. The aforementioned research findings provide crucial experimental evidence and theoretical foundations for the subsequent development of PeLEDs. They are expected to drive further technological innovation and breakthroughs in this field. Declarations Funding We thank the support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 12275074), the Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province (grant No. 2023AFA033), the Green Industry Leadership Program of Hubei University of Technology (Grant No. XJ2021003702), and the Open Fund of Hubei Key Laboratory for High‑Efficiency Use of Solar Energy and Operation Control of Energy Storage System (Grant Nos: HBSEES201801 and HBSEES201705). Author Contribution All authors made significant contributions to the thesis report. Thesis writing, material synthesis, and device preparation were performed by WZY. ZH performed data testing and analysis. CZX and ZXY assisted with the experiments. 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Zhang, Spray-coated monodispersed SnO 2 microsphere films as scaffold layers for efficient mesoscopic perovskite solar cells. J. Power Sources. 448 , 227405 (2020) H. He, Y. Ai, P. Shen, Z. Wang, H. Zhang, Y. Zhou, F. Mei, Enhanced performance of perovskite light-emitting diodes with PEDOT: PSS/CsBr composite hole transport layer. Opt. Mater. 153 , 115638 (2024) Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 06 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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19:44:48","extension":"xml","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":90506,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"24d3e9db7f244533b3e35ace70df08ab1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7741760/v1/2b4ab2c39265978fe3f64683.xml"},{"id":94612442,"identity":"4e35f9e5-6e14-4e58-a13d-db0d09d5f430","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 02:10:27","extension":"html","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":94776,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7741760/v1/36411222210c7502cd2fcbc3.html"},{"id":94601824,"identity":"a24fd442-0df5-4054-9576-a0593d350036","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 19:44:48","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":401593,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM images of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e doped perovskite films.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7741760/v1/f33ff55c1c501044ae873caa.png"},{"id":94612243,"identity":"6bef33a3-5802-4e55-baf8-4889f71b3ab6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 02:07:46","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":196329,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Absorption spectra and (b) XRD patterns of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e-doped perovskite thin films.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7741760/v1/770455b55f1636f0a11cc712.png"},{"id":94601827,"identity":"71f91fba-eafb-4b8d-9580-63b59b70dacc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 19:44:48","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":193658,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) PL spectra and (b) TRPL spectra of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e doped perovskite films.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7741760/v1/beed6117d1688dae613bc2d7.png"},{"id":94601830,"identity":"fbccf984-1d25-474a-b104-a07e8aaaf9f6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 19:44:48","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":145021,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eXPS spectra of Pb 4f in V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e-doped perovskite films.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7741760/v1/2edb6faa341cdaee727614b3.png"},{"id":94612545,"identity":"50460a2f-27ec-42eb-aa9f-a3cc28e622d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 02:10:53","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":213297,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) and (b) are the UPS patterns of the V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e-doped perovskite films. (c) and (d) are the energy level diagrams and structural diagrams of the V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e-doped PeLEDs.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7741760/v1/b2d7818a172addd7bd20a292.png"},{"id":94612611,"identity":"8cf2959a-4ddb-4586-bce5-c2b5914bad70","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 02:11:12","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":94371,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEIS of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e-doped PeLEDs devices.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7741760/v1/0e04fb95cf4f5cc60ef43e8e.png"},{"id":94601834,"identity":"bdba2d78-279d-4288-af37-b244ac6659da","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 19:44:48","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":375541,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) J - V, (b) L - J, (c) CE - J, (d) EQE - J curves of PeLEDs with V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e doped emissive layers.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7741760/v1/ecd3e2223f9d4d2e6fdd2420.png"},{"id":94612390,"identity":"81538620-7488-423a-bbb9-ddf227b76225","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 02:10:12","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":112003,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) EL spectra with V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e doped emissive layers, (b) EL spectra of 0.03 mg/mL V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e-doped PeLEDs at different current densities.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7741760/v1/e58cfb8b1d1c3ac37c5efdb5.png"},{"id":100069350,"identity":"9062784b-5261-4d91-a7c1-f909ac3b09b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-12 16:13:08","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2312462,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7741760/v1/16e6dfd0-a530-42b1-ae9d-2839d88bf438.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Boosting the Performance of Perovskite Light-Emitting Diodes by Integrating V 2 CT x into the Emissive Layer","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDuring the previous decade, due to the excellent optoelectronic properties of perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs), they have shown great promise in display-related and lighting fields\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Current research efforts mainly focus on using material design methods, conducting interface engineering research, and optimizing device structures to further break through the performance bottleneck\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Since Tan et al. fabricated PeLEDs by solution processing in 2014, although the luminance and efficiency were very low at that time, this work opened a new era for the development of PeLEDs\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The emissive layer assumes vital importance in the performance of PeLEDs and is the core for achieving high luminance and high efficiency of PeLEDs\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Xiang et al. introduced a trace amount of 12-Crown-4 ether into CsPbBr\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, achieving a better crystal domain distribution. The green PeLEDs manufactured via this method exhibited a maximum external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 15.5%\u003csup\u003e11\u003c/sup\u003e. Over the last five-year period, the development of PeLEDs has continued to achieve remarkable progress\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, there are still some issues that need to be solved\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs a typical member of the MXene family, V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e has spurred much focus on account of its unique chemical and physical properties. This material exhibits a typical two-dimensional (2D) layered structure and has many advantages such as high carrier mobility, electrical conductivity and a tunable work function\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In 2022, Li et al. added V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e to the lead iodide solution and prepared a perovskite thin film through a one-step spin-coating process. V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e can not only stimulate the formation of perovskite thin films and enhance the surface properties, but also enhance the hydrophobic properties of the thin film and passivate its defects. After a series of studies, it was found that when the doping content of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e was 0.0013 wt%, the device exhibited the best photovoltaic characteristics, and its photoelectric conversion efficiency increased to 17.61% compared with the control device\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this paper, research efforts focus on modifying the perovskite emissive layer and exploring the optoelectronic properties of PeLEDs devices by integrating V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e into the emissive Layer. Results show that using the two-dimensional material V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e as an additive can enhance the film morphology and passivate internal defects. Consequently, the radiative recombination efficiency and optoelectronic properties of PeLEDs are significantly improved. When 0.03 mg/mL of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e is added, compared with reference devices, the maximum luminance of PeLEDs increases from 2439 cd/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e to 3716 cd/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, the maximum current efficiency (CE) surges significantly from 4.18 cd/A to 8.32 cd/A.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Experimental section","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Materials\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe chemicals, including methylammonium bromide (MABr, 99.99%), lead bromide (PbBr\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), phenylmethylammonium bromide (PEABr, \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;99%), 1,3,5-tris(1-phenyl-1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)benzene (TPBi, 99.5%) and PEDOT:PSS (Clevios P AI4083), were all procured from Xi'an Yuri Solar Co., Ltd. Ethyl acetate (EA) was provided by Aladdin, while the aluminum block (Al, 99.99%) was furnished by Alfa Aesar. Sigma-Aldrich served as the supplier for lithium fluoride (LiF, 99.5%) and N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF, 99.9%). The aqueous solution of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e with a concentration of 5 mg/mL was obtained from Jilin Yiyi Science and Technology Co. Before the experiment commenced, appropriate amounts of PbBr\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, MABr, and PEABr were dissociated in DMF carrier liquid according to a stoichiometric proportion of 4:4:1. Subsequently, the V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e dispersion was diluted to 0.5 mg/mL, and different amounts were added to the perovskite solution. Finally, the prepared perovskite solution was mixed at 60\u0026deg;C for 8 hours before being used. The PEDOT:PSS solution required for the experiment had to be filtered successively through PTFE filters prior to use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Device manufacturing\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this paper, ITO substrates were utilized as the substrate for the fabrication of PeLEDs. During the preparation process, initially, the ITO substrates underwent thorough surface cleaning procedures. After drying, the substrates underwent 15-minute oxygen plasma exposure for surface pretreatment. Subsequently, inside a glove box under a nitrogen atmosphere, the ITO substrates were spin-coated with a PEDOT:PSS solution at 8000 rpm for 30 s, and then subjected to thermal annealing at 130\u0026deg;C for 15 minutes. The perovskite solution was spin-coated at 4000 rpm for 60 s. The dropwise addition of the antisolvent ethyl acetate (EA) was performed 6 seconds after initiating the spin-coating process. After that, the sample was subjected to thermal annealing treatment at 80\u0026deg;C for 10 minutes. After the solution processing is completed, vacuum thermal evaporation is employed to sequentially deposit the following functional layers: TPBi (40 nm), LiF (1 nm), and Al (100 nm). Upon completion of device fabrication, the samples were extracted for encapsulation followed by comprehensive characterization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Characterization and measurement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA Panalytic XRD diffractometer was used for X-ray diffraction pattern characterization, while a FEI SEM was employed to examine the surface morphology. The time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) spectra were acquired at 370 nm excitation using an FLS 1000 spectrometer. An absorption spectrum was acquired using a Hitachi U-3900 UV/Vis spectrophotometer. The photoluminescence (PL) spectra stimulated at 370 nm was determined by a Hitachi F-4600 photoluminescence spectrometer. Monochromatic Al Kα radiation was employed to acquire X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra, while ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) measurements were executed with He I ultraviolet radiation as the excitation source. The relevant parameters of the radiation are as follows: the energy is 21.22 eV, the wavelength is 58.4 nm, and the bias is -5 V. Both of these characterizations utilized an X-ray photoelectron spectrometer of the PHI 5000 Versaprobe Ⅲ model. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements of the PeLEDs were conducted with the aid of a CHI 660E electrochemical workstation, covering a frequency range from 10 Hz to 10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e Hz. The optoelectronic performance of PeLEDs was characterized with the aid of an optoelectronic testing system comprising a silicon photodetector, a Keithley 2000 digital multimeter, and a Keithley 2400 source meter. An Ocean Optics USB 4000-XR-1 optical spectrometer was utilized to record the electroluminescence (EL) spectra.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the SEM images of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e-doped perovskite films. Based on the figure, the surface particles of the undoped perovskite film exhibit an uneven distribution and a rough texture. With the addition of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e, it is obvious that the surface particles of the film become uniform. The morphology of the perovskite film is remarkably modulated when the doping concentration attains 0.03 mg/mL. The surface particles are uniformly distributed, and the perovskite film is dense. The dense film can effectively reduce grain boundary defects, thereby suppressing the non-radiative recombination of carriers\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the absorption spectra and XRD patterns of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e-doped perovskite thin films. According to the absorption spectra, the absorption peak at ~\u0026thinsp;525 nm is ascribed to the three-dimensional (3D) perovskite phase. The films exhibit exciton absorption peaks at 403 nm, which is the typical characteristic of 2D perovskite phase\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. From the XRD patterns, diffraction peaks are observed between 3\u0026deg; and 5\u0026deg;, indicating a 2D phase existing in the perovskite, which is consistent with the result from absorption spectra\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, the intensity of these peaks remains almost unchanged. Therefore, appropriate doping of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e does not modify the quasi-2D structure of the perovskite. The (100), (110), and (200) crystal planes of the perovskite structure were identified based on the diffraction peaks measured at 15.1\u0026deg;, 21.5\u0026deg;, and 30.3\u0026deg;, respectively. The perovskite thin films with varying V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e doping concentrations all exhibit peaks at the corresponding positions in the XRD patterns, which suggests that the doping of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e at low concentrations does not affect its structure\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea shows the steady-state PL spectra of perovskite films doped with V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e. In each PL spectrum, the corresponding PL peak is observed at 525 nm. The incorporation of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e does not alter the position of the emission peak. The doping of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e at different concentrations can enhance the PL intensity, and the doping with 0.03 mg/mL V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e enables the PL peak intensity to reach the maximum. This phenomenon suggests that the introduction of an optimal quantity of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e can improve the film crystallization quality, suppress the interfacial fluorescence quenching effect, and increase the radiative recombination of perovskite\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(b) presents the TRPL spectra of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e-doped perovskite films, which showing double-exponential decay behavior. In the case of the perovskite film fabricated not incorporating V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e, the average lifetime (τ\u003csub\u003eavg\u003c/sub\u003e) was calculated to be 16.06 ns by fitting the TRPL spectra with a double-exponential decay function. When the optimal doping concentration was 0.03 mg/mL, τ\u003csub\u003eavg\u003c/sub\u003e increased to 26.86 ns. However, after excessive doping, τ\u003csub\u003eavg\u003c/sub\u003e of the perovskite film decreased to 21.85 ns. From the calculation results, it can be seen that doping with an optimal quantity of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e can suppress the quenching of excitons in the film, passivate the defects in the perovskite film, facilitate radiative recombination, thereby leading to an increase in the PL lifetime\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn the basis of the passivating action of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e doping on perovskite films observed in the previous TRPL analysis, we further performed XPS testing and analysis. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the XPS spectra of Pb 4f for both undoped and V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e-doped perovskite films at the optimal concentration. From the figure, it is evident that the incorporation of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e gives rise to a substantial reduction in the proportion of metallic Pb in the Pb 4f spectrum, while the proportion of Pb\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e increases. This indicates that V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e interacts with Pb\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e in the perovskite film, and the reduction in metallic Pb suggests a decrease in defects. The XPS analysis is consistent with the TRPL results, both of which demonstrate that the addition of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e can passivate defects in the perovskite film and inhibit defect-assisted non-radiative recombination\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo explore the impact of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e doping on the energy level alignment of perovskite thin films, UPS characterization was systematically conducted. As evidenced by the tangent intersection analysis in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e(a) and 5(b), the calculated work function exhibited a significant enhancement from 4.82 eV to 5.15 eV after doping modification. This elevation in work function value indicates improved charge carrier mobility at the interface, which facilitates efficient charge migration throughout the device framework. As illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e(c), concurrent downward shifts were observed in the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) level, in addition to in the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) level, according to detailed energy level calculations. The reduced HOMO energy level creates an energy barrier that suppresses excessive hole injection, while the lowered LUMO level establishes a deeper potential well that effectively confines electrons within the emissive layer. This synergistic energy level modification promotes spatial confinement of charge carriers, thereby accelerating exciton recombination in the emissive layer. Consequently, the optimized energy level alignment contributes to enhanced radiative recombination efficiency and improved electroluminescent performance of the fabricated devices\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. As presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e(d), this is the structural diagram.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e shows the EIS of PeLEDs devices fabricated with a V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e-doped emissive layer. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e includes an inset showing the equivalent circuit model implemented, where C, R\u003csub\u003es\u003c/sub\u003e and R\u003csub\u003erec\u003c/sub\u003e represent the interface capacitance, series resistance and recombination resistance. R\u003csub\u003erec\u003c/sub\u003e is related to the carrier recombination behavior, while R\u003csub\u003es\u003c/sub\u003e characterizes the series resistance in the device structure, and the radius of the Nyquist plot serves as a metric to evaluate the value of R\u003csub\u003erec\u003c/sub\u003e. By matching the Nyquist plot to the equivalent-circuit model, the specific values of R\u003csub\u003es\u003c/sub\u003e and R\u003csub\u003erec\u003c/sub\u003e can be derived. When the content of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e doping is 0.03 mg/mL, the carrier recombination resistance R\u003csub\u003erec\u003c/sub\u003e reaches a minimum value of 4912 Ω, which implies that the introduction of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e enhances the electrical conductivity of PeLEDs. A reduction in recombination resistance indicates an elevated recombination rate. This suggests that the addition of appropriate V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e can enhance the efficiency of exciton recombination. Therefore, the introduction of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e with the characteristics of high mobility and electrical conductivity can effectively passivate the internal defects in the perovskite emissive layer, thus reducing the defect-assisted non-radiative recombination process and enhancing the luminance efficiency of the device\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e presents the optoelectronic characteristic profiles of PeLEDs fabricated with V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e doping. All specific parameters are listed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. By examining both the figure and the table, it\u0026rsquo;s evident that as V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e is added, the performance metrics of the devices improve. Upon the incorporation of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e, a significant reduction in the turn-on voltage of devices was exhibited. When the optimal doping content of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e is reached, the performance of PeLEDs peaks. The maximum luminance surges from 2439 cd/m\u0026sup2; to 3716 cd/m\u0026sup2;, and the maximum CE significantly increases from 4.18 cd/A to 8.32 cd/A. Moreover, the EQE rises to 1.63%. The advancement in the optoelectronic characteristics of PeLEDs aligns with the data from EIS and TRPL. The addition of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e passivates the internal defects in the perovskite emissive layer, promotes radiative recombination, and consequently improves the device performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDevice parameters of PeLEDs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcentration of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e (mg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMax. Luminance\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(cd/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMax. CE\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(cd/A)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMax. EQE (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTurn-on\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVoltage\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(V)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2439\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2632\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3176\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2589\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor the investigation of the influence of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e doping on the electroluminescent characteristics of the device, we conducted a detailed spectral analysis. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e presents the EL spectra of PeLEDs with a V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e-doped emissive layer and those of PeLEDs with the optimal V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e doping level under various current densities. The inset in the figure depicts the luminescence images of the devices when powered on. The results demonstrate that doping with V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e does not change the peak position and enhances the EL intensity. Moreover, as the current density increases, the EL intensity gradually strengthens. These findings indicate that PeLEDs exhibit excellent luminescent color stability\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the research of this paper, we introduced a two-dimensional material V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e from the MXene family into the perovskite light-emitting layer, and systematically explored its influence on the optoelectronic characteristics of perovskite thin films and devices. Through a series of thin film characterization methods, it was found that the incorporation of a suitable dosage of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e additive can endow the perovskite thin film with a unique microscopic morphology, characterized by uniform grain size and a dense surface. Meanwhile, the optimized energy level alignment can be obtained, and the surface defects are effectively passivated. In terms of device performance, PeLEDs doped with V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e exhibit excellent improvements in luminescence performance: the maximum luminance increases from 2439 cd/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e to 3716 cd/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, and the maximum CE is greatly enhanced from 4.18 cd/A to 8.32 cd/A. The aforementioned research findings provide crucial experimental evidence and theoretical foundations for the subsequent development of PeLEDs. They are expected to drive further technological innovation and breakthroughs in this field.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe thank the support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 12275074), the Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province (grant No. 2023AFA033), the Green Industry Leadership Program of Hubei University of Technology (Grant No. XJ2021003702), and the Open Fund of Hubei Key Laboratory for High‑Efficiency Use of Solar Energy and Operation Control of Energy Storage System (Grant Nos: HBSEES201801 and HBSEES201705).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll authors made significant contributions to the thesis report. Thesis writing, material synthesis, and device preparation were performed by WZY. ZH performed data testing and analysis. CZX and ZXY assisted with the experiments. ZYM and MF contributed in supervision, analysis, editing, and communication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available on request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eM. Yuan, L.N. Quan, R. Comin, G. Walters, R. Sabatini, O. Voznyy, S. Hoogland, Y. Zhao, E.M. Beauregard, P. Kanjanaboos, Perovskite energy funnels for efficient light-emitting diodes. Nat. Nanotechnol. \u003cb\u003e11\u003c/b\u003e, 872\u0026ndash;877 (2016)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eH. Wang, Y. Xu, J. Wu, L. Chen, Q. Yang, B. Zhang, Z. Xie, Bright and color-stable blue-light-emitting diodes based on three-dimensional perovskite polycrystalline films via morphology and interface engineering. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. \u003cb\u003e11\u003c/b\u003e, 1411\u0026ndash;1418 (2020)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eY.H. 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Mater. \u003cb\u003e153\u003c/b\u003e, 115638 (2024)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Defect passivation, MXene, Quasi-two-dimensional perovskite, Light emitting diode","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7741760/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7741760/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePerovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) have garnered significant research interest owing to their high fluorescence quantum yield, excellent color purity, and the simplicity of tuning the emission color. In this study, the two-dimensional layered V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e MXene was incorporated into the perovskite emissive layer. The excellent properties of this additive were exploited to alter the perovskite emissive layer, thereby increasing the luminous efficiency of the fabricated devices. Experimental results show that when 0.03 mg/mL V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e is added, the maximum luminance of PeLEDs increases from 2439 cd/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in the reference devices to 3716 cd/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, and the maximum current efficiency (CE) significantly rises from 4.18 cd/A to 8.32 cd/A. The analysis reveals that the addition of a suitable content of V\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCT\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e can improve the morphology of the perovskite film, optimize the energy level alignment, and passivate the internal defects in the perovskite emissive layer, thus reducing the defect-assisted non-radiative recombination process and enhancing the luminance efficiency of the device. An experimental basis for the development of PeLEDs is provided by this research.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Boosting the Performance of Perovskite Light-Emitting Diodes by Integrating V 2 CT x into the Emissive Layer","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-28 19:44:43","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7741760/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"66478513-5c3e-4444-be87-3c0f6d25a79f","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 28th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-12T16:05:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7741760","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-025-16537-6","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-materials-science-materials-in-electronics","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics"},"publishedOn":"2026-01-06 15:58:55","publishedOnDateReadable":"January 6th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-28 19:44:43","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s10854-025-16537-6","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-025-16537-6","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7741760","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7741760","identity":"rs-7741760","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}