The Mediating Role of Rumination in the Relationship Between Loneliness and Smartphone Addiction Among College Students

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Methods This cross-sectional study selected college students from multiple provinces and cities including Fujian, Guangdong, Zhejiang, etc. The final analysis included 427 participants (117 boys and 310 girls) with a average age of 20.55 ± 1.58 years. Subjective data on loneliness, rumination, and smartphone addiction were collected and analyzed, with a mediation model being established. Results Bootstrap analysis with 5,000 resamples revealed significant mediation effects of rumination between loneliness and smartphone addiction (95% CI [0.109, 0.237]). Structural equation modeling demonstrated excellent model fit indices for the mediation hypothesis (χ²/df = 2.383, RMSEA = 0.057, CFI = 0.960). Conclusions Results indicate that rumination fully mediates the relationship between loneliness and smartphone addiction, suggesting that lonely college students' maladaptive repetitive thinking patterns constitute the primary pathway to compulsive smartphone use. college students loneliness rumination smartphone addiction Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1 Introduction In recent years, the widespread adoption of smartphones has profoundly transformed daily life. These devices serve not only as communication and entertainment tools but also play central roles in education, social interaction, and professional activities. However, excessive smartphone use has been linked to a range of psychological and behavioral maladaptations, particularly among college students. According to the 55th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China issued by the China Internet Network Information Center [ 1 ], the number of mobile internet users in China reached 1.105 billion by December 2024, with 99.7% of internet access occurring via smartphones. College students, characterized by greater discretionary time, high academic pressure, and evolving social needs, are particularly vulnerable to problematic smartphone use. Research suggests that over 30% of college students struggle with smartphone addiction, exhibiting difficulty in self-regulation and compulsive usage patterns [ 2 ]. Smartphone addiction, operationally defined as persistent, excessive smartphone use leading to significant impairments in daily functioning and psychological well-being [ 3 ], has been linked to numerous adverse outcomes, including sleep disturbances [ 4 – 6 ], heightened anxiety symptoms [ 7 ], and increased risk of depressive disorders [ 8 ]. Beyond its impact on mental health, smartphone addiction has been shown to negatively affect academic performance, social relationships, and overall psychological resilience. Given its widespread prevalence and consequences, identifying key psychological risk factors and underlying mechanisms contributing to smartphone addiction is essential for developing effective intervention strategies. Recent research has increasingly recognized loneliness as a major contributing factor in the development of smartphone addiction. Loneliness, defined as a subjective distressing state arising from perceived social disconnection [ 9 ], is particularly prevalent among Chinese college students, who often struggle with social transitions and independence [ 10 ]. Studies suggest that individuals experiencing chronic loneliness tend to engage in excessive smartphone use—particularly social media and online interactions—as a coping mechanism [ 11 ]. However, while this behavior may provide temporary relief, it often exacerbates isolation, creating a reinforcing cycle of smartphone dependence. While the link between loneliness and smartphone addiction is well-established, the underlying cognitive mechanisms remain underexplored. One critical but overlooked factor is rumination, a maladaptive cognitive style characterized by repetitive and passive focus on distressing thoughts [ 12 ]. Previous research suggests that lonely individuals are particularly prone to ruminative thinking, which sustains negative emotions and reinforces avoidant coping behaviors [ 13 , 14 ]. Since smartphones provide instant distraction through social media, short videos, and gaming, they become an accessible tool for temporary relief from ruminative distress, potentially reinforcing compulsive use patterns [ 15 ]. Despite its potential significance, rumination has received little attention in smartphone addiction research. Previous studies have examined self-control [ 16 ], depression [ 17 ], and family support [ 18 ] as mediators in the loneliness-smartphone addiction pathway, yet the cognitive regulation mechanisms underlying this relationship remain unclear. Rumination differs from these mediators because it not only maintains negative affect but also perpetuates smartphone-seeking behaviors as an avoidance mechanism. To address this research gap, the present study investigates the mediating role of rumination in the relationship between loneliness and smartphone addiction among college students. By integrating cognitive and behavioral perspectives, this study aims to clarify the psychological mechanisms that drive excessive smartphone use among lonely individuals. Understanding this relationship can inform more targeted interventions, focusing on cognitive coping strategies rather than merely limiting screen time. 2 Literature review 2.1 Loneliness and Smartphone Addiction As smartphone addiction has gained recognition as a critical public health issue, researchers have increasingly examined the psychological factors contributing to this phenomenon. Among these, loneliness has been widely explored as a potential predisposing factor. However, the empirical literature remains inconclusive, with studies presenting conflicting evidence regarding both the strength and directionality of this relationship. While a substantial body of research supports loneliness as a significant predictor of smartphone addiction [ 19 – 30 ], some studies have reported non-significant or even reverse effects [ 31 – 33 ]. Emerging evidence suggests that smartphone addiction may exacerbate loneliness rather than vice versa [ 34 – 35 ], pointing to potential bidirectionality in this relationship. The Compensatory Internet Use Theory provides a useful framework for understanding the role of loneliness in problematic smartphone use [ 36 ]. This theory suggests that individuals experiencing distressing emotional states—such as loneliness—are more likely to engage in excessive internet or smartphone use as a means of affective regulation. Specifically, lonely individuals may compulsively engage with social media, entertainment apps, or online gaming to maintain virtual social connections or seek short-term relief from emotional distress [ 37 ]. Over time, reinforced usage patterns escalate into compulsive dependence, leading to full-blown smartphone addiction. Given these theoretical foundations, this study hypothesizes the following relationship: Hypothesis 1 Loneliness positively predicts smartphone addiction among college students. 2.2 Mediating Role of Rumination Although loneliness has been widely studied as a predictor of smartphone addiction, less attention has been given to the cognitive mechanisms underlying this relationship. One prominent but understudied cognitive factor is rumination—a repetitive, passive focus on distressing thoughts and emotions, which often worsens negative affect rather than resolving it [ 38 ]. Lonely individuals are particularly prone to rumination, as empirical studies indicate that social isolation fosters negative self-referential thinking, heightened sensitivity to social rejection, and persistent dysphoric affect [ 39 , 40 ]. Instead of actively seeking social engagement, ruminative individuals become trapped in cycles of self-focus and avoidance, exacerbating emotional distress and maladaptive coping behaviors. The Cognitive-Behavioral Model (CBM), proposed by Davis (2001) [ 41 ], provides a multidimensional framework for understanding the role of cognitive processes in internet addiction. The model suggests that both distal factors (e.g., personality traits, early-life experiences) and proximal factors (e.g., cognitive and emotional regulation) contribute to compulsive technology use. Rumination operates as a key proximal factor, perpetuating compulsive smartphone use by inhibiting behavioral disengagement and reinforcing avoidant coping mechanisms [ 42 ]. Given that smartphones serve as the primary internet access modality among college students, rumination-driven internet addiction often manifests as smartphone dependency. Individuals who experience chronic rumination may be more likely to engage in compulsive smartphone use as a means of temporary escape from persistent negative thoughts. Thus, based on CBM theory and existing research, we propose the following mediation hypothesis: Hypothesis 2 Rumination mediates the relationship between loneliness and smartphone addiction among college students. 2.3 Summary and Conceptual Model Despite the well-documented association between loneliness and smartphone addiction, existing research has largely overlooked the role of rumination as an underlying mechanism. Prior studies have examined self-control [ 16 ], depression [ 17 ], and family support [ 18 ] as mediators, yet the cognitive regulation processes sustaining compulsive smartphone use remain underexplored. This study addresses this gap by integrating the Compensatory Internet Use Theory and the Cognitive-Behavioral Model to examine how rumination contributes to the development of smartphone addiction among lonely college students. To illustrate this theoretical framework, the proposed conceptual model is presented in Fig. 1 . (Insert here) 3 Method 3.1 Participants This study recruited university undergraduates from multiple provinces (Fujian, Guangdong, Zhejiang) through the Wenjuanxing platform, a Chinese online survey tool. Initial data collection yielded 448 responses, with 427 valid questionnaires retained after excluding invalid responses (e.g., incomplete or patterned answers), achieving a valid response rate of 95.31%. The sample comprised 117 male (27.4%) and 310 female (72.6%) participants, aged 18–29 years ( M = 20.55, SD = 1.58). 3.2 Instrument 3.2.1 Loneliness Scale Loneliness was assessed using the Chinese simplified version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-8), originally developed by Russell and later revised into an 8-item short form by Hays and DiMatteo (1987) [ 43 ]. The scale employs a 7-point Likert format (1 = strongly disagree , 7 = strongly agree ), with items including statements such as "I lack companionship." The measure demonstrated excellent internal consistency in this study (Cronbach's α = 0.891). 3.2.2 Rumination Scale Rumination was measured using the 5-item short form of the Ruminative Response Scale (RRS-5), adapted from the original RRS by Topper et al[ 44 ]. Responses were recorded on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = never , 7 = always ), with items such as "Think about all your shortcomings, failings, faults, mistakes." The scale showed good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.840). 3.2.3 Smartphone Addiction Scale Smartphone addiction was assessed using the 10-item Short Version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS-SV), initially developed by Kwon et al. (2013) [ 45 ] and culturally adapted for Chinese populations by Xiang et al. (2019) [ 46 ]. Participants rated items on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = completely inconsistent , 7 = completely consistent ), with example statements including "I find it difficult to concentrate on completing my homework because I want to use my smartphone." The scale demonstrated strong internal reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.832). 3.3 Statistical Analysis Data analysis was conducted using SPSS 26.0 and Amos 26.0. Pearson correlation analysis and mediation testing were performed via Hayes' PROCESS macro (Model 4) in SPSS, with statistical significance set at p < .05. 4 Result 4.1 Common Method Variance Common method bias was assessed using Harman's single-factor test. Exploratory factor analysis revealed three factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1.0, with the first factor accounting for 38.862% of the total variance—below the critical threshold of 40%. This indicates no dominant single factor emerged, suggesting common method variance did not substantially compromise the data. The results confirm the dataset's suitability for further analysis. 4.2 Model Fit The measurement model comprising three latent variables—loneliness, rumination, and smartphone addiction—was rigorously evaluated. Goodness-of-fit indices demonstrated satisfactory model-data congruence: χ²/df = 2.383, RMSEA = 0.057, SRMR = 0.052, CFI = 0.960, with PClose = 0.120 (see Table 1 ). These results indicate strong alignment between the hypothesized model and empirical data, meeting stringent psychometric standards for structural equation modeling [ 47 ]. (Insert Table 1 here) Table 1 Model Fit Measures (N = 427) Measure Estimate Threshold Interpretation CMIN 207.353 DF 87.000 CMIN/DF 2.383 Between 1 and 3 Excellent CFI 0.960 > 0.95 Excellent SRMR 0.052 < 0.08 Excellent RMSEA 0.057 0.05 Excellent Note . CMIN = chi-square; DF = degree of freedom; CFI = comparative fit index; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation. 4.3 Construct Validity As presented in Table 2 , descriptive statistics and correlational analyses revealed significant positive correlations among all three variables—loneliness, rumination, and smartphone addiction—in pairwise comparisons. Table 2 Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations for Study Variables(N = 427) Measure M(SD) Cronbach's α 1 2 3 1.Loneliness 3.497(1.353) .891 1 2.Rumination 3.683(1.471) .840 .539*** 1 3.Smartphone Addiction 4.595(1.290) .832 .267*** .379*** 1 4.4 Correlation、Path and Mediation Analysis Path analysis revealed significant predictive effects of loneliness on smartphone addiction ( c = 0.254, SE = 0.045, β = .267, p < .001; see Fig. 2 and Table 3 ), thereby confirming Hypothesis H1. When rumination was introduced as a mediator, loneliness no longer exerted a significant direct effect on smartphone addiction ( c ' = 0.083, SE = 0.051, β = .087, p = .101), indicating full mediation by rumination. Table 3 Model Summary Information for the Proposed Mediation Model Portrayed in Fig. 1 (N = 427) Outcome Rumination (Mediator) Smartphone addiction Predictor B (ꞵ) SE p B (ꞵ) SE p Loneliness a 0.586 0.044 < .001 c’ 0.083 0.051 .101 Rumination (.539) b (.087) 0.291 0.047 < .001 Constant 1.633 0.167 < .001 (.332) 3.230 0.177 < .001 R 2 = .291 F (1,425) = 174.103 p < .001 R 2 = .149 F (2, 424) = 37.213 p < .001 Note: B = Unstandardized regression coefficient; ꞵ= Standardized regression coefficient. Loneliness significantly predicted rumination ( a = 0.586, SE = 0.044, β = .539, p < .001), which in turn strongly influenced smartphone addiction ( b = 0.291, SE = 0.047, β = .332, p < .001), collectively supporting Hypothesis H2 (Fig. 2 and Table 3 ). (Insert here) Mediation analysis using Hayes' PROCESS macro with 10,000 bootstrap resamples demonstrated a significant indirect effect ( ab = 0.171) [ 48 , 49 ]. The 95% bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval [0.109, 0.237] excluded zero, confirming the statistical significance of rumination's full mediating role in the loneliness-smartphone addiction pathway (Table 4 ). (Insert here) Table 4 Summary of the Mediation Model Analysis(N = 427) 95% bootstrap CI Effect type Mediator Equation Point Estimate SE LL UL Indirect effect 1 Rumination a × b 0.171 0.033 0.109 0.237 95% CI SE LL UL Direct effect c’ 0.083 0.051 \(\:-\) 0.016 0.183 Total effect c = c’ + ab 0.254 0.045 0.167 0.342 5 Discussion 5.1 Loneliness and Smartphone Addiction: A Cross-Cultural Perspective This study found a significant positive correlation between loneliness and smartphone addiction, aligning with prior research in Eastern cultural contexts but contrasting with Western studies that report weaker or even inverse relationships. This divergence may be explained through Hall’s (1976) High- vs. Low-Context Cultural Theory [ 50 ]. In low-context cultures (e.g., Western societies), communication primarily relies on explicit verbal exchanges, with individuals favoring asynchronous digital communication such as email or discussion forums. As a result, smartphone use is often instrumental rather than compulsive, reducing dependency. In contrast, high-context cultures (e.g., East Asian societies) emphasize shared implicit norms, requiring synchronous and immediate communication [ 51 ]. In these environments, delayed responses may be perceived as neglect or social disengagement, prompting individuals to compulsively check and respond to messages, thereby reinforcing smartphone dependency. Moreover, cultural values of collectivism further explain why loneliness in East Asian contexts may heighten smartphone addiction risk [ 52 , 53 ]. Collectivist cultures prioritize group cohesion and relational maintenance, making frequent digital interaction a social obligation. In contrast, individualist cultures normalize loneliness as a personal emotional state rather than a social failure, allowing individuals to engage in alternative coping mechanisms such as self-reflection, reading, or creative activities rather than compulsive smartphone use. Additionally, technological affordances play a key role in amplifying compulsive smartphone use. The design of mobile applications, driven by big data algorithms and instant feedback mechanisms, reinforces compulsive engagement [ 54 ]. In high-context cultural settings, where real-time social presence is essential, the combination of cultural expectations and technological design creates a self-reinforcing cycle of digital dependence. 5.2 The Mediating Role of Rumination This study further revealed that rumination fully mediates the relationship between loneliness and smartphone addiction, supporting previous findings that lonely individuals exhibit heightened negative cognitive patterns and difficulties in emotional regulation [ 55 ]. From a cognitive perspective, lonely individuals tend to engage in persistent negative self-reflection, focusing excessively on distressing emotions rather than problem-solving or social re-engagement. According to Response Styles Theory (RST) [ 56 ], rumination amplifies negative affect, making individuals more likely to engage in avoidance-based coping behaviors, such as excessive smartphone use, rather than directly addressing their emotional distress [ 38 ]. From a neurobiological perspective, loneliness has been associated with hyperactivity in the Default Mode Network (DMN)—a brain system involved in self-referential processing and rumination [ 57 ]. Research suggests that heightened DMN activity not only sustains repetitive negative thinking [ 58 ] but is also linked to addiction-related neural pathways [ 59 ]. Individuals with dysregulated DMN activity may, therefore, be neurologically predisposed to engaging in compulsive smartphone use as a form of self-soothing. These findings strengthen theoretical frameworks that view rumination as a cognitive vulnerability factor for behavioral addiction [ 42 ]. Unlike previous studies that examined self-control [ 16 ], depression [ 17 ], and family support [ 18 ] as mediators, this study highlights rumination as a cognitive mechanism that prolongs distress and sustains compulsive smartphone behaviors. 6 Implications and Limitations Findings from this study offer several practical implications for addressing smartphone addiction among college students. Educators and administrators should actively monitor students exhibiting social withdrawal, low classroom engagement, and excessive smartphone use. Institutional efforts should integrate psychological assessments, behavioral observations in dormitories, classrooms, and extracurricular settings, and early intervention programs for students displaying persistent smartphone dependency (e.g., avoidance of in-person interactions, excessive late-night screen time). Since rumination plays a key role in sustaining smartphone addiction, interventions should focus on enhancing emotional regulation skills rather than simply restricting smartphone use. Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs), such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), have been shown to significantly reduce rumination and maladaptive cognitive patterns [ 60 ]. Universities should implement structured mindfulness programs in counseling centers to help students recognize and manage distressing thoughts, thereby breaking the cycle of loneliness, rumination, and smartphone overuse. Universities can implement structural changes to reduce smartphone dependency during high-risk periods for rumination, particularly during late-night hours and solitary periods. Strategies may include designating smartphone-free study zones in dormitories and library areas, promoting offline engagement activities such as group discussions, student volunteering, and peer mentorship programs, and introducing incentive systems (e.g., rewards for participation in non-digital activities) to encourage face-to-face interactions. Despite its contributions, this study has several limitations that should be addressed in future research. As a cross-sectional study, this research confirms a positive association between loneliness and smartphone addiction but cannot establish causality. Prior longitudinal studies suggest that smartphone addiction may also increase loneliness, creating a cyclical pattern of "loneliness → smartphone addiction → increased loneliness" [ 28 ]. Future research should use longitudinal or experimental designs to clarify the directionality of these relationships. This study examined college students as a homogeneous group; however, psychological responses to loneliness may differ based on academic year. First-year students, who are adjusting to a new social environment, may experience higher vulnerability to smartphone addiction. In contrast, senior students may have developed more stable coping mechanisms. Future studies should examine grade-level differences in loneliness, rumination, and smartphone addiction to develop age-specific interventions [ 61 ]. While the study examined broad psychological patterns, gender differences in smartphone addiction remain underexplored. Males may be more prone to smartphone overuse for gaming and entertainment, whereas females may rely on smartphones for social reassurance and emotional coping [ 42 ]. Future research should analyze gender-based variations in coping mechanisms and addiction susceptibility. While this study establishes loneliness as a predictor of smartphone addiction, emerging longitudinal studies suggest that smartphone overuse itself exacerbates loneliness by reducing face-to-face social interactions [ 35 ]. Future research should employ cross-lagged panel designs to disentangle these bidirectional influences. Declarations Author s’ contribution Conceptualized the project (LCH); Designed the methodology and instruments (LCH, MTH); Collected and processed the data (MTH, QXZ, ZYH); Conducted statistical analysis (MTH, QXZ); Interpreted the findings (LCH, MTH); Drafted the manuscript (LCH, MTH, ZYH); Critically revised the manuscript (LCH, QXZ); Approved the final manuscript (LCH, MTH, QXZ, ZYH). LCH is the guarantor of this research. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. About the Authors Li-Ching Hung, PhD, Professor, Primary Author Yango University, School of Cross-Border E-Commerce, Department of Business English Email: [email protected] Meng-Te Hung, PhD, Assistant Professor, Corresponding Author Minnan Normal University, School of Liberal Arts Email: [email protected] Qixiang Zhou Minnan Normal University, School of Liberal Arts Email: [email protected] Ziyuan Huang Minnan Normal University, School of Liberal Arts Email: [email protected] Funding This study received no external funding. The research was conducted independently without financial support from any public, commercial, or non-profit funding agency. The funders had no role in the conception, design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, or writing of the manuscript—because no external funders were involved. Availability of Data and Materials The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Human Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations This study was approved by the Yango University Institutional Review Board, approval number is: 26-7358. All participants provided informed consent before taking part in the study. Consent to Participate declaration All participants were informed about the purpose of the study and voluntarily agreed to participate. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Here is the form: Consent to Participate in Research Study Study Title: The Mediating Role of Rumination in the Relationship Between Loneliness and Smartphone Addiction Among College Students Principal Investigator: Prof. Li-Ching Hung, Yango University Email: [email protected] Co-Investigators: Dr. Meng-Te Hung, Minnan Normal University Mr. Qixiang Zhou, Minnan Normal University Ms. Ziyuan Huang, Minnan Normal University Purpose of the Study: This study investigates how rumination (repetitive negative thinking) may influence the relationship between loneliness and smartphone addiction among college students in China. What You Will Be Asked to Do: You will be asked to complete a set of online questionnaires regarding your feelings of loneliness, thinking patterns, and smartphone use habits. The survey will take approximately 10–15 minutes to complete. Voluntary Participation and Right to Withdraw: Your participation is completely voluntary. You may choose not to answer any question and may stop participating at any time without any consequences or penalties. Risks and Benefits: There are no known physical or psychological risks involved in this study. While there is no direct benefit to you, the study will help researchers understand smartphone use and mental health among college students, which may inform future interventions. Confidentiality: All responses will be kept strictly confidential. Data will be analyzed anonymously and stored securely. No identifying information will be used in any publication or presentation. Ethics Approval: This study has been approved by the Yango University Institutional Review Board (Approval Number: 26-7358) and complies with the Declaration of Helsinki. Contact for Questions: If you have any questions about the study, you may contact Prof. Li-Ching Hung at [email protected] . Consent Statement: By signing below, I confirm that: I have read and understood the information above. I am 18 years of age or older. I voluntarily agree to participate in this research study. I understand that I can withdraw at any time without giving a reason. Participant’s Full Name (Printed): ___________________________________ Signature: ___________________________________ Date: _______________________ E thics declaration This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. References China Internet Network Information Center. The 55th Statistical report on China's Internet development [Internet]. Beijing: China Internet Network Information Center; 2024 [cited 2025 Jan 17]. Available from: https://cnnic.cn/n4/2025/0117/c208-11228.html. Sohn SY, Rees P, Wildridge B, Kalk NJ, Carter B. 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A cognitive-behavioral model of pathological Internet use. Comput Hum Behav. 2001;17(2):187-95. Gao L, Yang C, Yang X, Chu X, Liu Q, Zhou Z. Negative emotion and problematic mobile phone use: The mediating role of rumination and the moderating role of social support. Asian J Soc Psychol. 2022;25(1):138-51. Hays R, DiMatteo MR. A Short-Form measure of loneliness. J Pers Assess. 1987;51(1):69-81. Topper M, Emmelkamp PM, Watkins E, Ehring T. Development and assessment of brief versions of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire and the Ruminative Response Scale. Br J Clin Psychol. 2014;53(4):402-21. Kwon M, Kim D, Cho H, Yang S. The Smartphone Addiction Scale: Development and Validation of a short version for Adolescents. PLoS One. 2013;8(12):e83558. Xiang MQ, Wang ZR, Ma B. Reliability and Validity of Chinese Version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale in Adolescents. Chin J Clin Psychol. 2019;27(5):959-64. Hu LT, Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Equ Modeling. 1999;6(1):1-55. Hayes AF. Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based perspective. New York: Guilford Press; 2013. Hayes AF. Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based perspective. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press; 2018. Hall ET. Beyond culture. Garden City (NY): Anchor; 1976. Gudykunst WB, Ting-Toomey S, Chua E. Culture and interpersonal communication. Newbury Park (CA): Sage Publications; 1988. Hofstede G. Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks (CA): Sage Publications; 2001. Oyserman D, Coon HM, Kemmelmeier M. Rethinking individualism and collectivism: evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychol Bull. 2002;128(1):3-72. Kayan S, Fussell SR, Setlock LD. Cultural differences in the use of instant messaging in Asia and North America. In: Proceedings of the 2006 20th anniversary conference on Computer supported cooperative work; 2006 Nov 4-8; Banff, Canada. New York: ACM; 2006. p. 525-8. Vanhalst J, Luyckx K, Teppers E, Goossens L. Disentangling the longitudinal relation between loneliness and depressive symptoms: Prospective effects and the intervening role of coping. J Soc Clin Psychol. 2012;31(8):810-34. Nolen-Hoeksema S. Sex differences in unipolar depression: evidence and theory. Psychol Bull. 1987;101(2):259-82. Lam JA, Murray ER, Yu KE, Ramsey M, Nguyen TT, Mishra J, et al. Neurobiology of loneliness: a systematic review. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2021;46(11):1873-87. Chen X, Chen NX, Shen YQ, Li HX, Li L, Lu B, et al. The subsystem mechanism of default mode network underlying rumination: A reproducible neuroimaging study. Neuroimage. 2020;221:117185. Menon V. Large-scale brain networks and psychopathology: a unifying triple network model. Trends Cogn Sci. 2011;15(10):483-506. Watkins ER, Roberts H. Reflecting on rumination: Consequences, causes, mechanisms and treatment of rumination. Behav Res Ther. 2020;127:103573. Chen XP, Huang YW. Study on relationship between self-identity, peer stress and rumination thinking in college students. Occup Health. 2019;(15):2115-9. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files 31RRS5.amw 427RRS5.sav Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6263058","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":453611657,"identity":"08f11731-0976-42e8-ac62-78fe4ccf54fa","order_by":0,"name":"Li-Ching Hung","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Yango University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Li-Ching","middleName":"","lastName":"Hung","suffix":""},{"id":453611658,"identity":"2f793175-fc71-4cdc-93c7-cf658a7807d7","order_by":1,"name":"Meng-Te Hung","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAzklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACNvbmgw8SKtjkGNubDxCnhY/nWLLBgzN8xsw9xxKI0yIn4WMm+LBNLpF9Ro4BkQ6TYDBjSDhjlsDbc+bjjTcMdnK6DYS0SDekAf2SlifZ3rvZcg5DsrHZAUJaZA4cN0g4c6zYsOfsNmkehgOJ2whqkUhsA6L/iftv5DwjVksySBdbYuOMHDYitfAcYwY6jM2YseeYseUcAyL8It/e//HhD0hUPrzxpsJOjqAWFCDBQ2TUIGshVccoGAWjYBSMCAAA+J1GllENWKoAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Minnan Normal University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Meng-Te","middleName":"","lastName":"Hung","suffix":""},{"id":453611659,"identity":"6080e292-2d74-46f3-9913-3b24119270e3","order_by":2,"name":"Qixiang Zhou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Minnan Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Qixiang","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhou","suffix":""},{"id":453611660,"identity":"d38f6230-91f4-4b9e-8318-d6c9cbae0eb4","order_by":3,"name":"Ziyuan Huang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Minnan Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ziyuan","middleName":"","lastName":"Huang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-19 15:38:17","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6263058/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6263058/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":82375043,"identity":"81e54494-ecd7-452e-9615-348182ded412","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-09 14:26:28","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25497,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Statistical Model in which the Effect of Loneliness on Smartphone addiction is Mediated by Rumination.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6263058/v1/66d9713427527234e08d7844.jpg"},{"id":82375056,"identity":"f35b7ae7-8308-4629-9631-78c424d52bbe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-09 14:26:28","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27472,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel Summary Information for the Hypothesized Mediation Model Portrayed in Figure (N = 427).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote： \u003c/em\u003e*\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .05. **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01 ***\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6263058/v1/5f6a2b98d21b0f4e972456b0.jpg"},{"id":84294082,"identity":"924d9905-7473-413b-9e13-b46510ee86e3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-10 09:08:54","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1089837,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6263058/v1/e0e91c54-55a0-41bf-b2a1-4214d21eda77.pdf"},{"id":82375048,"identity":"b32b3b44-6c92-40bd-9324-8773c2bfa507","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-09 14:26:28","extension":"amw","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":41100,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"31RRS5.amw","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6263058/v1/68799ba1e043720a337c60b9.amw"},{"id":82375044,"identity":"6f23c1c9-8f02-44a5-a8e6-a3e52a4c4661","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-09 14:26:28","extension":"sav","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":21055,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"427RRS5.sav","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6263058/v1/68ae7982bec20a2aac7a2adc.sav"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Mediating Role of Rumination in the Relationship Between Loneliness and Smartphone Addiction Among College Students","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, the widespread adoption of smartphones has profoundly transformed daily life. These devices serve not only as communication and entertainment tools but also play central roles in education, social interaction, and professional activities. However, excessive smartphone use has been linked to a range of psychological and behavioral maladaptations, particularly among college students. According to the 55th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China issued by the China Internet Network Information Center [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], the number of mobile internet users in China reached 1.105\u0026nbsp;billion by December 2024, with 99.7% of internet access occurring via smartphones. College students, characterized by greater discretionary time, high academic pressure, and evolving social needs, are particularly vulnerable to problematic smartphone use. Research suggests that over 30% of college students struggle with smartphone addiction, exhibiting difficulty in self-regulation and compulsive usage patterns [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmartphone addiction, operationally defined as persistent, excessive smartphone use leading to significant impairments in daily functioning and psychological well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], has been linked to numerous adverse outcomes, including sleep disturbances [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR5\" citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], heightened anxiety symptoms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], and increased risk of depressive disorders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Beyond its impact on mental health, smartphone addiction has been shown to negatively affect academic performance, social relationships, and overall psychological resilience. Given its widespread prevalence and consequences, identifying key psychological risk factors and underlying mechanisms contributing to smartphone addiction is essential for developing effective intervention strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent research has increasingly recognized loneliness as a major contributing factor in the development of smartphone addiction. Loneliness, defined as a subjective distressing state arising from perceived social disconnection [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], is particularly prevalent among Chinese college students, who often struggle with social transitions and independence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Studies suggest that individuals experiencing chronic loneliness tend to engage in excessive smartphone use\u0026mdash;particularly social media and online interactions\u0026mdash;as a coping mechanism [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. However, while this behavior may provide temporary relief, it often exacerbates isolation, creating a reinforcing cycle of smartphone dependence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the link between loneliness and smartphone addiction is well-established, the underlying cognitive mechanisms remain underexplored. One critical but overlooked factor is rumination, a maladaptive cognitive style characterized by repetitive and passive focus on distressing thoughts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Previous research suggests that lonely individuals are particularly prone to ruminative thinking, which sustains negative emotions and reinforces avoidant coping behaviors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Since smartphones provide instant distraction through social media, short videos, and gaming, they become an accessible tool for temporary relief from ruminative distress, potentially reinforcing compulsive use patterns [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its potential significance, rumination has received little attention in smartphone addiction research. Previous studies have examined self-control [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], depression [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], and family support [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] as mediators in the loneliness-smartphone addiction pathway, yet the cognitive regulation mechanisms underlying this relationship remain unclear. Rumination differs from these mediators because it not only maintains negative affect but also perpetuates smartphone-seeking behaviors as an avoidance mechanism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address this research gap, the present study investigates the mediating role of rumination in the relationship between loneliness and smartphone addiction among college students. By integrating cognitive and behavioral perspectives, this study aims to clarify the psychological mechanisms that drive excessive smartphone use among lonely individuals. Understanding this relationship can inform more targeted interventions, focusing on cognitive coping strategies rather than merely limiting screen time.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Literature review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Loneliness and Smartphone Addiction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs smartphone addiction has gained recognition as a critical public health issue, researchers have increasingly examined the psychological factors contributing to this phenomenon. Among these, loneliness has been widely explored as a potential predisposing factor. However, the empirical literature remains inconclusive, with studies presenting conflicting evidence regarding both the strength and directionality of this relationship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile a substantial body of research supports loneliness as a significant predictor of smartphone addiction [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20 CR21 CR22 CR23 CR24 CR25 CR26 CR27 CR28 CR29\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e], some studies have reported non-significant or even reverse effects [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR32\" citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Emerging evidence suggests that smartphone addiction may exacerbate loneliness rather than vice versa [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e], pointing to potential bidirectionality in this relationship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Compensatory Internet Use Theory provides a useful framework for understanding the role of loneliness in problematic smartphone use [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. This theory suggests that individuals experiencing distressing emotional states\u0026mdash;such as loneliness\u0026mdash;are more likely to engage in excessive internet or smartphone use as a means of affective regulation. Specifically, lonely individuals may compulsively engage with social media, entertainment apps, or online gaming to maintain virtual social connections or seek short-term relief from emotional distress [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Over time, reinforced usage patterns escalate into compulsive dependence, leading to full-blown smartphone addiction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven these theoretical foundations, this study hypothesizes the following relationship:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 1\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eLoneliness positively predicts smartphone addiction among college students.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Mediating Role of Rumination\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough loneliness has been widely studied as a predictor of smartphone addiction, less attention has been given to the cognitive mechanisms underlying this relationship. One prominent but understudied cognitive factor is rumination\u0026mdash;a repetitive, passive focus on distressing thoughts and emotions, which often worsens negative affect rather than resolving it [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLonely individuals are particularly prone to rumination, as empirical studies indicate that social isolation fosters negative self-referential thinking, heightened sensitivity to social rejection, and persistent dysphoric affect [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Instead of actively seeking social engagement, ruminative individuals become trapped in cycles of self-focus and avoidance, exacerbating emotional distress and maladaptive coping behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Cognitive-Behavioral Model (CBM), proposed by Davis (2001) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], provides a multidimensional framework for understanding the role of cognitive processes in internet addiction. The model suggests that both distal factors (e.g., personality traits, early-life experiences) and proximal factors (e.g., cognitive and emotional regulation) contribute to compulsive technology use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRumination operates as a key proximal factor, perpetuating compulsive smartphone use by inhibiting behavioral disengagement and reinforcing avoidant coping mechanisms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Given that smartphones serve as the primary internet access modality among college students, rumination-driven internet addiction often manifests as smartphone dependency. Individuals who experience chronic rumination may be more likely to engage in compulsive smartphone use as a means of temporary escape from persistent negative thoughts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThus, based on CBM theory and existing research, we propose the following mediation hypothesis:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 2\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eRumination mediates the relationship between loneliness and smartphone addiction among college students.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Summary and Conceptual Model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the well-documented association between loneliness and smartphone addiction, existing research has largely overlooked the role of rumination as an underlying mechanism. Prior studies have examined self-control [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], depression [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], and family support [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] as mediators, yet the cognitive regulation processes sustaining compulsive smartphone use remain underexplored. This study addresses this gap by integrating the Compensatory Internet Use Theory and the Cognitive-Behavioral Model to examine how rumination contributes to the development of smartphone addiction among lonely college students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo illustrate this theoretical framework, the proposed conceptual model is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. (Insert here)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study recruited university undergraduates from multiple provinces (Fujian, Guangdong, Zhejiang) through the Wenjuanxing platform, a Chinese online survey tool. Initial data collection yielded 448 responses, with 427 valid questionnaires retained after excluding invalid responses (e.g., incomplete or patterned answers), achieving a valid response rate of 95.31%. The sample comprised 117 male (27.4%) and 310 female (72.6%) participants, aged 18\u0026ndash;29 years (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20.55, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.58).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Instrument\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Loneliness Scale\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoneliness was assessed using the Chinese simplified version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-8), originally developed by Russell and later revised into an 8-item short form by Hays and DiMatteo (1987) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. The scale employs a 7-point Likert format (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e, 7\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e), with items including statements such as \"I lack companionship.\" The measure demonstrated excellent internal consistency in this study (Cronbach's α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.891).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 Rumination Scale\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRumination was measured using the 5-item short form of the Ruminative Response Scale (RRS-5), adapted from the original RRS by Topper et al[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. Responses were recorded on a 7-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003enever\u003c/em\u003e, 7\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003ealways\u003c/em\u003e), with items such as \"Think about all your shortcomings, failings, faults, mistakes.\" The scale showed good internal consistency (Cronbach's α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.840).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.3 Smartphone Addiction Scale\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmartphone addiction was assessed using the 10-item Short Version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS-SV), initially developed by Kwon et al. (2013) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e] and culturally adapted for Chinese populations by Xiang et al. (2019) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. Participants rated items on a 7-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003ecompletely inconsistent\u003c/em\u003e, 7\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003ecompletely consistent\u003c/em\u003e), with example statements including \"I find it difficult to concentrate on completing my homework because I want to use my smartphone.\" The scale demonstrated strong internal reliability (Cronbach's α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.832).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Statistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData analysis was conducted using SPSS 26.0 and Amos 26.0. Pearson correlation analysis and mediation testing were performed via Hayes' PROCESS macro (Model 4) in SPSS, with statistical significance set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Result","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Common Method Variance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommon method bias was assessed using Harman's single-factor test. Exploratory factor analysis revealed three factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1.0, with the first factor accounting for 38.862% of the total variance\u0026mdash;below the critical threshold of 40%. This indicates no dominant single factor emerged, suggesting common method variance did not substantially compromise the data. The results confirm the dataset's suitability for further analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Model Fit\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe measurement model comprising three latent variables\u0026mdash;loneliness, rumination, and smartphone addiction\u0026mdash;was rigorously evaluated. Goodness-of-fit indices demonstrated satisfactory model-data congruence: χ\u0026sup2;/df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.383, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.057, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.052, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.960, with PClose\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.120 (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). These results indicate strong alignment between the hypothesized model and empirical data, meeting stringent psychometric standards for structural equation modeling [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. (Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e here)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel Fit Measures (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;427)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstimate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThreshold\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterpretation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCMIN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e207.353\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCMIN/DF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween 1 and 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcellent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCFI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.960\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcellent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSRMR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.052\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcellent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRMSEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcellent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePClose\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcellent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. CMIN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;chi-square; DF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;degree of freedom; CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;comparative fit index; SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standardized root mean square residual; RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;root mean square error of approximation.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Construct Validity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, descriptive statistics and correlational analyses revealed significant positive correlations among all three variables\u0026mdash;loneliness, rumination, and smartphone addiction\u0026mdash;in pairwise comparisons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations for Study Variables(N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;427)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM(SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCronbach's α\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.Loneliness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.497(1.353)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.891\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.Rumination\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.683(1.471)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.840\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.539***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.Smartphone Addiction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.595(1.290)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.832\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.267***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.379***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Correlation、Path and Mediation Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePath analysis revealed significant predictive effects of loneliness on smartphone addiction (\u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.254, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.045, β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.267, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001; see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), thereby confirming Hypothesis H1. When rumination was introduced as a mediator, loneliness no longer exerted a significant direct effect on smartphone addiction (\u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e' = 0.083, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.051, β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.087, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.101), indicating full mediation by rumination.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel Summary Information for the Proposed Mediation Model Portrayed in\u003c/em\u003e Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e(N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;427)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOutcome\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRumination (Mediator)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmartphone addiction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePredictor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e(ꞵ)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e(ꞵ)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoneliness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.586\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.083\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRumination\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(.539)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(.087)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.291\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.633\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.167\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(.332)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.230\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.177\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.291\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1,425)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;174.103\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.149\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2, 424)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37.213\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote: B\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Unstandardized regression coefficient; ꞵ= Standardized regression coefficient.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoneliness significantly predicted rumination (\u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.586, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.044, β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.539, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), which in turn strongly influenced smartphone addiction (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.291, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.047, β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.332, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), collectively supporting Hypothesis H2 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). (Insert here)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMediation analysis using Hayes' PROCESS macro with 10,000 bootstrap resamples demonstrated a significant indirect effect (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.171) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. The 95% bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval [0.109, 0.237] excluded zero, confirming the statistical significance of rumination's full mediating role in the loneliness-smartphone addiction pathway (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). (Insert here)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSummary of the Mediation Model Analysis(N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;427)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% bootstrap CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMediator\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoint\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstimate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLL\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUL\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect effect 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRumination\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e \u0026times; \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.171\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.237\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLL\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUL\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.083\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:-\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.183\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003ec\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e+ \u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.254\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.167\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.342\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5 Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Loneliness and Smartphone Addiction: A Cross-Cultural Perspective\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study found a significant positive correlation between loneliness and smartphone addiction, aligning with prior research in Eastern cultural contexts but contrasting with Western studies that report weaker or even inverse relationships. This divergence may be explained through Hall\u0026rsquo;s (1976) High- vs. Low-Context Cultural Theory [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. In low-context cultures (e.g., Western societies), communication primarily relies on explicit verbal exchanges, with individuals favoring asynchronous digital communication such as email or discussion forums. As a result, smartphone use is often instrumental rather than compulsive, reducing dependency. In contrast, high-context cultures (e.g., East Asian societies) emphasize shared implicit norms, requiring synchronous and immediate communication [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. In these environments, delayed responses may be perceived as neglect or social disengagement, prompting individuals to compulsively check and respond to messages, thereby reinforcing smartphone dependency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, cultural values of collectivism further explain why loneliness in East Asian contexts may heighten smartphone addiction risk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. Collectivist cultures prioritize group cohesion and relational maintenance, making frequent digital interaction a social obligation. In contrast, individualist cultures normalize loneliness as a personal emotional state rather than a social failure, allowing individuals to engage in alternative coping mechanisms such as self-reflection, reading, or creative activities rather than compulsive smartphone use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, technological affordances play a key role in amplifying compulsive smartphone use. The design of mobile applications, driven by big data algorithms and instant feedback mechanisms, reinforces compulsive engagement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. In high-context cultural settings, where real-time social presence is essential, the combination of cultural expectations and technological design creates a self-reinforcing cycle of digital dependence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2 The Mediating Role of Rumination\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study further revealed that rumination fully mediates the relationship between loneliness and smartphone addiction, supporting previous findings that lonely individuals exhibit heightened negative cognitive patterns and difficulties in emotional regulation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a cognitive perspective, lonely individuals tend to engage in persistent negative self-reflection, focusing excessively on distressing emotions rather than problem-solving or social re-engagement. According to Response Styles Theory (RST) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e], rumination amplifies negative affect, making individuals more likely to engage in avoidance-based coping behaviors, such as excessive smartphone use, rather than directly addressing their emotional distress [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a neurobiological perspective, loneliness has been associated with hyperactivity in the Default Mode Network (DMN)\u0026mdash;a brain system involved in self-referential processing and rumination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]. Research suggests that heightened DMN activity not only sustains repetitive negative thinking [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e] but is also linked to addiction-related neural pathways [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. Individuals with dysregulated DMN activity may, therefore, be neurologically predisposed to engaging in compulsive smartphone use as a form of self-soothing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings strengthen theoretical frameworks that view rumination as a cognitive vulnerability factor for behavioral addiction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Unlike previous studies that examined self-control [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], depression [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], and family support [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] as mediators, this study highlights rumination as a cognitive mechanism that prolongs distress and sustains compulsive smartphone behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6 Implications and Limitations","content":"\u003cp\u003eFindings from this study offer several practical implications for addressing smartphone addiction among college students. Educators and administrators should actively monitor students exhibiting social withdrawal, low classroom engagement, and excessive smartphone use. Institutional efforts should integrate psychological assessments, behavioral observations in dormitories, classrooms, and extracurricular settings, and early intervention programs for students displaying persistent smartphone dependency (e.g., avoidance of in-person interactions, excessive late-night screen time).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince rumination plays a key role in sustaining smartphone addiction, interventions should focus on enhancing emotional regulation skills rather than simply restricting smartphone use. Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs), such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), have been shown to significantly reduce rumination and maladaptive cognitive patterns [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. Universities should implement structured mindfulness programs in counseling centers to help students recognize and manage distressing thoughts, thereby breaking the cycle of loneliness, rumination, and smartphone overuse.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversities can implement structural changes to reduce smartphone dependency during high-risk periods for rumination, particularly during late-night hours and solitary periods. Strategies may include designating smartphone-free study zones in dormitories and library areas, promoting offline engagement activities such as group discussions, student volunteering, and peer mentorship programs, and introducing incentive systems (e.g., rewards for participation in non-digital activities) to encourage face-to-face interactions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its contributions, this study has several limitations that should be addressed in future research. As a cross-sectional study, this research confirms a positive association between loneliness and smartphone addiction but cannot establish causality. Prior longitudinal studies suggest that smartphone addiction may also increase loneliness, creating a cyclical pattern of \"loneliness \u0026rarr; smartphone addiction \u0026rarr; increased loneliness\" [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Future research should use longitudinal or experimental designs to clarify the directionality of these relationships.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study examined college students as a homogeneous group; however, psychological responses to loneliness may differ based on academic year. First-year students, who are adjusting to a new social environment, may experience higher vulnerability to smartphone addiction. In contrast, senior students may have developed more stable coping mechanisms. Future studies should examine grade-level differences in loneliness, rumination, and smartphone addiction to develop age-specific interventions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the study examined broad psychological patterns, gender differences in smartphone addiction remain underexplored. Males may be more prone to smartphone overuse for gaming and entertainment, whereas females may rely on smartphones for social reassurance and emotional coping [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Future research should analyze gender-based variations in coping mechanisms and addiction susceptibility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile this study establishes loneliness as a predictor of smartphone addiction, emerging longitudinal studies suggest that smartphone overuse itself exacerbates loneliness by reducing face-to-face social interactions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Future research should employ cross-lagged panel designs to disentangle these bidirectional influences.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003es’ contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Conceptualized the project (LCH); Designed the methodology and instruments (LCH, MTH); Collected and processed the data (MTH, QXZ, ZYH); Conducted statistical analysis (MTH, QXZ); Interpreted the findings (LCH, MTH); Drafted the manuscript (LCH, MTH, ZYH); Critically revised the manuscript (LCH, QXZ); Approved the final manuscript (LCH, MTH, QXZ, ZYH). LCH is the guarantor of this research. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbout the Authors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Li-Ching Hung, PhD, Professor, Primary Author\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Yango University, School of Cross-Border E-Commerce, Department of Business English\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeng-Te Hung, PhD, Assistant Professor, Corresponding Author\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Minnan Normal University, School of Liberal Arts\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQixiang Zhou\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Minnan Normal University, School of Liberal Arts\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZiyuan Huang\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Minnan Normal University, School of Liberal Arts\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;This study received no external funding. The research was conducted independently without financial support from any public, commercial, or non-profit funding agency. The funders had no role in the conception, design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, or writing of the manuscript—because no external funders were involved.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of Data and Materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Yango University Institutional Review Board, approval number is: 26-7358. All participants provided informed consent before taking part in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate declaration\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants were informed about the purpose of the study and voluntarily agreed to participate. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for publication:\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHere is the form:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate in Research Study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy Title:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Mediating Role of Rumination in the Relationship Between Loneliness and Smartphone Addiction Among College Students\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrincipal Investigator:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Prof. Li-Ching Hung, Yango University\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCo-Investigators:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDr. Meng-Te Hung, Minnan Normal University\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMr. Qixiang Zhou, Minnan Normal University\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMs. Ziyuan Huang, Minnan Normal University\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePurpose of the Study:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates how rumination (repetitive negative thinking) may influence the relationship between loneliness and smartphone addiction among college students in China.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhat You Will Be Asked to Do:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYou will be asked to complete a set of online questionnaires regarding your feelings of loneliness, thinking patterns, and smartphone use habits. The survey will take approximately 10–15 minutes to complete.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVoluntary Participation and Right to Withdraw:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYour participation is completely voluntary. You may choose not to answer any question and may stop participating at any time without any consequences or penalties.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRisks and Benefits:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are no known physical or psychological risks involved in this study. While there is no direct benefit to you, the study will help researchers understand smartphone use and mental health among college students, which may inform future interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConfidentiality:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll responses will be kept strictly confidential. Data will be analyzed anonymously and stored securely. No identifying information will be used in any publication or presentation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study has been approved by the Yango University Institutional Review Board (Approval Number: 26-7358) and complies with the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContact for Questions:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIf you have any questions about the study, you may contact Prof. Li-Ching Hung at \u003cstrong\[email protected]\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy signing below, I confirm that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eI have read and understood the information above.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eI am 18 years of age or older.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eI voluntarily agree to participate in this research study.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eI understand that I can withdraw at any time without giving a reason.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipant’s Full Name (Printed):\u003c/strong\u003e ___________________________________\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSignature:\u003c/strong\u003e ___________________________________\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDate:\u003c/strong\u003e _______________________\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ethics declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChina Internet Network Information Center. 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Neuropsychopharmacology. 2021;46(11):1873-87.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChen X, Chen NX, Shen YQ, Li HX, Li L, Lu B, et al. The subsystem mechanism of default mode network underlying rumination: A reproducible neuroimaging study. Neuroimage. 2020;221:117185.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMenon V. Large-scale brain networks and psychopathology: a unifying triple network model. Trends Cogn Sci. 2011;15(10):483-506.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWatkins ER, Roberts H. Reflecting on rumination: Consequences, causes, mechanisms and treatment of rumination. Behav Res Ther. 2020;127:103573.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChen XP, Huang YW. Study on relationship between self-identity, peer stress and rumination thinking in college students. Occup Health. 2019;(15):2115-9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"college students, loneliness, rumination, smartphone addiction","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6263058/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6263058/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eObjective\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study examined the relationships between loneliness, rumination, and smartphone addiction among college students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis cross-sectional study selected college students from multiple provinces and cities including Fujian, Guangdong, Zhejiang, etc. The final analysis included 427 participants (117 boys and 310 girls) with a average age of 20.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.58 years. Subjective data on loneliness, rumination, and smartphone addiction were collected and analyzed, with a mediation model being established.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBootstrap analysis with 5,000 resamples revealed significant mediation effects of rumination between loneliness and smartphone addiction (95% CI [0.109, 0.237]). Structural equation modeling demonstrated excellent model fit indices for the mediation hypothesis (χ\u0026sup2;/df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.383, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.057, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.960).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults indicate that rumination fully mediates the relationship between loneliness and smartphone addiction, suggesting that lonely college students' maladaptive repetitive thinking patterns constitute the primary pathway to compulsive smartphone use.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Mediating Role of Rumination in the Relationship Between Loneliness and Smartphone Addiction Among College Students","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-09 14:26:23","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6263058/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"574fd33f-558e-41a3-9f08-5781fd0401ab","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 9th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-10T09:08:20+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-09 14:26:23","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6263058","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6263058","identity":"rs-6263058","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}