The relationship between screen time and classroom behaviors: Mediating role of loneliness and moderating role of school belonging

The relationship between screen time and classroom behaviors: Mediating role of loneliness and moderating role of school belonging | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The relationship between screen time and classroom behaviors: Mediating role of loneliness and moderating role of school belonging NURİ CAN AKSOY, İlhan İLTER, Yasemin KAYGAS This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6939520/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigated the relationships between daily screen time use, feelings of loneliness, sense of school belonging, and types of classroom behaviors among middle school students. Specifically, it examined the mediating role of loneliness in the relationship between screen time and both academic and interpersonal behaviors, as well as the moderating role of school belonging in these relationships. Participants included 460 middle school students (242 males, 218 females, mean age =12.087 years) from Türkiye. The results indicated that increased screen time was positively associated with feelings of loneliness. Screen time also had a direct negative effect on academic behaviors, but no direct effect on interpersonal behaviors. Loneliness negatively predicted both academic and interpersonal behaviors, with a more pronounced effect on interpersonal behaviors. Moreover, loneliness mediated the relationship between screen time and both types of classroom behaviors. School belonging moderated the relationship between screen time and academic behaviors only, indicating that the negative relationship between screen time and academic behaviors was more pronounced among students with a lower sense of school belonging. Social science/Education Social science/Psychology Loneliness screen time school belonging classroom behaviours middle school students Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Recently, teachers have increasingly reported a significant rise in behavioral problems among students in the classroom (Hutchings et al., 2013 ). These behavioral issues not only disrupt classroom dynamics but also serve as potential precursors to a range of adverse outcomes, including chronic absenteeism, school dropout, negative academic emotions, and poor academic performance (Campbell et al., 2006 ). The transition to middle school represents a particularly critical developmental period, marked by substantial changes in interpersonal relationships. This is largely due to the growing importance of peer interactions and the concurrent developmental changes associated with adolescence (Eccles et al., 1993 ; Robins et al., 2002 ). As such, academic and social maladjustments often peak during this time (Seidman et al., 1994 ). The middle school years are frequently characterized by declines in academic achievement and motivation, along with increases in problematic behaviors and symptoms of depression (Wang & Eccles, 2012 ). Rising emotional and behavioral problems during this period (Fang et al., 2022) can negatively affect adolescents’ identity development and mental health (Eiland & Romeo, 2013 ) and impair interpersonal interactions (Harland et al., 2002 ). Given that this stage is pivotal for the formation of academic self-concept and social identity, it is considered a critical period for understanding the underlying mechanisms influencing classroom behaviors. These behaviors, in turn, have a direct and substantial impact on both individual academic achievement and the overall effectiveness of the educational process (Zhang et al., 2024 ). Focusing on a specific developmental stage, such as middle school, offers valuable insights into the dynamics that may influence students' academic and social behaviors. Accordingly, the present study aims to investigate the relationship between middle school students' screen time usage and their classroom behaviors. Specifically, it examines the mediating role of feelings of loneliness and the moderating role of school belonging in this relationship. Literature review Screen time Screen time refers to the duration individuals spend engaging in various activities mediated by digital devices such as computers, televisions, video game consoles, smartphones, and tablets (DataReportal, 2020 ; Tang et al., 2018 ). In recent years, the rapid advancement of technology has led to a marked increase in active screen time, which has become a growing concern—particularly among parents of young adolescents in middle school (Domoff et al., 2019 ). Research indicates a 52% increase in screen time during the COVID-19 pandemic (Magidan et al., 2022), a finding further supported by a meta-analysis conducted by Trott et al. ( 2022 ). According to a study by Qi et al. ( 2023 ), children aged 6 to 14 now spend an average of 2.77 hours per day on screen-based activities. While electronic devices offer valuable opportunities for learning, communication, and access to information, a growing body of research highlights the potentially harmful effects of screen media use on the health and well-being of children and adolescents. These negative consequences can manifest both in the short and long term, making screen time a pressing public health concern (Riesch et al., 2019 ). Loneliness Loneliness is a psychological state resulting from unmet interpersonal needs. It typically involves negative emotions such as emptiness, boredom, helplessness, and melancholy (Kim, 2018 ). As the sense of social belonging becomes increasingly important during adolescence (Tomova et al., 2021 ), the heightened—but unmet—need for social connection during this period often leads to feelings of loneliness (Hang et al., 2024 ). Loneliness has been linked to difficulties in social relationships (Loades et al., 2020 ; Tomova et al., 2021 ) and is further associated with a range of adverse mental health outcomes, including social isolation, heightened anger, and diminished self-esteem (Ferreira-Alves et al., 2014 ; Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010 ). Therefore, loneliness is considered a significant risk factor for the development of various physical and mental health problems in adolescents (Christiansen et al., 2021 ). Children who are least accepted by their classmates are more likely to experience loneliness, feel socially dissatisfied, and report lower satisfaction with their school experience (Asher et al., 1984 ). Screen time and loneliness In contemporary society, digital technology has become an integral part of adolescents' daily lives (Anderson & Jiang, 2018 ). Widespread internet access offers numerous opportunities, including enhanced social interaction, access to information, expanded educational resources, and entertainment (MacDonald et al., 2022 ; OECD, 2024 ). The relationship between screen time and loneliness is multifaceted. Screen-based activities—such as social media use and video gaming—may help alleviate feelings of loneliness by providing opportunities for social interaction and connection (Lawrence et al., 2022 ). However, a growing body of research has also demonstrated a positive association between elevated screen time and internalizing symptoms, such as anxiety and depression (Oberle et al., 2020 ). Increasingly, scholars and public discourse have raised concerns that excessive screen time may reduce the quality and frequency of face-to-face interactions, thereby diminishing adolescents' social and emotional well-being (OECD, 2024 ). The rise in screen media use has thus emerged as a significant factor influencing levels of loneliness among children and adolescents (Domoff et al., 2019 ; Pittman & Reich, 2016 ). Supporting this, MacDonald et al. ( 2022 ) reported a concurrent increase in adolescent loneliness alongside rising screen time. In light of these findings and the well-established associations between screen time and loneliness, the following hypothesis is proposed: H1 Screen time predicts the feeling of loneliness. Screen time and classroom behaviours Increased screen use at an early age has been associated with a range of developmental challenges, including delays in language and motor skills (Hu et al., 2020 ; Madigan et al., 2020 ), mental health issues (Opdal et al., 2020 ), and impairments in social-emotional development (Raman et al., 2017 ). Furthermore, excessive screen exposure has been linked to attention deficits and broader mental health concerns (OECD, 2024 ). High levels of screen time are also correlated with emotional difficulties, behavioral problems, hyperactivity, and peer conflicts (Wu et al., 2017 ). Individuals who engage in excessive screen use tend to exhibit greater distractibility and increased levels of involuntary daily mind-wandering (Schutten et al., 2017 ). In educational contexts, students who engage in screen-based activities—such as television viewing or video gaming—for more than two hours per day are more likely to experience decreased vitality and report lower levels of academic achievement (Tremblay et al., 2011 ). Supporting this, Onyeaka et al. ( 2022 ) found that nearly one-third of a sample of 17,074 adolescents experienced cognitive difficulties during the school day due to excessive screen time. Similarly, Sharif and Sargent ( 2006 ) reported a negative association between increased screen use and academic achievement. Low academic performance, in turn, may adversely affect not only students’ academic outcomes but also their social relationships (Huang et al., 2023 ). Twenge and Campbell ( 2018 ) found that students with high levels of screen use reported significantly more academic and interpersonal behavioral difficulties—including poor emotion regulation, difficulties completing learning tasks, and challenges in forming friendships—compared to peers with lower screen time. Moreover, excessive screen time was associated with reduced social engagement (Boyd, 2015 ), poorer interpersonal relationships (Kowert et al., 2014 ), and diminished social competence (Griffiths, 2010 ; Lemmens et al., 2011 ). It has also been linked to lower levels of self-regulation and self-efficacy (Xie et al., 2024 ), as well as impairments in executive cognitive functioning (Hu et al., 2020 ). Taken together, these findings suggest that increased screen time may negatively impact both students' interpersonal functioning and academic behaviors in the classroom. Based on this conceptual framework, the following hypotheses are proposed for the present study. H2 Screen time predicts academic behaviors. H3 Screen time predicts interpersonal behaviors. Loneliness and classroom behaviours Loneliness is recognized as a significant risk factor for students' academic behaviors and social competence within the school environment (Asher et al., 1984 ). Research indicates that students who experience elevated levels of loneliness during middle childhood are more likely to demonstrate increased social withdrawal and peer victimization—markers of poor integration into the classroom community—compared to peers whose loneliness remains low or declines during this developmental period (Jobe-Shields et al., 2011 ). Students lacking social integration within the school setting are at heightened risk for academic underachievement. These individuals often exhibit weaker peer relationships, limited engagement with classmates, and reduced utilization of classroom support systems, all of which contribute to diminished classroom performance and broader school maladjustment (Mattanah et al., 2012 ). Loneliness in adolescence has also been associated with a range of negative social outcomes, including lower peer acceptance (Brendgen et al., 2000 ) and increased vulnerability to peer victimization (Storch & Masia-Warner, 2004 ). Furthermore, adolescents experiencing high levels of loneliness tend to report a diminished sense of school belonging (Betts & Stiller, 2014 ), higher rates of truancy (Maes et al., 2017 ), reduced academic achievement (Kingery et al., 2011 ), and lower participation in academic activities (Benner, 2011 ). Taken together, both theoretical perspectives and empirical findings suggest that loneliness during adolescence may adversely affect students’ academic and social functioning. Based on this framework, the following hypotheses are proposed: H4 Feeling of loneliness predicts academic behaviors. H5 Feeling of loneliness predicts interpersonal behaviors. The mediating effect of loneliness In the digital age, students are increasingly exposed to the potential risks associated with excessive screen use. Although social media platforms offer opportunities for communication, today’s adolescents report higher levels of loneliness compared to previous generations (Pittman & Reich, 2016 ). The rise in screen time among adolescents has been linked to a decline in face-to-face interactions (Vandewater et al., 2006 ), which may contribute to reduced social engagement, weaker interpersonal relationships, and decreased physical activity (Hu et al., 2020 ; OECD, 2024 ). Screen-based activities have emerged as a significant risk factor for the development of loneliness (Domoff et al., 2019 ). For example, Kowert et al. ( 2014 ) found that adolescents who spend more time playing online games tend to have fewer and lower-quality friendships. Parallel to these findings, research has shown that loneliness negatively impacts students’ academic behaviors and their ability to maintain healthy interpersonal relationships (Brendgen et al., 2000 ; Maes et al., 2017 ). Excessive time spent on screens may also lead to the neglect of key developmental and behavioral activities (Anderson & Subrahmanyam, 2017 ; Fakhouri et al., 2013 ). Vandewater et al. ( 2006 ), for instance, reported that children who spent more time watching television showed less interest in family interaction, academic tasks such as reading and homework, and creative play. Although adolescents engage with screen media for a variety of purposes—including entertainment, communication, and information seeking—prolonged screen time was associated with a decline in essential cognitive skills and competencies vital for academic success (Sunday et al., 2021 ). However, the mechanisms underlying the effects of screen time on academic and interpersonal outcomes—particularly the potential mediating role of loneliness—remain inadequately understood. Based on the theoretical and empirical evidence presented, the present study proposes that increased screen time contributes to heightened feelings of loneliness, which in turn negatively affect academic and interpersonal behaviors among middle school students. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed: H6 Feeling of loneliness mediates the relationship between screen time and academic behaviors. H7 Feeling of loneliness mediates the relationship between screen time and interpersonal behaviors. The moderating effect of sense of school belonging School belonging is defined as the degree to which students perceive themselves as accepted, respected, included, and supported within the school setting (Goodenow & Grady, 1993 ). A substantial body of research has indicated that a strong sense of school belonging is positively linked to higher academic achievement, greater psychosocial and emotional well-being, and lower levels of mental health difficulties (Allen et al., 2017 ; Anderman, 2003 ; Arslan, 2018 ; Goodenow & Grady, 1993 ; Pittman & Richmond, 2007 ). When students experience a high level of school belonging, they tend to exhibit greater enjoyment of school, increased engagement with learning tasks, and more positive attitudes toward themselves and others. These students also report more supportive and constructive interactions with both peers and adults in the school setting (Osterman, 2023 ). Feeling part of a valued and supportive school community can enhance students’ social behaviors and academic achievement (Xu et al., 2023 ). Additionally, a strong sense of belonging can contribute to students’ adherence to school norms and values, thereby helping them avoid risky behaviors (Catalano et al., 2004 ). This sense of belonging is particularly crucial during the middle school years, a developmental stage where students’ social and academic trajectories are actively being shaped. Developing a sense of school belonging during this period is associated with more successful school experiences and has been shown to positively influence both social skills and academic achievement (Korpershoek et al., 2020 ). Numerous studies have confirmed a significant positive relationship between school belonging and academic performance (Gaete et al., 2016; Niehaus et al., 2012 ; Won et al., 2018 ), while a low sense of school belonging was linked to decreased academic self-efficacy and increased risk of academic failure (Walton & Cohen, 2011 ). However, emerging digital technologies, despite their benefits, have introduced new educational challenges. These technologies can undermine students' sense of belonging by weakening their social connections and adversely impacting academic outcomes. Notably, adolescents with high levels of screen time have been found to neglect their academic responsibilities (Vandewater et al., 2006 ). To better understand the impact of screen time on adolescents’ academic and interpersonal behaviors, it is essential to investigate potential moderating variables that may influence these relationships. Several studies suggest that screen-based activities can reduce students’ sense of connection to both peers and school (Khan & Burton, 2017 ; Fitzpatrick et al., 2019 ; McCahey et al., 2021 ). While school belonging is widely recognized as a critical factor in students’ educational experiences, further research is needed to clarify its potential mediating or moderating role in the relationship between screen time and students’ academic and social behaviors. In light of this evidence, it is proposed that a strong sense of school belonging may buffer the negative academic and social behaviours caused by excessive screen time. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are presented: H8 Sense of school belonging moderates the relationship between screen time and academic behaviors. H9 Sense of school belonging moderates the relationship between screen time and interpersonal behaviors. The Current Study The school environment serves as a crucial social ecosystem for adolescents, particularly in terms of peer relationships. Within this setting, students form new social connections, develop friendships, and participate in various social groups (Rubin et al., 2006 ). When adolescents’ social needs are not adequately met, feelings of loneliness may intensify, potentially becoming a significant concern within the school context. Given the heightened importance of peer relationships during this developmental stage, loneliness—especially when coinciding with increased digital media use—emerges as a critical risk factor for student development. In this regard, the relationship between screen time and loneliness must be examined, as it has important implications for adolescents’ social and academic behaviours. However, despite its importance, loneliness is frequently neglected or relegated to a secondary role in studies focusing on screen time (Hoare et al., 2016 ). The rapid proliferation of screen media not only alters students’ patterns of social interaction but also heightens parental concerns regarding their children’s academic competencies and interpersonal skills. However, the indirect effects of increased screen time on classroom behaviors—mediated by loneliness—have not been sufficiently explored in the existing literature. Previous research has demonstrated that loneliness can negatively impact both academic engagement and peer relationships (Jobe-Shields et al., 2011 ; Levitt et al., 1994). Against this backdrop, the present study aims to investigate the mediating role of loneliness in the relationship between middle school students’ daily screen time and their academic and interpersonal behaviors in the classroom. A further aim of the study is to examine the potential moderating role of school belonging in the relationship between screen time and classroom behaviors. It is proposed that school belonging may serve as a protective factor that attenuates the possible adverse effects of screen time on both academic and interpersonal behaviors. Indeed, a strong sense of school belonging is a foundational element that supports students’ academic and psychological development and is significantly associated with motivation, psychological resilience, and overall school success (Allen et al., 2018 ; Arslan & Coşkun, 2020 ; Arslan & Renshaw, 2019 ). Nevertheless, studies that directly examine the relationship between screen time and school belonging among adolescents remain limited. Specifically, the potential moderating role of school belonging in the relationship between screen time and classroom behavior has yet to be clearly established. To address these gaps, the present study proposes a conceptual model that seeks to explain the impact of screen time on academic and interpersonal behaviors through the mediating role of loneliness, while also testing whether school belonging moderates this relationship. Through this framework, the study aims to determine whether school belonging functions as a protective factor that can buffer the potential negative consequences of screen media use. The primary focus of this study is to identify the critical factors that support adolescents’ academic and social competencies, and to examine, from a holistic perspective, the interactive effects of both individual (internal) and environmental (external) variables—namely, screen time, loneliness, and school belonging—on classroom behaviors. As the need for social belonging becomes increasingly significant during adolescence (Tomova et al., 2021 ), this study adopts a conceptual framework grounded in Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000 ), which posits that individuals are motivated to fulfill three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The satisfaction of these needs is essential for psychological well-being and healthy development (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004 ). Among these needs, relatedness plays a particularly crucial role during adolescence, a developmental stage marked by an intensified desire for connection and social acceptance (Ojanen et al., 2005 ). The need for relatedness reflects the individual’s desire to form meaningful social bonds and feel a sense of belonging within a group. When this need is satisfied—such as through a strong sense of school belonging—it contributes positively to an individual’s mental health. Conversely, when the need for relatedness is unmet, feelings of loneliness may arise, which have been associated with various behavioral and psychosocial difficulties (Baumeister & Leary, 1995 ; Baumeister, 2012 ). Therefore, loneliness and school belonging can be viewed as opposing ends of a continuum defined by the extent to which the need for relatedness is fulfilled. Given that adolescents spend a significant portion of their time in school, educational settings represent a critical social context for meeting this psychological need (Encina & Berger, 2021 ). Accordingly, investigating how contemporary behavioral variables such as screen time interact with the fulfillment of relatedness needs offers valuable theoretical and practical insights into adolescents’ academic and interpersonal behaviors within the classroom. In line with the aforementioned theoretical framework, this study posits those feelings of loneliness and school belonging influence not only students’ academic behaviors but also their interpersonal interactions. This comprehensive perspective provides researchers and practitioners with a more holistic and nuanced understanding of adolescents' academic and social development. Understanding how variables such as screen time, loneliness, and school belonging manifest in classroom behaviors is crucial for developing integrative intervention strategies aimed at enhancing not only academic performance but also students’ social functioning. From this standpoint, the findings of the current study may serve as a valuable resource for educators, psychologists, and school counselors who seek to support students’ overall psychological well-being and foster their academic and social competencies. In conclusion, the present study aims to contribute to the creation of supportive educational contexts that mitigate contemporary challenges, prevent potential risks, and promote the academic and interpersonal development of students. Method Using a cross-sectional design, this study examined the mediating role of loneliness and the moderating role of school belonging in the relationship between screen time and two types of classroom behaviors: academic and interpersonal. A correlational research model was used to estimate the predictive effects of the variables (Creswell, 2012 ) with screen time as the independent variable; academic and interpersonal behaviors as the dependent variables; loneliness as the mediator; and school belonging as the moderator. Figure 1 shows the hypothesis model based on the variables included. Participants Utilizing convenience-sampling methods, this study selected 460 middle school students from three schools located in a city in Southeastern Anatolia in Türkiye. Focusing on middle school students as the target group of the study can be justified for several reasons. First, the middle school period is a critical developmental stage marked by transition to adolescence, during which cognitive development, self-awareness, social relationships and physical growth are significantly shaped. This makes middle school students an important population for exploring academic, emotional and social variables within school and classroom contexts (Lin & Li, 2005 ). Second, in the Turkish education system, the middle school years serve as a transitional phase before high school, during which academic expectations and social dynamics can shift considerably. A study of this nature may provide valuable insights into how variables such as screen addiction, feelings of loneliness and sense of school belonging influence students' academic competencies and interpersonal functioning. Of the participants, 52.6% (n = 242) were male, and 47.4% (n = 218) were female. Participants’ ages ranged from 10 to 14 years, with a mean age of 12.087 years (SD = 1.0484). Regarding grade level, 16.5% (n = 242) were in the fifth grade, 40.2% (n = 185) in the sixth grade, 29.6% (n = 242) in the seventh grade, and 13.7% (n = 63) in the eighth grade. Measures Screen Time Inventory , developed and validated by Leatherdale et al. ( 2014 ), was used to assess participants' screen time. In this study, some items of the inventory were adapted by the authors to reflect current technologies (e.g., game console, social media). Participants were asked how much time per day they typically spend doing which screen-based activities for each of the following six types of screen use: 1) Watching television programs/series-movies/cartoons etc., 2) Playing games on a phone/tablet/computer or game console, 3) Doing homework on phone/tablet/computer, 4) Talking on the phone, 5) Surfing the internet, 6) Texting, messaging on the phone or spending time on social media. The scores from these items were combined to represent the total average screen time spent by participants per day. Cronbach's Alpha and Composite Reliability (CR) of the inventory are 0.89 and 0.87, respectively. Loneliness Scale for Children , developed by Asher et al. ( 1984 ), consists of 16 items designed to measure children's feelings of loneliness. The scale was translated into Turkish by Duyan et al. ( 2015 ). Each item in the scale was rated using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). High scores on the scale indicate a high level of loneliness experienced; thus, as the score increases, the feeling of loneliness also increases (Cassidy & Asher, 1992). The Cronbach's Alpha for the scale is 0.86 and the CR value is 0.82, respectively. Classroom Behaviors Scale , developed by Caldarella et al. ( 2021 ), and adapted into Turkish by the second author (n. d.) of the present study, consists of two subscales and 17-items. Academic competence and interpersonal competence. The CPS is a behavior-rating instrument designed to measures students' academic and social functioning in the classroom. The academic competence subscale consists of 11 items that measure specific academic behaviours that are critical for successful academic functioning such as homework completion, exam performance, note-taking. The interpersonal competence subscale consists of 6 items measuring interpersonal behaviors related to social functioning, including effective communication, cooperation, and asking for help (Brady et al., 2012 ). Sample items include: “I actively participate in classes” and “I cooperate in class.” Responses are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (always) to 5 (never). Higher scores indicate higher classroom performance. Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the subscales ranged from 0.74–0.81. School Belonging Scale developed as part of the PISA 2015 assessment and detailed in the PISA 2015 Technical Report (OECD, 2017 ), was used to measure participants’ perceived sense of belonging to their school. The scale consists of nine items that assess students’ feelings of being accepted, respected, and valued by the school community. Responses are recorded on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree), with higher scores indicating a stronger sense of school belonging. In the current study, the scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .80 and a composite reliability (CR) value of .82. Procedures Since the participants in the study were middle school students, written consent was obtained from their parents or legal guardians prior to their participation in the study. For this purpose, the ‘Parental Consent Form’ prepared by the researchers was submitted to the relevant ethics committee and ethical approval was obtained. The form included information about ‘the purpose of the study, that participation in the study was voluntary and required parental consent, that the student could withdraw from the study at any time, and that in such a case, the student would not face any obligations.’ The information process for the research was carried out through face-to-face interviews with the students on 24–25 March and 13 April, 2025, at the schools where the students were studying. During these interviews, each student was given a parental consent form and asked to deliver it to their parents. Students were asked to return the form to their school administration within two days of receiving it (26–27 March and 15 April, 2025.). If parents approved their children's participation in the study, they wrote their ‘name and surname’ and ‘date’ in the section reserved for them on the form in their own handwriting and signed the form with their wet signatures. Students who did not submit the parental consent form or whose forms were incomplete or unapproved were not included in the study. The data collection process for students whose parental consent was obtained was conducted on 28 March and 16 April, 2025, respectively. Data collection activities were planned and carried out at the students' schools, in the classrooms and time slots deemed appropriate by the school administrators, based on the students' availability. Data were collected by the first author through in-person visits to three participating schools. During each visit, the purpose of the study was clearly explained to the students, and assurances of confidentiality were provided. Participation was entirely voluntary, and informed consent was obtained from all participants. Students were also informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Completion of the questionnaires took approximately 10 to 15 minutes. Data Analysis The proposed model in this study was tested using the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) via the SmartPLS 4.0 (Ringle et al., 2022 ). PLS-SEM is less strict in its assumption of a normal distribution and is suitable for testing mixed models with small bootstrap sample sizes (Hair et al., 2019 ). The analysis began with the evaluation of the measurement model to assess the reliability and validity of the latent construct. For the validity and reliability of the measurement model, we examined external loading, composite reliability, Cronbach's Alpha and AVE values with PLS. Outer loading, composite reliability and Cronbach's Alpha values greater than 0.7 and AVE values greater than 0.5 indicate that the measurement model is reliable and valid (Hair et al., 2019 ). Following the confirmation of the model’s reliability and validity, we tested using 5000 resamples with structural bootstrapping to identify predictors of classroom behaviors and to test the moderator variable effect of the model. RESULTS Descriptive results Based on the Kurtosis and Kurtosis tests, the data in this study were normally distributed (see Table 1 ). The correlation analysis showed that screen time was positively correlated with the feeling of loneliness (r = 0.224, p < 0.01) and negatively correlated with all dimensions of classroom behaviors (-0.267 < r < -0.311, p < 0.01). Loneliness was negatively correlated with all dimensions of classroom behaviors (-0.284 < r <-0.432, p < 0.01). Furthermore, the sense of school belonging was significantly correlated with all study variables (-0.150 < r < -0.653, p < 0.01). Table 1 Descriptive information and correlation analysis Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 ST 3.67 1.61 0.224** -0.267** -0.311** -0.250** LoN 1.92 0.61 1 -0.284** -0.432** -0.653** AB 4.19 0.49 1 0.572** 0.366** IB 4.29 0.55 1 0.452** SSB 3.26 0.49 1 Skewness 0.25 -0.06 − .031 0.05 -1.26 Kurtosis 0.67 -0.59 − .044 0.23 -1.26 VIF -0.41 -0.55 − .78 0.11 -0.45 Note : ** p < 0.001, ST = Screen time, LoN = Loneliness, AC = Academic behaviors, IC = Interpersonal behaviors, SSB = Sense of school belonging To understand participants' screen time usage distribution across various activities, the descriptive statistics for daily screen-based activities were examined. The average daily screen time of the participants was calculated as 3.67 (SD = 1.61) hours. This finding suggests that participants' screen time exceeded the recommendations set by the American Academy of Pediatrics, which recommends limiting screen use to a maximum of two hours per day for school-aged children (Hill et al., 2016 ). Among the various screen-related activities, the highest average daily screen time usage was reported for “playing games on a phone, tablet, computer, or game console” (M = 51.51 minutes, SD = 41.78). This was followed by “watching television programs, series, movies, or cartoons” (M = 49.13 minutes, SD = 38.66), and “texting, messaging on the phone, or spending time on social media” (M = 39.13 minutes, SD = 38.08). Conversely, “talking on the phone” accounted for the lowest average daily screen time (M = 18.37 minutes, SD = 24.76). These findings highlight the specific screen-based activities that contributed the most to overall screen time use among participants and provide a foundation for examining their potential associations with loneliness, school belonging, and type of classroom behaviors. As seen in Fig. 2 , the box plot shows the distribution of daily screen time by gender. The horizontal lines within the boxes represent group averages. Girls show a slightly higher median screen time and a wider interquartile range compared to boys. Both groups have similar minimum values, while the maximum screen time is higher for girls. Despite these visual differences, no statistically significant differences were found in the mean daily screen time scores based on gender (p > .05). Measurement model In the measurement model (Table 2 ), we initially examined the outer loading values for the constructs in each factor. For the loneliness factor, the outer loading of LoN3 was 0.541, which does not meet the optimal benchmark of 0.705 suggested by Hair et al. ( 2019 ). However, we decided to keep this item because its loading exceeded the minimum acceptable level of 0.50 (Hair et al., 2017) and removed this item and tested the measurement model again, the convergent validity and internal consistency reliability values (i.e., Average variance extracted, Cronbach's Alpha, Composite reliability, outer loading) decreased. Across all constructs, outer loading values for each construct in the measurement model ranged from 0.545 to 0.898. As seen in Table 2 , the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from 0.705 to 0.811, and the composite reliability (CR) values were between 0.861 and 0.914, all exceeding the recommended 0.80 threshold, indicating satisfactory internal consistency. Convergent validity was confirmed, with average variance extracted (AVE) values above 0.50 for all constructs (Hair et al., 2019 ). Collinearity statistics (VIF values) for the indicators in each factor ranged from 1.218 to 2.975, remaining well below the threshold of 3, indicating no multicollinearity concerns (Hair et al., 2021 ). These results support that multicollinearity poses no threat. Furthermore, the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) value calculated to determine whether the factors meet the discriminant validity assumption is between 0.394 and 0.794 under the threshold value of 0.90 (Ringle et al., 2022 ). These results demonstrate that the measurement model possesses acceptable reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Table 2 Outer Loadings, Internal Consistency and Average Variance Extracted Construct Items Factor loading rho_A CA CR AVE Screen time (ST) ST1 0.719 0.877 0.774 0.873 0.596 ST2 0.801 ST3 0.776 ST4 0.743 ST5 0.798 ST6 0.632 Loneliness (LoN) LoN1 0.784 0.933 0.821 0.831 0.551 LoN2 0.705 LoN3 0.710 LoN4 0.757 LoN5 0.834 LoN6 0.771 LoN7 0.802 LoN8 0.865 LoN9 0.760 LoN10 0.873 LoN11 0.705 LoN12 0.740 LoN13 0.812 LoN14 0.723 LoN15 0.840 LoN16 0.819 Sense of school belonging (SSB) SSB1 0.745 0.877 0.769 0.875 0.632 SSB2 0.712 SSB3 0.842 SSB4 0.755 SSB5 0.803 SSB6 0.721 SSB7 0.809 SSB8 0.798 SSB9 0.795 Academic behaviors (AB) AB1 0.735 0.826 0.805 0.869 0.578 AB2 0.701 AB3 0.768 AB4 0.754 AB5 0.701 AB6 0.715 AB7 0.723 AB8 0.702 AB9 0.712 AB10 0.791 AB11 0.751 Interpersonal behaviors (IB) IB1 0.735 0.826 0.805 0.812 0.650 IB2 0.735 IB3 0.701 IB4 0.768 IB5 0.754 IB6 0.701 IB7 0.715 Mediation analysis Following the validation of the measurement model, the hypothesized relationships were tested. These included the relationship between screen time and feeling of loneliness, the effect of loneliness on types of classroom behaviors, the indirect effects of screen time on classroom behaviors mediated by loneliness, and the moderating effect of school belonging in the relationship between screen time and classroom behaviors. The structural model was evaluated using the Partial Least Squares (PLS) algorithm, with a bootstrapping procedure based on 5000 resamples to ensure the robustness of the estimates. Path coefficients (β), t-values, p-values, and 95% confidence intervals served as the main statistical measures for testing the hypotheses. As seen in Table 3 , the results indicate that screen time significantly positively predicts the feeling of loneliness β = 0.225, p = 0.000), thereby supporting Hypothesis 1. Furthermore, screen time significantly directly predicted academic behaviors (β = -0.268, p = 0.000), but did not predict interpersonal behaviors (β = -0.063, p = 0.175), supporting Hypothesis 3 and rejecting Hypothesis 2. The feeling of loneliness significantly negatively predicted both academic behaviors (β = -0.280, p = 0.000) and interpersonal behaviors (β =- 0.507 p = 0.000), supporting Hypotheses 4 and 5. Regarding the indirect effects, screen time significantly indirectly predicted both academic behaviors (β = -0.82, p = 0.002) and interpersonal behaviors (β = -0.114, p = 0.000) through the mediation of loneliness, thus supporting Hypothesis 6 and 7. Table 3 Hypotheses testing Path Coefficient t value p value Direct effect ST ->LoN 0.225 3.873 0.000 ST ->AB -0.268 5.157 0.000 ST ->IB -0.063 1.356 0.175 LoN ->AB -0.280 6.017 0.000 LoN ->IB -0.507 14.079 0.000 Mediation effect ST ->LoN ->AB -0.082 3.146 0.002 ST ->LoN ->IB -0.114 3.702 0.000 Interaction effect ST x SSB ->AB 0.148 2.153 0.031 ST x SSB ->IB 0.027 0.571 0.568 Note . ST = Screen time use, LoN = Loneliness, AB = Academic behaviors, IB = Interpersonal behaviors, SSB = Sense of school belonging Moderation analysis The moderating effect of sense of belonging to school on the relationship between screen time and academic behaviors was significant (β = -0.148, p = 0.031), supporting Hypothesis 8. The interaction indicates that the negative effect of screen time on academic behaviors was strongest among students with low levels of sense of school belonging. Specifically, for these students, high screen time was associated with the lowest levels of academic behaviors. Conversely, students with a high sense of school belonging demonstrated relatively higher levels of academic behaviors, even with increased screen time. This suggests that a strong sense of belonging to school serves as a protective factor, mitigating the adverse effects of excessive screen time on students’ academic behaviors in the classroom. Figure 3 shows that the negative slopes were significant for students with low (t = − 3.433, p < 0.001) and medium (t = − 3.433, p 0.05) As seen in Fig. 4, school belonging did not moderate the relationship between screen time and interpersonal behaviors (p > 0.05), indicating that Hypothesis 9 was not supported. Specifically, the levels of sense of belonging to school—low, medium, or high—did not significantly influence this relationship. This suggests that the effect of screen time on interpersonal behaviors remains consistent regardless of students' sense of school belonging. Discussion This study sheds light on the multiple relationships between screen time usage, feeling of loneliness, sense of school belonging, and types of classroom behaviors among middle school students. In the study, how screen time, loneliness, and school belonging predict academic and interpersonal behaviours as dimensions of classroom behaviours was examined within a comprehensive structural model that included both mediating and moderating effects. Firstly, the results support Hypothesis 1, indicating a significant and positive relationship between screen time and feelings of loneliness. This finding is consistent with previous research showing that increased screen media use may promote feelings of social isolation, weaken social connectedness, and reduce opportunities for face-to-face interaction (Twenge & Campbell, 2018 ; Skalicka et al., 2019). MacDonald et al. ( 2022 ) found a significant relationship between screen time and loneliness in adolescents in their longitudinal study. This longitudinal study shows that screen time can increase feelings of loneliness and that this effect persists over time. Similarly, Maftei et al. ( 2024 ) also stated that loneliness increases problematic smartphone use and that this relationship is moderated by the individual's emotional regulation skills. When the results and the literature are evaluated together, it can be concluded that the replacement of peer relationships with screen time can be particularly harmful during early adolescence, when social integration is particularly pronounced (Tomova et al., 2021 ). Indeed, researchers have pointed out that screen time and sleep displacement lasting longer than three months increase the depressive effects of adolescents, who are characterised by their sleep patterns in biological and sociological terms (Hökby et al., 2025 ). These findings highlight concerns that, despite the ease of communication via screens, excessive or passive use can paradoxically hinder adolescents' emotional well-being and social participation. The findings are also valuable in that they show that the effect of screen time on children's feelings of loneliness is complex and multifaceted. Secondly, the results related to Hypotheses 2 and 3 indicate that while screen time has a significant direct effect on academic behaviors, it does not have a significant direct effect on interpersonal behaviors. This finding has important implications from both a theoretical and practical perspective. Primarily, the results obtained are consistent with the literature, but in some respects, they offer unique contributions to the literature. This is consistent with the literature showing that screen time negatively affects academic achievement and that there is a relationship between increased screen use and decreased academic achievement (Kritihika & Vasantha, 2013; OECD, 2024 ; Sharif & Sargent, 2006 ; Tremblay et al., 2011 ). Interestingly, this study found no direct relationship between screen time and interpersonal behaviours, but identified a strong indirect negative effect through loneliness. This suggests that screen time may not directly affect students’ social interaction skills, but rather that the loneliness fostered by screen time weakens students’ desire or ability to engage in interpersonal interaction in the classroom. Indeed, Bian and Leung ( 2015 ) concluded in their study with Chinese students that students with high levels of loneliness are more likely to use their smartphones in an addictive manner. The findings reveal that these theoretically important distinctions indicate that interventions targeting screen media use should target not only academic behaviours but also social behaviours. Thirdly, the findings support Hypotheses 4 and 5, indicating that feelings of loneliness are significant negative predictors of both academic and interpersonal behaviors. This finding is consistent with research results suggesting that loneliness during adolescence weakens students' cognitive and social functioning (Christiansen et al., 2021 ; Hang et al., 2024 ). Allen et al. ( 2018 ) emphasised that social acceptance and peer support are among the determinants of active participation and academic motivation in school environments, particularly among students in adolescence. Loneliness limits students' classroom interactions; it weakens interpersonal behaviours such as cooperation, helpfulness and effective communication, and reduces their tendency to take responsibility for academic tasks (Maes et al., 2017 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ). In this context, loneliness can be considered not only a psychological condition but also a behavioural outcome that can be observed in the classroom environment. Indeed, according to self-determination theory, failure to meet the need for relatedness within the social context of the class can lead to a decline in academic adjustment and an increase in social dissatisfaction, which can negatively affect students' overall school performance (Baumeister & Leary, 1995 ; Deci & Ryan, 2000 ; Tomova et al., 2021 ). These results are particularly worrying when considered in relation to adolescence. During this developmental period, an increase in the amount of time students spend alone in front of screens, regardless of the type of screen, intensifies media use, which can lead to increased levels of loneliness and have negative effects on academic behaviours and interpersonal relationships. Fourthly, the results related to Hypotheses 6 and 7 indicate that loneliness serves as a mediator in the relationship between screen time and both academic and interpersonal behaviors. In other words, time spent in front of a screen has an indirect and negative effect on both types of classroom behaviours through feelings of loneliness. Adolescents' social needs are increasing. According to Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000 ), which argues that individuals are motivated to satisfy three basic psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—the more successfully social needs are met, the less loneliness there is. This finding supports socio-emotional development models that suggest that feelings of belonging and attachment play a central role in adolescents' social and academic development (Guay et al., 1999 ; Jobe-Shields et al., 2011 ). The fact that loneliness significantly predicts both academic and interpersonal behaviours shows that emotional well-being is not merely a consequence but also an important factor that influences students' functioning in social and academic contexts. Loneliness among adolescents increases problematic internet or smartphone use, which in turn weakens students' social relationships and leads to social media addiction (Maftei et al., 2024 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ). Current findings show that loneliness is not just an emotional state, but also affects academic performance through emotional states. Finally, the findings showed that school belonging moderated the relationship between screen time and academic behaviours but did not play a moderating role in the relationship between screen time and interpersonal behaviours (Hypotheses 8 and 9). More specifically, the negative impact of screen time on academic behaviours is less pronounced among students with a strong sense of school belonging, whereas those with low school belonging and high screen time exhibit the lowest levels of academic behaviours. These results suggest that declining school belonging may make students more vulnerable to the negative effects of excessive screen use on academic behaviours. In particular, students with a strong sense of belonging to their school appear to be more resilient in terms of academic performance despite increased screen time. Interestingly, school belonging did not mitigate the relationship between screen time and interpersonal behaviours, regardless of students' levels of belonging (H9). This situation may indicate that the interpersonal aspects of class dynamics are influenced less by institutional affiliation and more by individual or relational factors. In other words, although school belonging seems to buffer the negative effects of screen time on academic engagement, it does not appear to have a similar protective effect on interpersonal behaviours. This finding is consistent with self-determination theory and ecological systems models, which suggest that perceived commitment and belonging in the school environment can act as a buffer against external stressors (Deci & Ryan, 2000 ). A strong sense of belonging can provide students with psychological resources that promote academic resilience in the face of potential risks such as excessive screen exposure. In addition, large-scale data obtained from Australian adolescents (McCahey et al., 2021 ) revealed that frequent use of information technology (IT) for school-related tasks predicted higher levels of school belonging, while frequent IT use for leisure time was associated with lower school belonging. This situation shows that there is a two-way relationship between screen time and school belonging, and that both the purpose of screen usage and the level of belonging jointly affect educational outcomes. Taken together, these findings highlight the nuanced and context-dependent nature of screen-based activities in adolescents' academic and social development. Limitations and Implications This study has several limitations. First, the cross-sectional nature of the study design limits us from making causal inferences between screen time, loneliness, school belonging, and types of classroom behaviours. Longitudinal studies are needed to clarify the temporal and directional nature of these relationships. Secondly, the data is based on students' perceptions, self-reported measurements, and these measurements may be inaccurate or incomplete in areas such as screen time. Furthermore, screen time is treated as a general concept, and different activities such as watching television, using social media, and playing video games are not distinguished. This situation has made it difficult to assess the effects of screen time in detail. Thirdly, this study examined the interactions between screen time, loneliness, and class performance dimensions. However, other external factors or uncontrollable variables may have influenced loneliness and classroom behaviours. Furthermore, it has not taken into account the content and context of screen use. This may affect psychological and behavioural outcomes differently. This study was conducted with adolescents in middle school. This model can also be tested on high school students in different stages of adolescence. Finally, the study is limited to Turkish middle school students. Similar studies conducted with different age groups (e.g., high school or university students) and in different cultural contexts are important for testing the generalisability of the findings. Conclusions This study revealed that feelings of loneliness play a significant mediating role in the relationship between screen time and types of classroom behaviours in a sample of middle school students. Findings show that increased screen time increases feelings of loneliness among students and may reduce both academic and interpersonal classroom functioning. No direct effect of screen time on interpersonal behaviours was observed, but it was found that this effect becomes significant indirectly through loneliness. In addition, the moderating effect of school belonging on the relationship between screen time and academic behaviours reveals that a strong school environment plays a protective role in reducing the potential risks associated with high screen exposure. In this context, promoting a sense of belonging to school is an important potential protective factor against the negative academic effects of excessive screen time usage. The findings emphasise the importance of addressing both individual psychological needs (e.g., reducing loneliness) and contextual factors (e.g., strengthening ties to school) in efforts to improve aspects of classroom behaviours. Future studies should examine these relationships in greater detail and investigate additional contextual or psychological variables that may shape the effects of screen media or digital technologies on adolescent development. The study contributes to the literature by revealing that loneliness and school belonging play critical roles in shaping classroom behaviours among students who spend a lot of time in front of screens. The findings highlight the importance of strengthening school ties and meeting students' psychosocial needs, particularly in the digital age, in terms of academic and social behaviours. Reducing the sense of loneliness affected by screen time can be effective in improving academic and interpersonal behaviors in class settings. In this respect, the loneliness variable can be included in the studies to be conducted in the fields of educational and personal social guidance. It may be useful to include activities to reduce the use of screen time and to cope with the feeling of loneliness caused by screen time in group guidance activities. In addition, interventions to increase school belonging may be effective in positively changing academic behaviors caused by screen time. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was conducted with a sample of middle school students in Türkiye. Ethical approval was obtained from the ‘Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee of Hasan Kalyoncu University of the Republic of Türkiye (Date of approval 28.02.2025, meeting number 2025 -3, Approval No: E-97105791-050.04-76371). All legal and ethical requirements were met, and written informed consent was obtained from parents or legal guardians in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration. Consent for publication Not applicable Availability of data and materials The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors have no competing interests. Funding The authors acknowledge that they received no external funding in support of this research. Authors’ contributions NCA, İİ, and YK: Writing, Review & Editing. 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Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications , 2 , 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-016-0048-x Seidman, E., Allen, L., Aber, J. L., Mitchell, C., & Feinman, J. (1994). The impact of school transitions in early adolescence on the self‐system and perceived social context of poor urban youth. Child Development, 65 (2), 507-522.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00766.x Sharif, I., & Sargent, J. D. (2006). Association between television, movie, and video game exposure and school performance. Pediatrics , 118 (4), e1061-e1070. Skalická, V., Wold Hygen, B., Stenseng, F., Kårstad, S. B., & Wichstrøm, L. (2019). Screen time and the development of emotion understanding from age 4 to age 8: A community study. British Journal of Developmental Psychology , 37 (3), 427-443. Storch, E. A., & Masia-Warner, C. (2004). The relationship of peer victimization to social anxiety and loneliness in adolescent females. Journal of Adolescence , 27, 351–362. Sunday, O. J., Adesope, O. O., & Maarhuis, P. L. (2021). The effects of smartphone addiction on learning: A meta-analysis. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 4, Article 100114.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100114 Tang, L., Darlington, G., Ma, D. W., & Haines, J. (2018). Mothers’ and fathers’ media parenting practices associated with young children’s screen-time: A cross-sectional study. BMC obesity , 5 , 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40608-018-0214-4 Tomova, L., Andrews, J. L., & Blakemore, S. (2021). The importance of belonging and the avoidance of social risk taking in adolescence. Developmental Review , 61 , Article 100981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2021.100981 Tremblay, M. S., LeBlanc, A. G., Janssen, I., Kho, M. E., Hicks, A., Murumets, K., ... & Duggan, M. (2011). Canadian sedentary behaviour guidelines for children and youth. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism , 36 (1), 59-64. Trott, M., Driscoll, R., Irlado, E., & Pardhan, S. (2022). Changes and correlates of screen time in adults and children during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. eClinical Medicine , 48 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101452 Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2018). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive Medicine Reports, 12 , 271-283. Vandewater, E. A., Bickham, D. S., & Lee, J. H. (2006). Time well spent? Relating television use to children’s free-time activities. Pediatrics , 117 (2), e181–e191. https://doi.org/ 10.1542/peds.2005-0812 Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students. Science, 331 (6023), 1447-1451. Wang, M. T., & Eccles, J. S. (2012). Adolescent behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement trajectories in school and their different relations to educational success. Journal of Research on Adolescence , 22 , 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00753.x Won, S., Wolters, C. A., & Mueller, S. A. (2018). Sense of belonging and self-regulated learning: Testing achievement goals as mediators. The Journal of Experimental Education , 86 (3), 402-418.https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2016.1277337 Wu, X., Tao, S., Rutayisire, E., Chen, Y., Huang, K., & Tao, F. (2017). The relationship between screen time, nighttime sleep duration, and behavioural problems in preschool children in China. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry , 26 (5), 541–548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-016-0912-8 Xie, H., Liu, C., Wang, S., & Wang, X. (2024). Screen time and preschoolers’ pre-academic and behavioural competence: The moderating role of child characteristics. Early Child Development and Care, 194 (2), 260-280. Xu, L., Duan, P., Ma, L., & Dou, S. (2023). Professional identity and self-regulated learning: the mediating role of intrinsic motivation and the moderating role of sense of school belonging. Sage open, 13 (2), Article 21582440231177034. Zhang, H., Yang, J., & Liu, Z. (2024). Effect of teachers' teaching strategies on students' learning engagement: moderated mediation model. Frontiers In Psychology , 15 , 1475048. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1475048 Zhang, L., Wang, L., Wang, H., & Gao, L. (2022). Relationship between loneliness, social support and smartphone addiction among Chinese college students: A moderated mediation model. Children and Youth Services Review, 139 , Article 106505 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106505 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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These behavioral issues not only disrupt classroom dynamics but also serve as potential precursors to a range of adverse outcomes, including chronic absenteeism, school dropout, negative academic emotions, and poor academic performance (Campbell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The transition to middle school represents a particularly critical developmental period, marked by substantial changes in interpersonal relationships. This is largely due to the growing importance of peer interactions and the concurrent developmental changes associated with adolescence (Eccles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Robins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). As such, academic and social maladjustments often peak during this time (Seidman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe middle school years are frequently characterized by declines in academic achievement and motivation, along with increases in problematic behaviors and symptoms of depression (Wang \u0026amp; Eccles, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Rising emotional and behavioral problems during this period (Fang et al., 2022) can negatively affect adolescents\u0026rsquo; identity development and mental health (Eiland \u0026amp; Romeo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and impair interpersonal interactions (Harland et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Given that this stage is pivotal for the formation of academic self-concept and social identity, it is considered a critical period for understanding the underlying mechanisms influencing classroom behaviors. These behaviors, in turn, have a direct and substantial impact on both individual academic achievement and the overall effectiveness of the educational process (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Focusing on a specific developmental stage, such as middle school, offers valuable insights into the dynamics that may influence students' academic and social behaviors. Accordingly, the present study aims to investigate the relationship between middle school students' screen time usage and their classroom behaviors. Specifically, it examines the mediating role of feelings of loneliness and the moderating role of school belonging in this relationship.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eScreen time\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eScreen time refers to the duration individuals spend engaging in various activities mediated by digital devices such as computers, televisions, video game consoles, smartphones, and tablets (DataReportal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Tang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In recent years, the rapid advancement of technology has led to a marked increase in active screen time, which has become a growing concern—particularly among parents of young adolescents in middle school (Domoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Research indicates a 52% increase in screen time during the COVID-19 pandemic (Magidan et al., 2022), a finding further supported by a meta-analysis conducted by Trott et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). According to a study by Qi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), children aged 6 to 14 now spend an average of 2.77 hours per day on screen-based activities. While electronic devices offer valuable opportunities for learning, communication, and access to information, a growing body of research highlights the potentially harmful effects of screen media use on the health and well-being of children and adolescents. These negative consequences can manifest both in the short and long term, making screen time a pressing public health concern (Riesch et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLoneliness\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLoneliness is a psychological state resulting from unmet interpersonal needs. It typically involves negative emotions such as emptiness, boredom, helplessness, and melancholy (Kim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). As the sense of social belonging becomes increasingly important during adolescence (Tomova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), the heightened—but unmet—need for social connection during this period often leads to feelings of loneliness (Hang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Loneliness has been linked to difficulties in social relationships (Loades et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Tomova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and is further associated with a range of adverse mental health outcomes, including social isolation, heightened anger, and diminished self-esteem (Ferreira-Alves et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Hawkley \u0026amp; Cacioppo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, loneliness is considered a significant risk factor for the development of various physical and mental health problems in adolescents (Christiansen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Children who are least accepted by their classmates are more likely to experience loneliness, feel socially dissatisfied, and report lower satisfaction with their school experience (Asher et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eScreen time and loneliness\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn contemporary society, digital technology has become an integral part of adolescents' daily lives (Anderson \u0026amp; Jiang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Widespread internet access offers numerous opportunities, including enhanced social interaction, access to information, expanded educational resources, and entertainment (MacDonald et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The relationship between screen time and loneliness is multifaceted. Screen-based activities—such as social media use and video gaming—may help alleviate feelings of loneliness by providing opportunities for social interaction and connection (Lawrence et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, a growing body of research has also demonstrated a positive association between elevated screen time and internalizing symptoms, such as anxiety and depression (Oberle et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Increasingly, scholars and public discourse have raised concerns that excessive screen time may reduce the quality and frequency of face-to-face interactions, thereby diminishing adolescents' social and emotional well-being (OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The rise in screen media use has thus emerged as a significant factor influencing levels of loneliness among children and adolescents (Domoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Pittman \u0026amp; Reich, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Supporting this, MacDonald et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) reported a concurrent increase in adolescent loneliness alongside rising screen time. In light of these findings and the well-established associations between screen time and loneliness, the following hypothesis is proposed:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eScreen time predicts the feeling of loneliness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eScreen time and classroom behaviours\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIncreased screen use at an early age has been associated with a range of developmental challenges, including delays in language and motor skills (Hu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Madigan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), mental health issues (Opdal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and impairments in social-emotional development (Raman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, excessive screen exposure has been linked to attention deficits and broader mental health concerns (OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). High levels of screen time are also correlated with emotional difficulties, behavioral problems, hyperactivity, and peer conflicts (Wu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Individuals who engage in excessive screen use tend to exhibit greater distractibility and increased levels of involuntary daily mind-wandering (Schutten et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In educational contexts, students who engage in screen-based activities—such as television viewing or video gaming—for more than two hours per day are more likely to experience decreased vitality and report lower levels of academic achievement (Tremblay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Supporting this, Onyeaka et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) found that nearly one-third of a sample of 17,074 adolescents experienced cognitive difficulties during the school day due to excessive screen time. Similarly, Sharif and Sargent (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) reported a negative association between increased screen use and academic achievement. Low academic performance, in turn, may adversely affect not only students’ academic outcomes but also their social relationships (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Twenge and Campbell (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) found that students with high levels of screen use reported significantly more academic and interpersonal behavioral difficulties—including poor emotion regulation, difficulties completing learning tasks, and challenges in forming friendships—compared to peers with lower screen time. Moreover, excessive screen time was associated with reduced social engagement (Boyd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), poorer interpersonal relationships (Kowert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), and diminished social competence (Griffiths, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Lemmens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). It has also been linked to lower levels of self-regulation and self-efficacy (Xie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), as well as impairments in executive cognitive functioning (Hu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Taken together, these findings suggest that increased screen time may negatively impact both students' interpersonal functioning and academic behaviors in the classroom. Based on this conceptual framework, the following hypotheses are proposed for the present study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eScreen time predicts academic behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eScreen time predicts interpersonal behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLoneliness and classroom behaviours\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLoneliness is recognized as a significant risk factor for students' academic behaviors and social competence within the school environment (Asher et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e). Research indicates that students who experience elevated levels of loneliness during middle childhood are more likely to demonstrate increased social withdrawal and peer victimization—markers of poor integration into the classroom community—compared to peers whose loneliness remains low or declines during this developmental period (Jobe-Shields et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Students lacking social integration within the school setting are at heightened risk for academic underachievement. These individuals often exhibit weaker peer relationships, limited engagement with classmates, and reduced utilization of classroom support systems, all of which contribute to diminished classroom performance and broader school maladjustment (Mattanah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Loneliness in adolescence has also been associated with a range of negative social outcomes, including lower peer acceptance (Brendgen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) and increased vulnerability to peer victimization (Storch \u0026amp; Masia-Warner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, adolescents experiencing high levels of loneliness tend to report a diminished sense of school belonging (Betts \u0026amp; Stiller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), higher rates of truancy (Maes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), reduced academic achievement (Kingery et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), and lower participation in academic activities (Benner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Taken together, both theoretical perspectives and empirical findings suggest that loneliness during adolescence may adversely affect students’ academic and social functioning. Based on this framework, the following hypotheses are proposed:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFeeling of loneliness predicts academic behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFeeling of loneliness predicts interpersonal behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eThe mediating effect of loneliness\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the digital age, students are increasingly exposed to the potential risks associated with excessive screen use. Although social media platforms offer opportunities for communication, today’s adolescents report higher levels of loneliness compared to previous generations (Pittman \u0026amp; Reich, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The rise in screen time among adolescents has been linked to a decline in face-to-face interactions (Vandewater et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), which may contribute to reduced social engagement, weaker interpersonal relationships, and decreased physical activity (Hu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Screen-based activities have emerged as a significant risk factor for the development of loneliness (Domoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). For example, Kowert et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) found that adolescents who spend more time playing online games tend to have fewer and lower-quality friendships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParallel to these findings, research has shown that loneliness negatively impacts students’ academic behaviors and their ability to maintain healthy interpersonal relationships (Brendgen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Maes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Excessive time spent on screens may also lead to the neglect of key developmental and behavioral activities (Anderson \u0026amp; Subrahmanyam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Fakhouri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Vandewater et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), for instance, reported that children who spent more time watching television showed less interest in family interaction, academic tasks such as reading and homework, and creative play. Although adolescents engage with screen media for a variety of purposes—including entertainment, communication, and information seeking—prolonged screen time was associated with a decline in essential cognitive skills and competencies vital for academic success (Sunday et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, the mechanisms underlying the effects of screen time on academic and interpersonal outcomes—particularly the potential mediating role of loneliness—remain inadequately understood. Based on the theoretical and empirical evidence presented, the present study proposes that increased screen time contributes to heightened feelings of loneliness, which in turn negatively affect academic and interpersonal behaviors among middle school students. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFeeling of loneliness mediates the relationship between screen time and academic behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFeeling of loneliness mediates the relationship between screen time and interpersonal behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe moderating effect of sense of school belonging\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSchool belonging is defined as the degree to which students perceive themselves as accepted, respected, included, and supported within the school setting (Goodenow \u0026amp; Grady, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). A substantial body of research has indicated that a strong sense of school belonging is positively linked to higher academic achievement, greater psychosocial and emotional well-being, and lower levels of mental health difficulties (Allen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Anderman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Arslan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Goodenow \u0026amp; Grady, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Pittman \u0026amp; Richmond, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). When students experience a high level of school belonging, they tend to exhibit greater enjoyment of school, increased engagement with learning tasks, and more positive attitudes toward themselves and others. These students also report more supportive and constructive interactions with both peers and adults in the school setting (Osterman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Feeling part of a valued and supportive school community can enhance students’ social behaviors and academic achievement (Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, a strong sense of belonging can contribute to students’ adherence to school norms and values, thereby helping them avoid risky behaviors (Catalano et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). This sense of belonging is particularly crucial during the middle school years, a developmental stage where students’ social and academic trajectories are actively being shaped. Developing a sense of school belonging during this period is associated with more successful school experiences and has been shown to positively influence both social skills and academic achievement (Korpershoek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Numerous studies have confirmed a significant positive relationship between school belonging and academic performance (Gaete et al., 2016; Niehaus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Won et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), while a low sense of school belonging was linked to decreased academic self-efficacy and increased risk of academic failure (Walton \u0026amp; Cohen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, emerging digital technologies, despite their benefits, have introduced new educational challenges. These technologies can undermine students' sense of belonging by weakening their social connections and adversely impacting academic outcomes. Notably, adolescents with high levels of screen time have been found to neglect their academic responsibilities (Vandewater et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). To better understand the impact of screen time on adolescents’ academic and interpersonal behaviors, it is essential to investigate potential moderating variables that may influence these relationships. Several studies suggest that screen-based activities can reduce students’ sense of connection to both peers and school (Khan \u0026amp; Burton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Fitzpatrick et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; McCahey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). While school belonging is widely recognized as a critical factor in students’ educational experiences, further research is needed to clarify its potential mediating or moderating role in the relationship between screen time and students’ academic and social behaviors. In light of this evidence, it is proposed that a strong sense of school belonging may buffer the negative academic and social behaviours caused by excessive screen time. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are presented:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSense of school belonging moderates the relationship between screen time and academic behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH9\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSense of school belonging moderates the relationship between screen time and interpersonal behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Current Study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe school environment serves as a crucial social ecosystem for adolescents, particularly in terms of peer relationships. Within this setting, students form new social connections, develop friendships, and participate in various social groups (Rubin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). When adolescents’ social needs are not adequately met, feelings of loneliness may intensify, potentially becoming a significant concern within the school context. Given the heightened importance of peer relationships during this developmental stage, loneliness—especially when coinciding with increased digital media use—emerges as a critical risk factor for student development. In this regard, the relationship between screen time and loneliness must be examined, as it has important implications for adolescents’ social and academic behaviours. However, despite its importance, loneliness is frequently neglected or relegated to a secondary role in studies focusing on screen time (Hoare et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rapid proliferation of screen media not only alters students’ patterns of social interaction but also heightens parental concerns regarding their children’s academic competencies and interpersonal skills. However, the indirect effects of increased screen time on classroom behaviors—mediated by loneliness—have not been sufficiently explored in the existing literature. Previous research has demonstrated that loneliness can negatively impact both academic engagement and peer relationships (Jobe-Shields et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Levitt et al., 1994). Against this backdrop, the present study aims to investigate the mediating role of loneliness in the relationship between middle school students’ daily screen time and their academic and interpersonal behaviors in the classroom. A further aim of the study is to examine the potential moderating role of school belonging in the relationship between screen time and classroom behaviors. It is proposed that school belonging may serve as a protective factor that attenuates the possible adverse effects of screen time on both academic and interpersonal behaviors. Indeed, a strong sense of school belonging is a foundational element that supports students’ academic and psychological development and is significantly associated with motivation, psychological resilience, and overall school success (Allen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Arslan \u0026amp; Coşkun, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Arslan \u0026amp; Renshaw, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, studies that directly examine the relationship between screen time and school belonging among adolescents remain limited. Specifically, the potential moderating role of school belonging in the relationship between screen time and classroom behavior has yet to be clearly established. To address these gaps, the present study proposes a conceptual model that seeks to explain the impact of screen time on academic and interpersonal behaviors through the mediating role of loneliness, while also testing whether school belonging moderates this relationship. Through this framework, the study aims to determine whether school belonging functions as a protective factor that can buffer the potential negative consequences of screen media use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe primary focus of this study is to identify the critical factors that support adolescents’ academic and social competencies, and to examine, from a holistic perspective, the interactive effects of both individual (internal) and environmental (external) variables—namely, screen time, loneliness, and school belonging—on classroom behaviors. As the need for social belonging becomes increasingly significant during adolescence (Tomova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), this study adopts a conceptual framework grounded in Self-Determination Theory (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), which posits that individuals are motivated to fulfill three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The satisfaction of these needs is essential for psychological well-being and healthy development (Deci \u0026amp; Vansteenkiste, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Among these needs, \u003cem\u003erelatedness\u003c/em\u003e plays a particularly crucial role during adolescence, a developmental stage marked by an intensified desire for connection and social acceptance (Ojanen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). The need for relatedness reflects the individual’s desire to form meaningful social bonds and feel a sense of belonging within a group. When this need is satisfied—such as through a strong sense of school belonging—it contributes positively to an individual’s mental health. Conversely, when the need for relatedness is unmet, feelings of loneliness may arise, which have been associated with various behavioral and psychosocial difficulties (Baumeister \u0026amp; Leary, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Baumeister, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, loneliness and school belonging can be viewed as opposing ends of a continuum defined by the extent to which the need for relatedness is fulfilled. Given that adolescents spend a significant portion of their time in school, educational settings represent a critical social context for meeting this psychological need (Encina \u0026amp; Berger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, investigating how contemporary behavioral variables such as screen time interact with the fulfillment of relatedness needs offers valuable theoretical and practical insights into adolescents’ academic and interpersonal behaviors within the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn line with the aforementioned theoretical framework, this study posits those feelings of loneliness and school belonging influence not only students’ academic behaviors but also their interpersonal interactions. This comprehensive perspective provides researchers and practitioners with a more holistic and nuanced understanding of adolescents' academic and social development. Understanding how variables such as screen time, loneliness, and school belonging manifest in classroom behaviors is crucial for developing integrative intervention strategies aimed at enhancing not only academic performance but also students’ social functioning. From this standpoint, the findings of the current study may serve as a valuable resource for educators, psychologists, and school counselors who seek to support students’ overall psychological well-being and foster their academic and social competencies. In conclusion, the present study aims to contribute to the creation of supportive educational contexts that mitigate contemporary challenges, prevent potential risks, and promote the academic and interpersonal development of students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cp\u003eUsing a cross-sectional design, this study examined the mediating role of loneliness and the moderating role of school belonging in the relationship between screen time and two types of classroom behaviors: academic and interpersonal. A correlational research model was used to estimate the predictive effects of the variables (Creswell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) with screen time as the independent variable; academic and interpersonal behaviors as the dependent variables; loneliness as the mediator; and school belonging as the moderator. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the hypothesis model based on the variables included.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eUtilizing convenience-sampling methods, this study selected 460 middle school students from three schools located in a city in Southeastern Anatolia in Türkiye. Focusing on middle school students as the target group of the study can be justified for several reasons. First, the middle school period is a critical developmental stage marked by transition to adolescence, during which cognitive development, self-awareness, social relationships and physical growth are significantly shaped. This makes middle school students an important population for exploring academic, emotional and social variables within school and classroom contexts (Lin \u0026amp; Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Second, in the Turkish education system, the middle school years serve as a transitional phase before high school, during which academic expectations and social dynamics can shift considerably. A study of this nature may provide valuable insights into how variables such as screen addiction, feelings of loneliness and sense of school belonging influence students' academic competencies and interpersonal functioning. Of the participants, 52.6% (n = 242) were male, and 47.4% (n = 218) were female. Participants’ ages ranged from 10 to 14 years, with a mean age of 12.087 years (SD = 1.0484). Regarding grade level, 16.5% (n = 242) were in the fifth grade, 40.2% (n = 185) in the sixth grade, 29.6% (n = 242) in the seventh grade, and 13.7% (n = 63) in the eighth grade.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eScreen Time Inventory\u003c/b\u003e, developed and validated by Leatherdale et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), was used to assess participants' screen time. In this study, some items of the inventory were adapted by the authors to reflect current technologies (e.g., game console, social media). Participants were asked how much time per day they typically spend doing which screen-based activities for each of the following six types of screen use: 1) Watching television programs/series-movies/cartoons etc., 2) Playing games on a phone/tablet/computer or game console, 3) Doing homework on phone/tablet/computer, 4) Talking on the phone, 5) Surfing the internet, 6) Texting, messaging on the phone or spending time on social media. The scores from these items were combined to represent the total average screen time spent by participants per day. Cronbach's Alpha and Composite Reliability (CR) of the inventory are 0.89 and 0.87, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLoneliness Scale for Children\u003c/b\u003e, developed by Asher et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e), consists of 16 items designed to measure children's feelings of loneliness. The scale was translated into Turkish by Duyan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Each item in the scale was rated using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). High scores on the scale indicate a high level of loneliness experienced; thus, as the score increases, the feeling of loneliness also increases (Cassidy \u0026amp; Asher, 1992). The Cronbach's Alpha for the scale is 0.86 and the CR value is 0.82, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eClassroom Behaviors Scale\u003c/b\u003e, developed by Caldarella et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and adapted into Turkish by the second author (n. d.) of the present study, consists of two subscales and 17-items. Academic competence and interpersonal competence. The CPS is a behavior-rating instrument designed to measures students' academic and social functioning in the classroom. The academic competence subscale consists of 11 items that measure specific academic behaviours that are critical for successful academic functioning such as homework completion, exam performance, note-taking. The interpersonal competence subscale consists of 6 items measuring interpersonal behaviors related to social functioning, including effective communication, cooperation, and asking for help (Brady et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Sample items include: “I actively participate in classes” and “I cooperate in class.” Responses are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (always) to 5 (never). Higher scores indicate higher classroom performance. Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the subscales ranged from 0.74–0.81.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSchool Belonging Scale\u003c/b\u003e developed as part of the PISA 2015 assessment and detailed in the PISA 2015 Technical Report (OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), was used to measure participants’ perceived sense of belonging to their school. The scale consists of nine items that assess students’ feelings of being accepted, respected, and valued by the school community. Responses are recorded on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree), with higher scores indicating a stronger sense of school belonging. In the current study, the scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .80 and a composite reliability (CR) value of .82.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eProcedures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e Since the participants in the study were middle school students, written consent was obtained from their parents or legal guardians prior to their participation in the study. For this purpose, the ‘Parental Consent Form’ prepared by the researchers was submitted to the relevant ethics committee and ethical approval was obtained. The form included information about ‘the purpose of the study, that participation in the study was voluntary and required parental consent, that the student could withdraw from the study at any time, and that in such a case, the student would not face any obligations.’ The information process for the research was carried out through face-to-face interviews with the students on 24–25 March and 13 April, 2025, at the schools where the students were studying. During these interviews, each student was given a parental consent form and asked to deliver it to their parents. Students were asked to return the form to their school administration within two days of receiving it (26–27 March and 15 April, 2025.).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIf parents approved their children's participation in the study, they wrote their ‘name and surname’ and ‘date’ in the section reserved for them on the form in their own handwriting and signed the form with their wet signatures. Students who did not submit the parental consent form or whose forms were incomplete or unapproved were not included in the study. The data collection process for students whose parental consent was obtained was conducted on 28 March and 16 April, 2025, respectively. Data collection activities were planned and carried out at the students' schools, in the classrooms and time slots deemed appropriate by the school administrators, based on the students' availability. Data were collected by the first author through in-person visits to three participating schools. During each visit, the purpose of the study was clearly explained to the students, and assurances of confidentiality were provided. Participation was entirely voluntary, and informed consent was obtained from all participants. Students were also informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Completion of the questionnaires took approximately 10 to 15 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe proposed model in this study was tested using the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) via the SmartPLS 4.0 (Ringle et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). PLS-SEM is less strict in its assumption of a normal distribution and is suitable for testing mixed models with small bootstrap sample sizes (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The analysis began with the evaluation of the measurement model to assess the reliability and validity of the latent construct. For the validity and reliability of the measurement model, we examined external loading, composite reliability, Cronbach's Alpha and AVE values with PLS. Outer loading, composite reliability and Cronbach's Alpha values greater than 0.7 and AVE values greater than 0.5 indicate that the measurement model is reliable and valid (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Following the confirmation of the model’s reliability and validity, we tested using 5000 resamples with structural bootstrapping to identify predictors of classroom behaviors and to test the moderator variable effect of the model.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDescriptive results\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the Kurtosis and Kurtosis tests, the data in this study were normally distributed (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The correlation analysis showed that screen time was positively correlated with the feeling of loneliness (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.224, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) and negatively correlated with all dimensions of classroom behaviors (-0.267\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;r \u0026lt; -0.311, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). Loneliness was negatively correlated with all dimensions of classroom behaviors (-0.284\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;r \u0026lt;-0.432, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). Furthermore, the sense of school belonging was significantly correlated with all study variables (-0.150\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;r \u0026lt; -0.653, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive information and correlation analysis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.224**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.267**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.311**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.250**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.284**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.432**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.653**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.572**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.366**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.452**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSSB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSkewness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.031\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKurtosis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.044\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVIF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: ** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, ST\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Screen time, LoN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Loneliness, AC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Academic behaviors, IC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Interpersonal behaviors, SSB\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Sense of school belonging\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo understand participants' screen time usage distribution across various activities, the descriptive statistics for daily screen-based activities were examined. The average daily screen time of the participants was calculated as 3.67 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.61) hours. This finding suggests that participants' screen time exceeded the recommendations set by the American Academy of Pediatrics, which recommends limiting screen use to a maximum of two hours per day for school-aged children (Hill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Among the various screen-related activities, the highest average daily screen time usage was reported for \u0026ldquo;playing games on a phone, tablet, computer, or game console\u0026rdquo; (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;51.51 minutes, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;41.78). This was followed by \u0026ldquo;watching television programs, series, movies, or cartoons\u0026rdquo; (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;49.13 minutes, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;38.66), and \u0026ldquo;texting, messaging on the phone, or spending time on social media\u0026rdquo; (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;39.13 minutes, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;38.08). Conversely, \u0026ldquo;talking on the phone\u0026rdquo; accounted for the lowest average daily screen time (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18.37 minutes, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24.76).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings highlight the specific screen-based activities that contributed the most to overall screen time use among participants and provide a foundation for examining their potential associations with loneliness, school belonging, and type of classroom behaviors. As seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the box plot shows the distribution of daily screen time by gender. The horizontal lines within the boxes represent group averages. Girls show a slightly higher median screen time and a wider interquartile range compared to boys. Both groups have similar minimum values, while the maximum screen time is higher for girls. Despite these visual differences, no statistically significant differences were found in the mean daily screen time scores based on gender (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMeasurement model\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the measurement model (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), we initially examined the outer loading values for the constructs in each factor. For the loneliness factor, the outer loading of LoN3 was 0.541, which does not meet the optimal benchmark of 0.705 suggested by Hair et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). However, we decided to keep this item because its loading exceeded the minimum acceptable level of 0.50 (Hair et al., 2017) and removed this item and tested the measurement model again, the convergent validity and internal consistency reliability values (i.e., Average variance extracted, Cronbach's Alpha, Composite reliability, outer loading) decreased. Across all constructs, outer loading values for each construct in the measurement model ranged from 0.545 to 0.898.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs seen in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha coefficients ranged from 0.705 to 0.811, and the composite reliability (CR) values were between 0.861 and 0.914, all exceeding the recommended 0.80 threshold, indicating satisfactory internal consistency. Convergent validity was confirmed, with average variance extracted (AVE) values above 0.50 for all constructs (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Collinearity statistics (VIF values) for the indicators in each factor ranged from 1.218 to 2.975, remaining well below the threshold of 3, indicating no multicollinearity concerns (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These results support that multicollinearity poses no threat. Furthermore, the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) value calculated to determine whether the factors meet the discriminant validity assumption is between 0.394 and 0.794 under the threshold value of 0.90 (Ringle et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These results demonstrate that the measurement model possesses acceptable reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOuter Loadings, Internal Consistency and Average Variance Extracted\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConstruct\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFactor loading\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003erho_A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCR\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAVE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScreen time (ST)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.719\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.877\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.774\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.873\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.596\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.801\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.776\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.743\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.798\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.632\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"15\" rowspan=\"16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoneliness (LoN)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.784\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"15\" rowspan=\"16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.933\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"15\" rowspan=\"16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.821\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"15\" rowspan=\"16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.831\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"15\" rowspan=\"16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.551\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.705\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.710\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.757\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.834\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.771\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.802\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.865\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.760\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.873\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.705\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.740\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.812\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.723\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.840\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.819\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"8\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSense of school belonging (SSB)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSSB1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.745\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"8\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.877\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"8\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.769\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"8\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.875\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"8\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.632\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSSB2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.712\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSSB3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.842\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSSB4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.755\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSSB5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.803\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSSB6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.721\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSSB7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.809\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSSB8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.798\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSSB9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.795\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic behaviors (AB)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.735\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.826\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.805\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.869\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.578\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.701\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.768\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.754\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.701\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.715\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.723\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.702\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.712\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.791\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.751\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterpersonal behaviors (IB)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIB1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.735\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.826\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.805\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.812\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.650\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIB2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.735\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIB3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.701\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIB4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.768\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIB5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.754\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIB6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.701\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIB7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.715\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMediation analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing the validation of the measurement model, the hypothesized relationships were tested. These included the relationship between screen time and feeling of loneliness, the effect of loneliness on types of classroom behaviors, the indirect effects of screen time on classroom behaviors mediated by loneliness, and the moderating effect of school belonging in the relationship between screen time and classroom behaviors. The structural model was evaluated using the Partial Least Squares (PLS) algorithm, with a bootstrapping procedure based on 5000 resamples to ensure the robustness of the estimates. Path coefficients (β), t-values, p-values, and 95% confidence intervals served as the main statistical measures for testing the hypotheses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs seen in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the results indicate that screen time significantly positively predicts the feeling of loneliness β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.225, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.000), thereby supporting Hypothesis 1. Furthermore, screen time significantly directly predicted academic behaviors (β = -0.268, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.000), but did not predict interpersonal behaviors (β = -0.063, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.175), supporting Hypothesis 3 and rejecting Hypothesis 2. The feeling of loneliness significantly negatively predicted both academic behaviors (β = -0.280, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.000) and interpersonal behaviors (β =- 0.507 p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.000), supporting Hypotheses 4 and 5. Regarding the indirect effects, screen time significantly indirectly predicted both academic behaviors (β = -0.82, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002) and interpersonal behaviors (β = -0.114, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.000) through the mediation of loneliness, thus supporting Hypothesis 6 and 7.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHypotheses testing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePath\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoefficient\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDirect effect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST -\u0026gt;LoN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.225\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.873\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST -\u0026gt;AB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.268\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.157\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST -\u0026gt;IB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.063\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.356\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.175\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN -\u0026gt;AB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.280\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoN -\u0026gt;IB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.507\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.079\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMediation effect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST -\u0026gt;LoN -\u0026gt;AB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.082\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.146\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST -\u0026gt;LoN -\u0026gt;IB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.114\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.702\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInteraction effect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST x SSB -\u0026gt;AB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.148\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.153\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST x SSB -\u0026gt;IB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.571\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.568\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. ST\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Screen time use, LoN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Loneliness, AB\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Academic behaviors, IB\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Interpersonal behaviors, SSB\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Sense of school belonging\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eModeration analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe moderating effect of sense of belonging to school on the relationship between screen time and academic behaviors was significant (β = -0.148, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.031), supporting Hypothesis 8. The interaction indicates that the negative effect of screen time on academic behaviors was strongest among students with low levels of sense of school belonging. Specifically, for these students, high screen time was associated with the lowest levels of academic behaviors. Conversely, students with a high sense of school belonging demonstrated relatively higher levels of academic behaviors, even with increased screen time. This suggests that a strong sense of belonging to school serves as a protective factor, mitigating the adverse effects of excessive screen time on students\u0026rsquo; academic behaviors in the classroom. Figure\u0026nbsp;3 shows that the negative slopes were significant for students with low (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3.433, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and medium (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3.433, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) levels of school belonging, but not for those with high school belonging (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.193, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;4, school belonging did not moderate the relationship between screen time and interpersonal behaviors (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), indicating that Hypothesis 9 was not supported. Specifically, the levels of sense of belonging to school\u0026mdash;low, medium, or high\u0026mdash;did not significantly influence this relationship. This suggests that the effect of screen time on interpersonal behaviors remains consistent regardless of students' sense of school belonging.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study sheds light on the multiple relationships between screen time usage, feeling of loneliness, sense of school belonging, and types of classroom behaviors among middle school students. In the study, how screen time, loneliness, and school belonging predict academic and interpersonal behaviours as dimensions of classroom behaviours was examined within a comprehensive structural model that included both mediating and moderating effects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirstly, the results support Hypothesis 1, indicating a significant and positive relationship between screen time and feelings of loneliness. This finding is consistent with previous research showing that increased screen media use may promote feelings of social isolation, weaken social connectedness, and reduce opportunities for face-to-face interaction (Twenge \u0026amp; Campbell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Skalicka et al., 2019). MacDonald et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) found a significant relationship between screen time and loneliness in adolescents in their longitudinal study. This longitudinal study shows that screen time can increase feelings of loneliness and that this effect persists over time. Similarly, Maftei et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) also stated that loneliness increases problematic smartphone use and that this relationship is moderated by the individual's emotional regulation skills. When the results and the literature are evaluated together, it can be concluded that the replacement of peer relationships with screen time can be particularly harmful during early adolescence, when social integration is particularly pronounced (Tomova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Indeed, researchers have pointed out that screen time and sleep displacement lasting longer than three months increase the depressive effects of adolescents, who are characterised by their sleep patterns in biological and sociological terms (H\u0026ouml;kby et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These findings highlight concerns that, despite the ease of communication via screens, excessive or passive use can paradoxically hinder adolescents' emotional well-being and social participation. The findings are also valuable in that they show that the effect of screen time on children's feelings of loneliness is complex and multifaceted.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondly, the results related to Hypotheses 2 and 3 indicate that while screen time has a significant direct effect on academic behaviors, it does not have a significant direct effect on interpersonal behaviors. This finding has important implications from both a theoretical and practical perspective. Primarily, the results obtained are consistent with the literature, but in some respects, they offer unique contributions to the literature. This is consistent with the literature showing that screen time negatively affects academic achievement and that there is a relationship between increased screen use and decreased academic achievement (Kritihika \u0026amp; Vasantha, 2013; OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Sharif \u0026amp; Sargent, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Tremblay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Interestingly, this study found no direct relationship between screen time and interpersonal behaviours, but identified a strong indirect negative effect through loneliness. This suggests that screen time may not directly affect students\u0026rsquo; social interaction skills, but rather that the loneliness fostered by screen time weakens students\u0026rsquo; desire or ability to engage in interpersonal interaction in the classroom. Indeed, Bian and Leung (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) concluded in their study with Chinese students that students with high levels of loneliness are more likely to use their smartphones in an addictive manner. The findings reveal that these theoretically important distinctions indicate that interventions targeting screen media use should target not only academic behaviours but also social behaviours.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThirdly, the findings support Hypotheses 4 and 5, indicating that feelings of loneliness are significant negative predictors of both academic and interpersonal behaviors. This finding is consistent with research results suggesting that loneliness during adolescence weakens students' cognitive and social functioning (Christiansen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Hang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Allen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) emphasised that social acceptance and peer support are among the determinants of active participation and academic motivation in school environments, particularly among students in adolescence. Loneliness limits students' classroom interactions; it weakens interpersonal behaviours such as cooperation, helpfulness and effective communication, and reduces their tendency to take responsibility for academic tasks (Maes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In this context, loneliness can be considered not only a psychological condition but also a behavioural outcome that can be observed in the classroom environment. Indeed, according to self-determination theory, failure to meet the need for relatedness within the social context of the class can lead to a decline in academic adjustment and an increase in social dissatisfaction, which can negatively affect students' overall school performance (Baumeister \u0026amp; Leary, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Tomova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These results are particularly worrying when considered in relation to adolescence. During this developmental period, an increase in the amount of time students spend alone in front of screens, regardless of the type of screen, intensifies media use, which can lead to increased levels of loneliness and have negative effects on academic behaviours and interpersonal relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFourthly, the results related to Hypotheses 6 and 7 indicate that loneliness serves as a mediator in the relationship between screen time and both academic and interpersonal behaviors. In other words, time spent in front of a screen has an indirect and negative effect on both types of classroom behaviours through feelings of loneliness. Adolescents' social needs are increasing. According to Self-Determination Theory (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), which argues that individuals are motivated to satisfy three basic psychological needs\u0026mdash;autonomy, competence, and relatedness\u0026mdash;the more successfully social needs are met, the less loneliness there is. This finding supports socio-emotional development models that suggest that feelings of belonging and attachment play a central role in adolescents' social and academic development (Guay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Jobe-Shields et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The fact that loneliness significantly predicts both academic and interpersonal behaviours shows that emotional well-being is not merely a consequence but also an important factor that influences students' functioning in social and academic contexts. Loneliness among adolescents increases problematic internet or smartphone use, which in turn weakens students' social relationships and leads to social media addiction (Maftei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Current findings show that loneliness is not just an emotional state, but also affects academic performance through emotional states.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, the findings showed that school belonging moderated the relationship between screen time and academic behaviours but did not play a moderating role in the relationship between screen time and interpersonal behaviours (Hypotheses 8 and 9). More specifically, the negative impact of screen time on academic behaviours is less pronounced among students with a strong sense of school belonging, whereas those with low school belonging and high screen time exhibit the lowest levels of academic behaviours. These results suggest that declining school belonging may make students more vulnerable to the negative effects of excessive screen use on academic behaviours. In particular, students with a strong sense of belonging to their school appear to be more resilient in terms of academic performance despite increased screen time. Interestingly, school belonging did not mitigate the relationship between screen time and interpersonal behaviours, regardless of students' levels of belonging (H9). This situation may indicate that the interpersonal aspects of class dynamics are influenced less by institutional affiliation and more by individual or relational factors. In other words, although school belonging seems to buffer the negative effects of screen time on academic engagement, it does not appear to have a similar protective effect on interpersonal behaviours. This finding is consistent with self-determination theory and ecological systems models, which suggest that perceived commitment and belonging in the school environment can act as a buffer against external stressors (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). A strong sense of belonging can provide students with psychological resources that promote academic resilience in the face of potential risks such as excessive screen exposure. In addition, large-scale data obtained from Australian adolescents (McCahey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that frequent use of information technology (IT) for school-related tasks predicted higher levels of school belonging, while frequent IT use for leisure time was associated with lower school belonging. This situation shows that there is a two-way relationship between screen time and school belonging, and that both the purpose of screen usage and the level of belonging jointly affect educational outcomes. Taken together, these findings highlight the nuanced and context-dependent nature of screen-based activities in adolescents' academic and social development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations and Implications\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study has several limitations. First, the cross-sectional nature of the study design limits us from making causal inferences between screen time, loneliness, school belonging, and types of classroom behaviours. Longitudinal studies are needed to clarify the temporal and directional nature of these relationships. Secondly, the data is based on students' perceptions, self-reported measurements, and these measurements may be inaccurate or incomplete in areas such as screen time. Furthermore, screen time is treated as a general concept, and different activities such as watching television, using social media, and playing video games are not distinguished. This situation has made it difficult to assess the effects of screen time in detail. Thirdly, this study examined the interactions between screen time, loneliness, and class performance dimensions. However, other external factors or uncontrollable variables may have influenced loneliness and classroom behaviours. Furthermore, it has not taken into account the content and context of screen use. This may affect psychological and behavioural outcomes differently. This study was conducted with adolescents in middle school. This model can also be tested on high school students in different stages of adolescence. Finally, the study is limited to Turkish middle school students. Similar studies conducted with different age groups (e.g., high school or university students) and in different cultural contexts are important for testing the generalisability of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study revealed that feelings of loneliness play a significant mediating role in the relationship between screen time and types of classroom behaviours in a sample of middle school students. Findings show that increased screen time increases feelings of loneliness among students and may reduce both academic and interpersonal classroom functioning. No direct effect of screen time on interpersonal behaviours was observed, but it was found that this effect becomes significant indirectly through loneliness. In addition, the moderating effect of school belonging on the relationship between screen time and academic behaviours reveals that a strong school environment plays a protective role in reducing the potential risks associated with high screen exposure. In this context, promoting a sense of belonging to school is an important potential protective factor against the negative academic effects of excessive screen time usage.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings emphasise the importance of addressing both individual psychological needs (e.g., reducing loneliness) and contextual factors (e.g., strengthening ties to school) in efforts to improve aspects of classroom behaviours. Future studies should examine these relationships in greater detail and investigate additional contextual or psychological variables that may shape the effects of screen media or digital technologies on adolescent development. The study contributes to the literature by revealing that loneliness and school belonging play critical roles in shaping classroom behaviours among students who spend a lot of time in front of screens. The findings highlight the importance of strengthening school ties and meeting students' psychosocial needs, particularly in the digital age, in terms of academic and social behaviours. Reducing the sense of loneliness affected by screen time can be effective in improving academic and interpersonal behaviors in class settings. In this respect, the loneliness variable can be included in the studies to be conducted in the fields of educational and personal social guidance. It may be useful to include activities to reduce the use of screen time and to cope with the feeling of loneliness caused by screen time in group guidance activities. In addition, interventions to increase school belonging may be effective in positively changing academic behaviors caused by screen time.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted with a sample of middle school students in Türkiye. Ethical approval was obtained from the ‘Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee of Hasan Kalyoncu University of the Republic of Türkiye (Date of approval 28.02.2025, meeting number 2025 -3, Approval No: E-97105791-050.04-76371). All legal and ethical requirements were met, and written informed consent was obtained from parents or legal guardians in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors acknowledge that they received no external funding in support of this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthors’ contributions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNCA, İİ, and YK: Writing, Review \u0026amp; Editing. NCA: Conceptualization, Data collection Investigation, İİ: Resources, Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Visualization and analysis. YK: Writing- Original draft preparation. All authors read and approved the final manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAllen, K. A., Kern, M. L., Vella-Brodrick, D., \u0026amp; Waters, L. (2017). School values: A comparison of academic motivation, mental health promotion, and school belonging with student achievement. \u003cem\u003eThe Educational and Developmental Psychologist\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e34\u003c/em\u003e(1), 31-47.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAllen, K., Kern, M. L., Vella-Brodrick, D., Hattie, J., \u0026amp; Waters, L. (2018). 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Relationship between loneliness, social support and smartphone addiction among Chinese college students: A moderated mediation model. \u003cem\u003eChildren and Youth Services Review, 139\u003c/em\u003e, Article 106505 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106505\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Loneliness, screen time, school belonging, classroom behaviours, middle school students","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6939520/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6939520/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the relationships between daily screen time use, feelings of loneliness, sense of school belonging, and types of classroom behaviors among middle school students. Specifically, it examined the mediating role of loneliness in the relationship between screen time and both academic and interpersonal behaviors, as well as the moderating role of school belonging in these relationships. Participants included 460 middle school students (242 males, 218 females, mean age =12.087 years) from Türkiye. The results indicated that increased screen time was positively associated with feelings of loneliness. Screen time also had a direct negative effect on academic behaviors, but no direct effect on interpersonal behaviors. Loneliness negatively predicted both academic and interpersonal behaviors, with a more pronounced effect on interpersonal behaviors. Moreover, loneliness mediated the relationship between screen time and both types of classroom behaviors. School belonging moderated the relationship between screen time and academic behaviors only, indicating that the negative relationship between screen time and academic behaviors was more pronounced among students with a lower sense of school belonging.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The relationship between screen time and classroom behaviors: Mediating role of loneliness and moderating role of school belonging","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-01 09:24:18","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6939520/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1e14af2c-bacc-423f-84c7-49ce880a2c3f","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 1st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":53639069,"name":"Social science/Education"},{"id":53639070,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-12T09:38:37+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-01 09:24:18","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6939520","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6939520","identity":"rs-6939520","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}