Strength and Durability Characteristics of Concrete Blended with Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) in Sulphate Environments

Strength and Durability Characteristics of Concrete Blended with Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) in Sulphate Environments | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Strength and Durability Characteristics of Concrete Blended with Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) in Sulphate Environments Esan Martins Taiwo This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4008860/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The research investigated the impact of cowbone ash blended cement concrete (CBABC) on compressive strength, considering various mix ratios and curing periods. The study involved several phases: production of cowbone ash (CBA) from waste cowbones, characterization of CBA's physical and chemical properties, and formulation of CBABC mixes with 0%, 5%, and 10% CBA as partial replacements of cement. Concrete samples were prepared at ratios of 1:2:4 and 1:3:6 and cured for 7, 14, and 28 days. Cubic CBAC specimens sized 100mm by 100mm by 100mm underwent testing for compressive strength under both aggressive and non-aggressive conditions after 7, 14 and 28-days curing period. Analysis of oxide composition revealed a high calcium oxide content in CBA, constituting 68.34% by weight. With increasing CBA proportion, CBAC mixes showed enhanced workability. Under water curing at 28 days curing conditions, CBAC concrete exhibited average compressive strengths of 12.47 N/mm², 26.34 N/mm² and 20.34 N/mm² for 0%, 5% and 10% CBA content, respectively. Upon exposure to aggressive conditions, both conventional concrete (0% CBA) and CBABC concrete experienced decreased compressive strength. Notably, the CBABC mix with 5% CBA displayed greater resistance to aggressive conditions compared to other mixes. In conclusion, CBABC with 5% CBA replacement demonstrates potential for application in aggressive environments, particularly in Sodium Sulphate (Na 2 SO 4 ), offering a durable alternative to conventional Grade C25 concrete mixes. cowbone ash blended cement concrete compressive strength aggressive environments Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4) and Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction In recent years, the production of concrete has raised concerns due to the depletion of raw materials and its environmental impact. Concrete, a vital construction material globally, heavily relies on aggregates, comprising about 75% of its volume. The cost of concrete production primarily hinges on its constituents (Odeyemi et al., 2019 ). Aggregates play a pivotal role in concrete strength development (Haj Seiyed Taghia et al., 2021; Olofinnade et al., 2023 ). However, the escalating cost of natural aggregates has hindered infrastructure development in many emerging countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa (Danso, 2016 ). This underscores the urgency to explore alternative construction materials for affordable and sustainable housing, aligning with Sustainable Development Goal 11 aimed at fostering safe and sustainable cities and communities. High-performance concrete (HPC) has emerged as a promising solution, offering superior strength, durability, and workability (Ofwa, 2022 ). HPC is characterized by specific properties that surpass those of conventional concrete (Hamada et al., 2022 ). Achieving HPC involves meticulous selection and proportioning of ingredients to enhance strength, durability, and reduce porosity (Chahar & Pal, 2023 ). However, traditional concrete manufacturing processes contribute significantly to environmental degradation, with cement production alone responsible for 5% of global CO2 emissions (Lehne & Preston, 2018 ). Mitigating these environmental impacts necessitates reducing energy consumption and adopting alternative materials like Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) (Mohammadi & Ramezanianpour, 2023 ; Seraj, 2014 ). Efforts to develop sustainable cementitious systems have led to the exploration of SCMs such as fly ash, silica fume, rice husk ash, and metakaolin (Jhatial et al., 2023 ). These materials can partially replace cement while improving concrete properties (Menhosh, 2018). Recent literature (Hooton, 2019 ; Neville, 2011 ) suggests utilizing pozzolan blended cement or blast furnace slag blended cement to enhance concrete resistance in aggressive environments. These alternatives aim to decrease the presence of Ca(OH) 2 in hydrated cement paste. A novel addition to this approach is the incorporation of cow bone ash (CBA) as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete production. Studies such as those referenced in Akinyele et al. ( 2016 ) and Varma et al. ( 2016 ) indicate a significant increase in compressive strength with an optimal 10% replacement of cement with CBA. The partial replacement of cement with CBA is anticipated to reduce the quantity of Ca(OH) 2 due to its chemical composition. Additionally, CBA typically contains a high concentration of calcium oxide (CaO)(Getahun & Bewket, 2021 ; Okeyinka et al., 2018 ). Bone ash has emerged as a lightweight aggregate with properties suitable for lightweight concrete production (Akinyele et al., 2020 ; Auwal et al., 2022 ). Its utilization presents an opportunity for sustainable waste management and cost-effective concrete production. However, the performance of bone ash blended concrete in sulphate-rich environments remains inadequately understood. This study aims to investigate the strength and durability properties of bone ash blended concrete in sulphate environments. By examining its chemical properties, mechanical performance, and durability under sulphate exposure, the study seeks to evaluate the viability of cow-bone ash blended concrete as a sustainable construction material. The research is limited to assessing bone ash at varying replacement levels in concrete mixtures, considering specific curing ages and environmental conditions. Through comprehensive testing and analysis, the study endeavors to contribute insights into the potential of cow-bone ash as a sustainable alternative in concrete production. 2. Experimental Program 2.1 Materials Cement: The cement utilized was ordinary Portland cement (grade 43), devoid of any lumps, meeting all the specifications outlined in (McCarthy & Dhir, 2005 ). Cow-bone Ash (CBA): The CBA utilized in this investigation was systematically derived from locally sourced cow bones. The process involved washing the cow bones to eliminate impurities, drying them until surface-dry, heating them in a muffle furnace at a temperature of 915°C (within the reactivity temperature range), and grinding the heated bones into a powdery ash. The resulting CBA underwent sieving through BS sieve No. 200, and its oxide composition was analyzed via X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) testing. Furthermore, particle size distribution, bulk density, and specific gravity of the CBA were determined in accordance with (Standard, 1997 ). Fine Aggregate and Coarse Aggregate: Locally available sand, conforming to concrete production standards, was utilized as the fine aggregate in this study. Crushed granite, with a particle size of 20mm meeting the requirements specified in (No, 1992 ) for concrete production, served as the coarse aggregate. Water: Water plays a crucial role in the concrete mixing process, as it greatly influences the final strength and integrity of the concrete. Achieving the optimal amount of water is essential for ensuring the quality of the mix. Distilled water, meeting the specifications outlined by (Babu et al., 2018 ; Obilade, 2014 ), was consistently utilized for blending the concrete constituents. This same grade of water was employed for both curing the concrete cubes under normal conditions and preparing acidic solutions. In concrete mixing, water serves to fill the interstitial spaces among the particles, essentially lubricating them by creating a thin film of water between them. Augmenting the water content enhances fluidity and facilitates easier compaction of the concrete. However, excessive water reduces cohesion, promoting segregation and bleeding, consequently compromising concrete strength. Thus, throughout the project, a water-to-cement ratio of 0.5 was meticulously maintained. The water utilized for the concrete mix was drawn from the tank located in the concrete technology laboratory, ensuring its portability and suitability for the task at hand. 2.2 Mixture proportions The objective of this experiment is to assess the strength and durability properties of concrete by substituting Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) with Cow-Bone Ash (CBA). The study utilizes 100×100×100mm cubes for mixing, curing, and testing. The concrete mix incorporates single-sized 12mm granite as coarse aggregate and local river sand as fine aggregate. The mix proportions are formulated with a water-cement ratio of 0.5, maintaining consistent aggregate content across all mixes while varying the percentage of OPC replaced by Cow-Bone Ash (0%, 5%, and 10%). Two mix ratios, 1:2:4 and 1:3:6, are employed. For each mix ratio (1:2:4 and 1:3:6), the weights of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water are calculated based on the desired water-cement ratio and Bone Ash replacement percentages. Table I: Weight of ingredients of one concrete cube MIX RATIO CEMENT (KG) FINE AGGREGATE (KG) COARSE AGGREGATE (KG) WATER (ML) 1:2:4 0.34 0.69 1.37 170 1:3:6 0.24 0.72 1.44 130 Table II: Weight of cow-bone ash CBA content as a replacement CBA REPLACEMENT % MIX RATIO 1:2:4 1:3:6 CEMENT (kg) BONE ASH (kg) CEMENT (kg) Cow-bone ASH (kg) 0 0.34 0 0.24 0 5 0.32 0.017 0.23 0.012 10 0.31 0.034 0.22 0.024 2.3. Preparation of Test Specimens Cube moulds (100 x 100 x 100mm) are used for compressive testing, while a frustum of a cone is used for the slump test. Moulds are prepared according to BS1881 standards to ensure uniformity and accuracy. Wooden moulds, coated with engine oil for easy de-moulding and surface finish, are utilized for casting. After mixing, the fresh concrete is tested for workability (slump test) and cast into the moulds in three layers, compacted using a 25mm diameter steel rod. The specimens are then cured in a controlled environment at 21°C and relative humidity above 70%. After 24 hours, the specimens are de-moulded and subjected to water and sulphate solution curing until the testing date. Compressive strength tests are conducted at 7, 14, and 28 days according to British Standard Institution (BSI) guidelines. 2.4. Mixing Process Mixing is conducted manually using the hand-mixing method. Components are weighed accurately and mixed in the specified sequence to ensure homogeneity. 2.5 Test procedures 1. The slump test serves as an indicator of the consistency of fresh concrete and helps to detect variations in the uniformity of concrete mix fluidity. In this study, the slump test was conducted following the guidelines outlined in (Bartos, 2013 ). Its purpose was to assess the impact of CBA blended cement on the workability of concrete mixes. 2. The compressive strength test stands out as one of the most crucial tests for concrete, offering comprehensive insights into its characteristics. Conducted at the Concrete Laboratory of the Building Technology Department, Federal Polytechnic Ede, Osun State, this test provides a definitive assessment of the quality of concrete work. The apparatus used in this test includes a compressive testing machine, along with wooden moulds sized at 100mm x 100mm x 100mm, a shovel, trowel for mixing, and a tamping rod for compaction. The mixing process involves measuring the required raw materials and blending cement and fine aggregate on a water-tight, non-absorbent platform until achieving a uniform color. Coarse aggregate is then added and mixed until uniformly distributed. Water is gradually added and mixed until the concrete reaches the desired consistency. Sampling begins by cleaning the moulds and applying oil to them. Concrete is then filled into the moulds in 5cm thick layers and compacted using the tamping rod, with each layer compacted 25 times. The top surface is leveled and smoothed with a trowel for uniformity. Curing of the test specimens involves storing them in moist air for 24 hours. After this period, the specimens are marked, removed from the moulds, and submerged in clear fresh water mixed with Sodium Sulphate (Na 2 SO 4 ) and Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO 4 ) until they are ready for testing. The compression testing procedure begins by removing the specimen from water after the specified curing time and allowing it to dry. The weight of the specimen is measured, and the bearing surface of the testing machine is cleaned. The specimen is then placed in the machine, ensuring that the load is applied to the opposite sides of the cast cubes. It is aligned centrally on the base plate of the machine, and the movable portion is gently rotated by hand to touch the top surface of the specimen. The load is applied gradually and continuously at a rate of 140kg/cm²/minute until the specimen fails. The maximum load is recorded, and any unusual features in the type of failure are noted. Finally, the average of these specimens provides the crushing strength of concrete, while dividing the maximum compressive load at failure by the area of the specimen gives the compressive strength of concrete. 3. Tests results and discussion This section discusses the findings derived from the chemical characterization of the material, the slump test, and the compressive strength tests. 3.1 Chemical and Physical Properties of CBA The cementitious nature of calcined ash is typically determined by its oxide composition. Upon analyzing the chemical composition of CBA (see Table III), it was observed that the combined percentage of Iron oxide (Fe 2 O 3 = 0.21%), aluminium oxide (Al 2 O 3 = 8.14%), and silicon dioxide (SiO 2 = 10.57%) amounted to 18.92%. This falls short of the 70% minimum requirement suggested by Astm, ( 1985 ) for a material to be classified as pozzolana. Despite not meeting the pozzolanic material criteria, CBA can be recognized as a cementitious filler or additive due to its substantial CaO content, which stands at 68.34% by weight. The specific gravity and bulk density measurements for CBA were determined to be 1.29 and 1.13g/cm 3 , respectively. Notably, the specific gravity of CBA is lower than that of conventional cement, which typically registers at 3.15 (Neville, 2011 ). Consequently, CBA can be characterized as a lightweight and voluminous substance. It is advisable to batch CBA by weight rather than volume when incorporating it as a supplementary cementitious material. This recommendation is made because a greater volume of CBA would be required to replace an equal weight of cement in concrete. Table III: Chemical Properties of CBA S/N Parameter Bone Ash (%) 1 SiO 2 10.57 2 Al 2 O 3 8.14 3 Fe 2 O 3 0.21 4 CaO 68.34 5 MgO 1.20 6 SO 3 0.97 7 Na 2 O -0.600 8 K 2 O 0.11 9 LOI 0.67 3.2 Slump values for concrete made with a blend of cow-bones ash and cement. Table IV presents the outcomes of the slump test conducted on fresh concrete incorporating various percentages of CBA. The data illustrates a consistent trend: as the CBA content increases, so does the slump value of the concrete mixes. The plain cement concrete (PCC) mixture devoid of CBA exhibited a 30mm slump value, whereas the CBABC blends containing 5%, and 10% CBA content demonstrated 38mm, and 40mm slump values, respectively. The slump value of freshly mixed concrete serves as an indicator of its flow and overall workability. The escalating slump values with higher CBA content suggest that the mixes became more fluid and easier to work with. This phenomenon can be attributed to the superior fineness and lower specific gravity of CBA in comparison to cement. These findings echo those of previous research (Okeyinka et al., 2018 ; Olutaiwo et al., 2018 ), which also noted a steady improvement in concrete workability with incremental CBA addition. Across all mixtures investigated in this study, the slump values ranged from 30mm to 40mm, categorizing them as slump S1 according to (EN, 2000 ). Table 1 V: Slump Test Results of CBA Blended with Cement Concrete Designation % Replacement of bone ash (CBA) Water/Binder ratio Slump(mm) PCC 0 0 0.5 30 CBAC 5 5 0.5 38 CBAC 10 10 0.5 40 3.3 Compressive strength Results 3.3.1 Compressive Strength for Specimen of 7 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:2:4 (N/mm2) Table V summarizes the 7-day average the compressive strength results for concrete specimens with varying percentages of Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) replacement after 7 days of curing in a mix ratio of 1:2:4. The values are given in N/mm 2 . Notably, PCC 0 (no replacement) demonstrates the highest compressive strength across all environments, with values of 9.03 N/mm2 in water, 7.11 N/mm 2 in MgSO 4 (Magnesium Sulphate), and 8.33 N/mm 2 in Na 2 SO 4 (Sodium Sulphate). As the CBA replacement percentage increases (CBAC 5 and CBAC 10), a gradual decline in compressive strength is observed in all environments, indicating a potential trade-off between CBAC incorporation and compressive strength. After 7 days of exposure to MgSO 4 (Magnesium Sulphate), and Na 2 SO 4 (Sodium Sulphate) solutions, CBABC5 displayed compressive strengths of 6.02 N/mm2 and 7.14 N/mm2, representing 86% and 55% of its original strength when cured in water. Likewise, after 7 days of curing in MgSO 4 (Magnesium Sulphate), and Na 2 SO 4 (Sodium Sulphate), CBABC10 exhibited strengths at 39% of their original strengths. Table V: Compressive Strength for Specimen of 7 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:2:4 (N/mm2) Concrete Designation % Replacement of bone ash (CBA) Water (N/mm 2 ) MgSO 4 (N/mm 2 ) Na 2 SO 4 (N/mm 2 ) PCC 0 0 9.03 7.11 8.33 CBAC 5 5 8.05 6.02 7.14 CBAC 10 10 7.27 6.19 6.29 The associated Fig. 1 visually represents the trend in compressive strength for concrete specimens with different percentages of CBA replacement after 7 days of soaking. 3.3.2 Compressive Strength for Specimen of 28 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:2:4 (N/mm2) Table VI presents the compressive strength of concrete specimens with varying Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) replacement percentages after 28 days of curing in a 1:2:4 mix ratio. The N/mm 2 values reveal that as the CBAC replacement increases (CBAC 5 and CBAC 10), there is a consistent increase in compressive strength across all environments. The results indicate that the compressive strength initially increases as the CBAC content rises from 0–5%. However, at 10%, the strength decreases. Among all the mixes, the 5% CBAC replacement level appears to be the most optimal, with the CBABC5 mix exhibiting 26.34 higher average compressive strength compared to the PCC and CBABC10 mixes, respectively. The average compressive strength of CBABC5 meets the standard cube compressive strength of 25N/mm² recommended by the British standard for Grade C25/C30 concrete at a 28-day curing age. This result aligns with previous studies, indicating that at 5% CBAC content, CBA blended cement concrete can achieve higher compressive strength compared to conventional Grade C25 concrete. Additionally, the average compressive strength of 20.34 N/mm² obtained at a 10% replacement level suggests that CBA can be effectively used up to 10% replacement level in cement for the production of lightweight concrete. This could be attributed to the high CaO content of the CBA, which may contribute to a slight strength increase by reducing the total pore volume through the conversion of liquid water to solid form. Table VII: Compressive Strength for Specimen of 28 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:2:4 (N/mm2) Concrete Designation % Replacement of bone ash (CBA) Water (N/mm 2 ) MgSO 4 (N/mm 2 ) Na 2 SO 4 (N/mm 2 ) PCC 0 0 12.57 11.95 11.41 CBAC 5 5 26.34 24.34 25.61 CBAC 10 10 20.34 19.31 16.64 The accompanying Fig. 2 visually represents the trend in compressive strength for concrete specimens with varying BA replacement percentages after a 28-day soaking period. 3.3.3 Compressive Strength for Specimen of 7 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:3:6 (N/mm 2 ) Table VIII provides a comprehensive overview of the compressive strength characteristics of concrete specimens subjected to a 7-day curing period, with varying percentages of cow-bone ash replacement (CBA) in the concrete mix ratio of 1:3:6. The concrete mix designations include "PCC 0" denoting Plain Cement Concrete with 0% bone ash replacement, "CBAC 5" with 5% replacement, and "CBAC 10" with 10% replacement. Across the specimens, the percentage replacement of bone ash ranges from 0–10%. Compressive strength values are measured in N/mm² and are recorded under different curing conditions, specifically water, magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), and sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) solutions. In terms of compressive strength, the specimens exhibit varying performance. For instance, under water curing, the compressive strength of the specimens ranges from 17.92 N/mm² for PCC 0 to 13.05 N/mm² for CBAC 10. Similarly, exposure to magnesium sulfate and sodium sulfate solutions yields different compressive strengths across the specimens. CBAC 5 demonstrates the highest compressive strength, with 18.32 N/mm 2 in water, 11.01 N/mm 2 in MgSO 4 (Magnesium Sulphate), and 10.87 N/mm 2 in Na 2 SO 4 (Sodium Sulphate). These results offer insights into the effects of bone ash replacement on the compressive strength properties of concrete, highlighting variations in performance under different curing environments. Such data aids in understanding the potential applications and limitations of concrete mixes with bone ash replacements, contributing to informed decision-making in construction and material engineering contexts. Table VIII Compressive Strength for Specimen of 7 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:3:6 (N/mm2) Concrete Designation % Replacement of bone ash (CBA) Water (N/mm 2 ) MgSO 4 (N/mm 2 ) Na 2 SO 4 (N/mm 2 ) PCC 0 0 17.92 9.81 11.71 CBAC 5 5 18.32 11.01 10.87 CBAC 10 10 13.05 9.60 10.31 The accompanying Fig. 3 visually represents the trend in compressive strength for concrete specimens with different BA replacement percentages after a 7-day soaking period. The figure graphically illustrates the inverse relationship between BA replacement levels and compressive strength, aligning with the insights derived from Table VII. 3.3.4 Compressive Strength for Specimen of 28 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:3:6 (N/mm2) Table IX showcases the compressive strength of concrete specimens with varied Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) replacement percentages after a 28-day curing period in a 1:2:4 mix ratio. The N/mm 2 values indicate that CBA 0 (no replacement) exhibits the highest compressive strength across all environments—14.26 N/mm2 in water, 10.04 N/mm2 in MgSO 4 (Magnesium Sulphate), and 9.36 N/mm 2 in Na 2 SO 4 (Sodium Sulphate). As BA replacement increases (CBA 5 and CBA 10), there is a consistent reduction in compressive strength across all environments, suggesting a trade-off between incorporating CBA and maintaining compressive strength. Table IX: Compressive Strength for Specimen of 28 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:3:6 (N/mm2) Concrete Designation % Replacement of bone ash (CBA) Water (N/mm 2 ) MgSO 4 (N/mm 2 ) Na 2 SO 4 (N/mm 2 ) PCC 0 0 14.26 10.04 9.36 CBAC 5 5 12.66 11.01 10.87 CBAC 10 10 12.64 9.60 10.31 The accompanying Fig. 4 visually represents the trend in compressive strength for concrete specimens with varying BA replacement percentages after a 28-day soaking period. 4. Conclusion In summary, the investigation examined how variations in curing ages, mix ratios, and bone ash replacement levels affect compressive strength in concrete. Results consistently showed a decline in strength with higher bone ash replacement levels, regardless of mix ratios, with water proving superior to sulfate solutions for curing. In water environments, bone ash initially displayed competitive early-stage strengths but declined, especially at higher replacement levels, across different mix ratios. Exposure to sulfate solutions revealed moderate resistance to MgSO 4 but significant weakness to Na 2 SO 4 , particularly at higher replacement levels and longer curing periods. A 10% bone ash replacement had minimal impact on compressive strength, suggesting adaptability to low replacement levels. Mix ratio also influenced strength, with 1:3:6 ratios generally weaker than 1:2:4. The study found a consistent increase in compressive strength up to 5% bone ash replacement, with a subsequent decrease at 10%. The 5% replacement level proved optimal, meeting Grade C25/C30 concrete standards. Additionally, at 10% replacement, bone ash could still be effective in lightweight concrete production due to its high CaO content. Overall, the study highlights the potential of Cow-Bone Ash as a supplementary cementitious material for enhancing concrete strength. These findings offer insights for concrete mix optimization, contributing to sustainable construction materials. Further research could explore optimal replacement levels and broader concrete properties beyond compressive strength. 5. Recommendations The study puts forward several key recommendations to steer future research and practical applications for Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) in concrete mixes: Explore diverse curing methods, conduct long-term durability studies, and undertake life cycle analyses to grasp CBA-blended concrete performance and environmental impact comprehensively. Engage in collaboration with industry stakeholders to establish standardized guidelines, foster knowledge dissemination, and promote interdisciplinary cooperation, critical for the practical adoption of CBA in construction. Undertake continuous field monitoring of CBA-blended structures in real-world applications to assess their long-term performance effectively. These recommendations are geared towards enhancing the understanding of CBA's potential and facilitating its integration into sustainable construction practices. Declarations Author Contribution Esan T.M wrote and reviewed the whole manuscript References Akinyele, J. O., Adekunle, A. A., & Ogundaini, O. (2016). The effect of partial replacement of cement with bone ash and wood ash in concrete. Annals of the Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara, 14 (4), 199. Akinyele, J. O., Kehinde, H. A., & Igba, U. T. (2020). Structural Efficiency of Concrete Containing Crushed Bone Aggregates. ARID ZONE JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT, 16 (4), 813–820. Al Menhosh, A. A. (2018). An experimental study of high-performance concrete using metakaolin additive and polymer admixture . University of Salford (United Kingdom). Astm, C. (1985). Standard specification for fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use as a mineral admixture in Portland cement concrete. ASTM, Philadelphia, ASTM C, 618–685. Auwal, A. M., Awaisu, S. I., Lasmar, G., & Ali, A. B. (2022). THE SUITABILITY OF ANIMAL BONE ASH AS PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT IN CONCRETE PRODUCTION. JOURNAL OF INVENTIVE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (JIET), 2 (1), 1–8. Babu, G. R., Reddy, B. M., & Ramana, N. V. (2018). Quality of mixing water in cement concrete “a review.” Materials Today: Proceedings , 5 (1), 1313–1320. Bartos, P. (2013). Fresh concrete: properties and tests (Vol. 38). Elsevier. Chahar, A. S., & Pal, P. (2023). A review on various aspects of high performance concrete. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, 8 (6), 175. Danso, H. (2016). Use of agricultural waste fibres as enhancement of soil blocks for low-cost housing in Ghana . University of Portsmouth, School of Civil Engineering and Surveying. EN, B. S. (2000). 206-1 Concrete-Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity. British Standards Institution . Getahun, S., & Bewket, B. (2021). A study on effect of partial replacement of cement by cattle bone ash in concrete property. J. Civ. Environ. Eng, 11 (2). Haj Seiyed Taghia, S. A., Darvishvand, H. R., & Ebrahimi, M. (2021). Utilizing the Modified Popovics Model in study of effect of water to cement ratio, size and shape of aggregate in concrete behavior. International Journal of Engineering, 34 (2), 393–402. Hamada, H., Alattar, A., Tayeh, B., Yahaya, F., & Almeshal, I. (2022). Influence of different curing methods on the compressive strength of ultra-high-performance concrete: a comprehensive review. Case Studies in Construction Materials, e01390. Hooton, R. D. (2019). Future directions for design, specification, testing, and construction of durable concrete structures. Cement and Concrete Research, 124 , 105827. Jhatial, A. A., Nováková, I., & Gjerløw, E. (2023). A Review on Emerging Cementitious Materials, Reactivity Evaluation and Treatment Methods. Buildings, 13 (2), 526. Lehne, J., & Preston, F. (2018). Making concrete change. Innovation in Low-Carbon Cement and Concrete . McCarthy, M. J., & Dhir, R. K. (2005). Development of high volume fly ash cements for use in concrete construction. Fuel, 84 (11), 1423–1432. Mohammadi, A., & Ramezanianpour, A. M. (2023). Investigating the environmental and economic impacts of using supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) using the life cycle approach. Journal of Building Engineering, 79 , 107934. Neville, A. M. (2011). Properties of concrete 5th edition. London, England . No, A. (1992). Specification for aggregates from natural sources for concrete. Bs , 882 (1992), 1–14. Obilade, I. O. (2014). Use of rice husk ash as partial replacement for cement in concrete. International Journal of Engineering, 5 (04), 8269. Odeyemi, S. O., Abdulwahab, R., Abdulsalam, A. A., & Anifowose, M. A. (2019). Bond and flexural strength characteristics of partially replaced self-compacting palm kernel shell concrete. Malaysian Journal Of Civil Engineering, 31 (2), 1–7. Ofwa, T. O. (2022). Evaluating Superplasticizer Compatibility With Portland Pozzolana Cement CEM II/BP in Production of High Performance Concrete . University of Nairobi. Okeyinka, O. M., Olutoge, F. A., & Okunlola, L. O. (2018). Durability performance of cow-bone ash (CBA) blended cement concrete in aggressive environment. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 8 (12), 37–40. Olofinnade, O. M., Anwulidiunor, J. U., Ogundipe, K. E., & Ajimalofin, D. A. (2023). Recycling of Periwinkle Shell Waste as Partial Substitute for Sand and Stone Dust in Lightweight Hollow Sandcrete Blocks towards Environmental Sustainability. Materials, 16 (5), 1853. Olutaiwo, A. O., Yekini, O. S., & Ezegbunem, I. I. (2018). Utilizing Cow Bone Ash (CBA) as partial replacement for cement in highway rigid pavement construction. SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering, 5 (2), 13–19. Seraj, S. (2014). Evaluating natural pozzolans for use as alternative supplementary cementitious materials in concrete . Standard, B. (1997). Tests for Geometrical Properties of Aggregates-Determination of Particle Size Distribution British Standard Institution. London, UK BS EN , 931–933. Varma, S., Naidu, M., Mohan, S., & Reddy, D. (2016). An Effective study on utilizing bone powder ash as partial replacement of construction material. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Research, 4 (3), 3060–3062. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4008860","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":278635752,"identity":"400bde8d-5085-44b4-83d8-fb0565d810b1","order_by":0,"name":"Esan Martins Taiwo","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA8UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDADNgYGxgcfQAx2InVIALUwG84AaWEmVgtIsTAPiElICz//4WePbtTcq+OTbn/GbPNrmzwfMwPjh485uLVIzkgzN845VizBJnPG7HFu323DNmYGZsmZ23BrMbjBYCadw5YgwSaRw26c23ObEaiFjZkXjxb788e/Sef8A2lJfyZt2XPbnqAWA4YcM+ncNpCWBDNphh+3EwlqkbiRUyad25cg2SaRY2zY23A7uY2ZsRmvX/j7j2+TzvmWwC8/I/3hgx9/btvOb28++OEjHi2ogLENTDYQqx4E/pCieBSMglEwCkYKAADJb0idnBzHMgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Esan","middleName":"Martins","lastName":"Taiwo","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-03-03 14:15:40","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4008860/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4008860/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":52659916,"identity":"9bdc7fad-ecc4-4832-84d5-39b8b8c753d1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-14 07:43:56","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28807,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompressive Strength of concrete with different % replacement of CBA soaked for 7 days.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4008860/v1/3b045c0faf7bb64e9304614e.png"},{"id":52659914,"identity":"1f6024f2-9779-43d3-bfe0-57e8e37caec6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-14 07:43:56","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":36169,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompressive Strength of concrete with different % replacement of BA soaked for 28 days.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4008860/v1/56a541407d5ec657397694ef.png"},{"id":52659917,"identity":"c9992c97-1c51-450a-a793-4149b5aea9bf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-14 07:43:56","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":52261,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompressive Strength of concrete with different % replacement of BA soaked for 7 days.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4008860/v1/00be939f46fbb59efba5f548.png"},{"id":52660716,"identity":"5499398e-af7f-47ea-a951-e83f7f25348a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-14 07:51:56","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31724,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompressive Strength of concrete with different % replacement of CBA soaked for 28 days.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4008860/v1/9964a29d9672a460329c454d.png"},{"id":53449620,"identity":"8124fdc4-a846-4a3a-9e63-fed706e4786d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-26 06:20:18","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":613374,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4008860/v1/4b018ce4-8d06-4fc1-9ca4-33d46ec81b21.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Strength and Durability Characteristics of Concrete Blended with Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) in Sulphate Environments","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, the production of concrete has raised concerns due to the depletion of raw materials and its environmental impact. Concrete, a vital construction material globally, heavily relies on aggregates, comprising about 75% of its volume. The cost of concrete production primarily hinges on its constituents (Odeyemi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAggregates play a pivotal role in concrete strength development (Haj Seiyed Taghia et al., 2021; Olofinnade et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, the escalating cost of natural aggregates has hindered infrastructure development in many emerging countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa (Danso, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This underscores the urgency to explore alternative construction materials for affordable and sustainable housing, aligning with Sustainable Development Goal 11 aimed at fostering safe and sustainable cities and communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh-performance concrete (HPC) has emerged as a promising solution, offering superior strength, durability, and workability (Ofwa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). HPC is characterized by specific properties that surpass those of conventional concrete (Hamada et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Achieving HPC involves meticulous selection and proportioning of ingredients to enhance strength, durability, and reduce porosity (Chahar \u0026amp; Pal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, traditional concrete manufacturing processes contribute significantly to environmental degradation, with cement production alone responsible for 5% of global CO2 emissions (Lehne \u0026amp; Preston, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Mitigating these environmental impacts necessitates reducing energy consumption and adopting alternative materials like Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) (Mohammadi \u0026amp; Ramezanianpour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Seraj, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Efforts to develop sustainable cementitious systems have led to the exploration of SCMs such as fly ash, silica fume, rice husk ash, and metakaolin (Jhatial et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These materials can partially replace cement while improving concrete properties (Menhosh, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent literature (Hooton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Neville, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) suggests utilizing pozzolan blended cement or blast furnace slag blended cement to enhance concrete resistance in aggressive environments. These alternatives aim to decrease the presence of Ca(OH)\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in hydrated cement paste. A novel addition to this approach is the incorporation of cow bone ash (CBA) as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete production. Studies such as those referenced in Akinyele et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and Varma et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) indicate a significant increase in compressive strength with an optimal 10% replacement of cement with CBA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe partial replacement of cement with CBA is anticipated to reduce the quantity of Ca(OH)\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e due to its chemical composition. Additionally, CBA typically contains a high concentration of calcium oxide (CaO)(Getahun \u0026amp; Bewket, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Okeyinka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBone ash has emerged as a lightweight aggregate with properties suitable for lightweight concrete production (Akinyele et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Auwal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Its utilization presents an opportunity for sustainable waste management and cost-effective concrete production. However, the performance of bone ash blended concrete in sulphate-rich environments remains inadequately understood.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to investigate the strength and durability properties of bone ash blended concrete in sulphate environments. By examining its chemical properties, mechanical performance, and durability under sulphate exposure, the study seeks to evaluate the viability of cow-bone ash blended concrete as a sustainable construction material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research is limited to assessing bone ash at varying replacement levels in concrete mixtures, considering specific curing ages and environmental conditions. Through comprehensive testing and analysis, the study endeavors to contribute insights into the potential of cow-bone ash as a sustainable alternative in concrete production.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Experimental Program","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eCement: The cement utilized was ordinary Portland cement (grade 43), devoid of any lumps, meeting all the specifications outlined in (McCarthy \u0026amp; Dhir, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eCow-bone Ash (CBA): The CBA utilized in this investigation was systematically derived from locally sourced cow bones. The process involved washing the cow bones to eliminate impurities, drying them until surface-dry, heating them in a muffle furnace at a temperature of 915\u0026deg;C (within the reactivity temperature range), and grinding the heated bones into a powdery ash. The resulting CBA underwent sieving through BS sieve No. 200, and its oxide composition was analyzed via X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) testing. Furthermore, particle size distribution, bulk density, and specific gravity of the CBA were determined in accordance with (Standard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFine Aggregate and Coarse Aggregate: Locally available sand, conforming to concrete production standards, was utilized as the fine aggregate in this study. Crushed granite, with a particle size of 20mm meeting the requirements specified in (No, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e) for concrete production, served as the coarse aggregate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater: Water plays a crucial role in the concrete mixing process, as it greatly influences the final strength and integrity of the concrete. Achieving the optimal amount of water is essential for ensuring the quality of the mix. Distilled water, meeting the specifications outlined by (Babu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Obilade, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), was consistently utilized for blending the concrete constituents. This same grade of water was employed for both curing the concrete cubes under normal conditions and preparing acidic solutions. In concrete mixing, water serves to fill the interstitial spaces among the particles, essentially lubricating them by creating a thin film of water between them. Augmenting the water content enhances fluidity and facilitates easier compaction of the concrete. However, excessive water reduces cohesion, promoting segregation and bleeding, consequently compromising concrete strength. Thus, throughout the project, a water-to-cement ratio of 0.5 was meticulously maintained. The water utilized for the concrete mix was drawn from the tank located in the concrete technology laboratory, ensuring its portability and suitability for the task at hand.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Mixture proportions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe objective of this experiment is to assess the strength and durability properties of concrete by substituting Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) with Cow-Bone Ash (CBA). The study utilizes 100\u0026times;100\u0026times;100mm cubes for mixing, curing, and testing. The concrete mix incorporates single-sized 12mm granite as coarse aggregate and local river sand as fine aggregate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mix proportions are formulated with a water-cement ratio of 0.5, maintaining consistent aggregate content across all mixes while varying the percentage of OPC replaced by Cow-Bone Ash (0%, 5%, and 10%). Two mix ratios, 1:2:4 and 1:3:6, are employed. For each mix ratio (1:2:4 and 1:3:6), the weights of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water are calculated based on the desired water-cement ratio and Bone Ash replacement percentages.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable I: Weight of ingredients of one concrete cube\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMIX RATIO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCEMENT (KG)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFINE AGGREGATE (KG)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCOARSE AGGREGATE (KG)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWATER (ML)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:2:4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:3:6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable II: Weight of cow-bone ash CBA content as a replacement\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBA REPLACEMENT %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMIX RATIO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:2:4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1:3:6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCEMENT (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBONE ASH (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCEMENT (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCow-bone ASH (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Preparation of Test Specimens\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCube moulds (100 x 100 x 100mm) are used for compressive testing, while a frustum of a cone is used for the slump test. Moulds are prepared according to BS1881 standards to ensure uniformity and accuracy. Wooden moulds, coated with engine oil for easy de-moulding and surface finish, are utilized for casting. After mixing, the fresh concrete is tested for workability (slump test) and cast into the moulds in three layers, compacted using a 25mm diameter steel rod. The specimens are then cured in a controlled environment at 21\u0026deg;C and relative humidity above 70%. After 24 hours, the specimens are de-moulded and subjected to water and sulphate solution curing until the testing date. Compressive strength tests are conducted at 7, 14, and 28 days according to British Standard Institution (BSI) guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Mixing Process\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixing is conducted manually using the hand-mixing method. Components are weighed accurately and mixed in the specified sequence to ensure homogeneity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Test procedures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. The slump test serves as an indicator of the consistency of fresh concrete and helps to detect variations in the uniformity of concrete mix fluidity. In this study, the slump test was conducted following the guidelines outlined in (Bartos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Its purpose was to assess the impact of CBA blended cement on the workability of concrete mixes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2. The compressive strength test stands out as one of the most crucial tests for concrete, offering comprehensive insights into its characteristics. Conducted at the Concrete Laboratory of the Building Technology Department, Federal Polytechnic Ede, Osun State, this test provides a definitive assessment of the quality of concrete work. The apparatus used in this test includes a compressive testing machine, along with wooden moulds sized at 100mm x 100mm x 100mm, a shovel, trowel for mixing, and a tamping rod for compaction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mixing process involves measuring the required raw materials and blending cement and fine aggregate on a water-tight, non-absorbent platform until achieving a uniform color. Coarse aggregate is then added and mixed until uniformly distributed. Water is gradually added and mixed until the concrete reaches the desired consistency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSampling begins by cleaning the moulds and applying oil to them. Concrete is then filled into the moulds in 5cm thick layers and compacted using the tamping rod, with each layer compacted 25 times. The top surface is leveled and smoothed with a trowel for uniformity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCuring of the test specimens involves storing them in moist air for 24 hours. After this period, the specimens are marked, removed from the moulds, and submerged in clear fresh water mixed with Sodium Sulphate (Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) and Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) until they are ready for testing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe compression testing procedure begins by removing the specimen from water after the specified curing time and allowing it to dry. The weight of the specimen is measured, and the bearing surface of the testing machine is cleaned. The specimen is then placed in the machine, ensuring that the load is applied to the opposite sides of the cast cubes. It is aligned centrally on the base plate of the machine, and the movable portion is gently rotated by hand to touch the top surface of the specimen.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe load is applied gradually and continuously at a rate of 140kg/cm\u0026sup2;/minute until the specimen fails. The maximum load is recorded, and any unusual features in the type of failure are noted. Finally, the average of these specimens provides the crushing strength of concrete, while dividing the maximum compressive load at failure by the area of the specimen gives the compressive strength of concrete.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Tests results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section discusses the findings derived from the chemical characterization of the material, the slump test, and the compressive strength tests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Chemical and Physical Properties of CBA\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe cementitious nature of calcined ash is typically determined by its oxide composition. Upon analyzing the chemical composition of CBA (see Table III), it was observed that the combined percentage of Iron oxide (Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.21%), aluminium oxide (Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.14%), and silicon dioxide (SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.57%) amounted to 18.92%. This falls short of the 70% minimum requirement suggested by Astm, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e) for a material to be classified as pozzolana. Despite not meeting the pozzolanic material criteria, CBA can be recognized as a cementitious filler or additive due to its substantial CaO content, which stands at 68.34% by weight.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe specific gravity and bulk density measurements for CBA were determined to be 1.29 and 1.13g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively. Notably, the specific gravity of CBA is lower than that of conventional cement, which typically registers at 3.15 (Neville, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, CBA can be characterized as a lightweight and voluminous substance. It is advisable to batch CBA by weight rather than volume when incorporating it as a supplementary cementitious material. This recommendation is made because a greater volume of CBA would be required to replace an equal weight of cement in concrete.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable III: Chemical Properties of CBA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabc\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS/N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBone Ash (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMgO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLOI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Slump values for concrete made with a blend of cow-bones ash and cement.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable IV presents the outcomes of the slump test conducted on fresh concrete incorporating various percentages of CBA. The data illustrates a consistent trend: as the CBA content increases, so does the slump value of the concrete mixes. The plain cement concrete (PCC) mixture devoid of CBA exhibited a 30mm slump value, whereas the CBABC blends containing 5%, and 10% CBA content demonstrated 38mm, and 40mm slump values, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe slump value of freshly mixed concrete serves as an indicator of its flow and overall workability. The escalating slump values with higher CBA content suggest that the mixes became more fluid and easier to work with. This phenomenon can be attributed to the superior fineness and lower specific gravity of CBA in comparison to cement. These findings echo those of previous research (Okeyinka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Olutaiwo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), which also noted a steady improvement in concrete workability with incremental CBA addition. Across all mixtures investigated in this study, the slump values ranged from 30mm to 40mm, categorizing them as slump S1 according to (EN, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eV: Slump Test Results of CBA Blended with Cement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcrete Designation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Replacement of bone ash (CBA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater/Binder ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSlump(mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCC 0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBAC 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBAC 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Compressive strength Results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1 Compressive Strength for Specimen of 7 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:2:4 (N/mm2)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable V summarizes the 7-day average the compressive strength results for concrete specimens with varying percentages of Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) replacement after 7 days of curing in a mix ratio of 1:2:4. The values are given in N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Notably, PCC 0 (no replacement) demonstrates the highest compressive strength across all environments, with values of 9.03 N/mm2 in water, 7.11 N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (Magnesium Sulphate), and 8.33 N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (Sodium Sulphate). As the CBA replacement percentage increases (CBAC 5 and CBAC 10), a gradual decline in compressive strength is observed in all environments, indicating a potential trade-off between CBAC incorporation and compressive strength.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter 7 days of exposure to MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (Magnesium Sulphate), and Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (Sodium Sulphate) solutions, CBABC5 displayed compressive strengths of 6.02 N/mm2 and 7.14 N/mm2, representing 86% and 55% of its original strength when cured in water. Likewise, after 7 days of curing in MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (Magnesium Sulphate), and Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (Sodium Sulphate), CBABC10 exhibited strengths at 39% of their original strengths.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable V: Compressive Strength for Specimen of 7 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:2:4 (N/mm2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabd\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcrete Designation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Replacement of bone ash (CBA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater (N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCC 0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBAC 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBAC 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe associated Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e visually represents the trend in compressive strength for concrete specimens with different percentages of CBA replacement after 7 days of soaking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.2 Compressive Strength for Specimen of 28 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:2:4 (N/mm2)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable VI presents the compressive strength of concrete specimens with varying Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) replacement percentages after 28 days of curing in a 1:2:4 mix ratio. The N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e values reveal that as the CBAC replacement increases (CBAC 5 and CBAC 10), there is a consistent increase in compressive strength across all environments. The results indicate that the compressive strength initially increases as the CBAC content rises from 0\u0026ndash;5%. However, at 10%, the strength decreases. Among all the mixes, the 5% CBAC replacement level appears to be the most optimal, with the CBABC5 mix exhibiting 26.34 higher average compressive strength compared to the PCC and CBABC10 mixes, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe average compressive strength of CBABC5 meets the standard cube compressive strength of 25N/mm\u0026sup2; recommended by the British standard for Grade C25/C30 concrete at a 28-day curing age. This result aligns with previous studies, indicating that at 5% CBAC content, CBA blended cement concrete can achieve higher compressive strength compared to conventional Grade C25 concrete. Additionally, the average compressive strength of 20.34 N/mm\u0026sup2; obtained at a 10% replacement level suggests that CBA can be effectively used up to 10% replacement level in cement for the production of lightweight concrete. This could be attributed to the high CaO content of the CBA, which may contribute to a slight strength increase by reducing the total pore volume through the conversion of liquid water to solid form.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable VII: Compressive Strength for Specimen of 28 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:2:4 (N/mm2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabe\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcrete Designation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Replacement of bone ash (CBA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater (N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCC 0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBAC 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBAC 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe accompanying Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e visually represents the trend in compressive strength for concrete specimens with varying BA replacement percentages after a 28-day soaking period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.3 Compressive Strength for Specimen of 7 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:3:6 (N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable VIII provides a comprehensive overview of the compressive strength characteristics of concrete specimens subjected to a 7-day curing period, with varying percentages of cow-bone ash replacement (CBA) in the concrete mix ratio of 1:3:6. The concrete mix designations include \"PCC 0\" denoting Plain Cement Concrete with 0% bone ash replacement, \"CBAC 5\" with 5% replacement, and \"CBAC 10\" with 10% replacement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross the specimens, the percentage replacement of bone ash ranges from 0\u0026ndash;10%. Compressive strength values are measured in N/mm\u0026sup2; and are recorded under different curing conditions, specifically water, magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), and sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) solutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of compressive strength, the specimens exhibit varying performance. For instance, under water curing, the compressive strength of the specimens ranges from 17.92 N/mm\u0026sup2; for PCC 0 to 13.05 N/mm\u0026sup2; for CBAC 10. Similarly, exposure to magnesium sulfate and sodium sulfate solutions yields different compressive strengths across the specimens. CBAC 5 demonstrates the highest compressive strength, with 18.32 N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in water, 11.01 N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (Magnesium Sulphate), and 10.87 N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (Sodium Sulphate).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results offer insights into the effects of bone ash replacement on the compressive strength properties of concrete, highlighting variations in performance under different curing environments. Such data aids in understanding the potential applications and limitations of concrete mixes with bone ash replacements, contributing to informed decision-making in construction and material engineering contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable VIII Compressive Strength for Specimen of 7 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:3:6 (N/mm2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabf\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcrete Designation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Replacement of bone ash (CBA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater (N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCC 0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBAC 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBAC 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe accompanying Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e visually represents the trend in compressive strength for concrete specimens with different BA replacement percentages after a 7-day soaking period. The figure graphically illustrates the inverse relationship between BA replacement levels and compressive strength, aligning with the insights derived from Table VII.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.4 Compressive Strength for Specimen of 28 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:3:6 (N/mm2)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable IX showcases the compressive strength of concrete specimens with varied Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) replacement percentages after a 28-day curing period in a 1:2:4 mix ratio. The N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e values indicate that CBA 0 (no replacement) exhibits the highest compressive strength across all environments\u0026mdash;14.26 N/mm2 in water, 10.04 N/mm2 in MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (Magnesium Sulphate), and 9.36 N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (Sodium Sulphate). As BA replacement increases (CBA 5 and CBA 10), there is a consistent reduction in compressive strength across all environments, suggesting a trade-off between incorporating CBA and maintaining compressive strength.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable IX: Compressive Strength for Specimen of 28 days Curing Age in Mix Ratio 1:3:6 (N/mm2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabg\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcrete Designation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Replacement of bone ash (CBA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater (N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCC 0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBAC 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBAC 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe accompanying Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e visually represents the trend in compressive strength for concrete specimens with varying BA replacement percentages after a 28-day soaking period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the investigation examined how variations in curing ages, mix ratios, and bone ash replacement levels affect compressive strength in concrete. Results consistently showed a decline in strength with higher bone ash replacement levels, regardless of mix ratios, with water proving superior to sulfate solutions for curing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn water environments, bone ash initially displayed competitive early-stage strengths but declined, especially at higher replacement levels, across different mix ratios. Exposure to sulfate solutions revealed moderate resistance to MgSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e but significant weakness to Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, particularly at higher replacement levels and longer curing periods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA 10% bone ash replacement had minimal impact on compressive strength, suggesting adaptability to low replacement levels. Mix ratio also influenced strength, with 1:3:6 ratios generally weaker than 1:2:4.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study found a consistent increase in compressive strength up to 5% bone ash replacement, with a subsequent decrease at 10%. The 5% replacement level proved optimal, meeting Grade C25/C30 concrete standards. Additionally, at 10% replacement, bone ash could still be effective in lightweight concrete production due to its high CaO content.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the study highlights the potential of Cow-Bone Ash as a supplementary cementitious material for enhancing concrete strength. These findings offer insights for concrete mix optimization, contributing to sustainable construction materials. Further research could explore optimal replacement levels and broader concrete properties beyond compressive strength.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Recommendations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study puts forward several key recommendations to steer future research and practical applications for Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) in concrete mixes:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eExplore diverse curing methods, conduct long-term durability studies, and undertake life cycle analyses to grasp CBA-blended concrete performance and environmental impact comprehensively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngage in collaboration with industry stakeholders to establish standardized guidelines, foster knowledge dissemination, and promote interdisciplinary cooperation, critical for the practical adoption of CBA in construction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eUndertake continuous field monitoring of CBA-blended structures in real-world applications to assess their long-term performance effectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese recommendations are geared towards enhancing the understanding of CBA's potential and facilitating its integration into sustainable construction practices.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEsan T.M wrote and reviewed the whole manuscript\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkinyele, J. O., Adekunle, A. A., \u0026amp; Ogundaini, O. (2016). The effect of partial replacement of cement with bone ash and wood ash in concrete. Annals of the Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(4), 199.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkinyele, J. O., Kehinde, H. A., \u0026amp; Igba, U. T. (2020). Structural Efficiency of Concrete Containing Crushed Bone Aggregates. ARID ZONE JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT, \u003cem\u003e16\u003c/em\u003e(4), 813\u0026ndash;820.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAl Menhosh, A. A. (2018). \u003cem\u003eAn experimental study of high-performance concrete using metakaolin additive and polymer admixture\u003c/em\u003e. University of Salford (United Kingdom).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAstm, C. (1985). Standard specification for fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use as a mineral admixture in Portland cement concrete. ASTM, Philadelphia, ASTM C, 618\u0026ndash;685.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAuwal, A. M., Awaisu, S. I., Lasmar, G., \u0026amp; Ali, A. B. (2022). THE SUITABILITY OF ANIMAL BONE ASH AS PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT IN CONCRETE PRODUCTION. JOURNAL OF INVENTIVE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (JIET), \u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBabu, G. R., Reddy, B. M., \u0026amp; Ramana, N. V. (2018). Quality of mixing water in cement concrete \u0026ldquo;a review.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eMaterials Today: Proceedings\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1313\u0026ndash;1320.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBartos, P. (2013). \u003cem\u003eFresh concrete: properties and tests\u003c/em\u003e (Vol. 38). Elsevier.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChahar, A. S., \u0026amp; Pal, P. (2023). A review on various aspects of high performance concrete. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e(6), 175.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDanso, H. (2016). \u003cem\u003eUse of agricultural waste fibres as enhancement of soil blocks for low-cost housing in Ghana\u003c/em\u003e. University of Portsmouth, School of Civil Engineering and Surveying.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEN, B. S. (2000). 206-1 Concrete-Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity. \u003cem\u003eBritish Standards Institution\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGetahun, S., \u0026amp; Bewket, B. (2021). A study on effect of partial replacement of cement by cattle bone ash in concrete property. J. Civ. Environ. Eng, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e(2).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHaj Seiyed Taghia, S. A., Darvishvand, H. R., \u0026amp; Ebrahimi, M. (2021). Utilizing the Modified Popovics Model in study of effect of water to cement ratio, size and shape of aggregate in concrete behavior. International Journal of Engineering, \u003cem\u003e34\u003c/em\u003e(2), 393\u0026ndash;402.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHamada, H., Alattar, A., Tayeh, B., Yahaya, F., \u0026amp; Almeshal, I. (2022). Influence of different curing methods on the compressive strength of ultra-high-performance concrete: a comprehensive review. Case Studies in Construction Materials, e01390.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHooton, R. D. (2019). Future directions for design, specification, testing, and construction of durable concrete structures. Cement and Concrete Research, \u003cem\u003e124\u003c/em\u003e, 105827.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJhatial, A. A., Nov\u0026aacute;kov\u0026aacute;, I., \u0026amp; Gjerl\u0026oslash;w, E. (2023). A Review on Emerging Cementitious Materials, Reactivity Evaluation and Treatment Methods. Buildings, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(2), 526.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLehne, J., \u0026amp; Preston, F. (2018). Making concrete change. \u003cem\u003eInnovation in Low-Carbon Cement and Concrete\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMcCarthy, M. J., \u0026amp; Dhir, R. K. (2005). Development of high volume fly ash cements for use in concrete construction. Fuel, \u003cem\u003e84\u003c/em\u003e(11), 1423\u0026ndash;1432.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMohammadi, A., \u0026amp; Ramezanianpour, A. M. (2023). Investigating the environmental and economic impacts of using supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) using the life cycle approach. Journal of Building Engineering, \u003cem\u003e79\u003c/em\u003e, 107934.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNeville, A. M. (2011). Properties of concrete 5th edition. \u003cem\u003eLondon, England\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNo, A. (1992). Specification for aggregates from natural sources for concrete. \u003cem\u003eBs\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e882\u003c/em\u003e(1992), 1\u0026ndash;14.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eObilade, I. O. (2014). Use of rice husk ash as partial replacement for cement in concrete. International Journal of Engineering, \u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e(04), 8269.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOdeyemi, S. O., Abdulwahab, R., Abdulsalam, A. A., \u0026amp; Anifowose, M. A. (2019). Bond and flexural strength characteristics of partially replaced self-compacting palm kernel shell concrete. Malaysian Journal Of Civil Engineering, \u003cem\u003e31\u003c/em\u003e(2), 1\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOfwa, T. O. (2022). \u003cem\u003eEvaluating Superplasticizer Compatibility With Portland Pozzolana Cement CEM II/BP in Production of High Performance Concrete\u003c/em\u003e. University of Nairobi.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkeyinka, O. M., Olutoge, F. A., \u0026amp; Okunlola, L. O. (2018). Durability performance of cow-bone ash (CBA) blended cement concrete in aggressive environment. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e(12), 37\u0026ndash;40.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOlofinnade, O. M., Anwulidiunor, J. U., Ogundipe, K. E., \u0026amp; Ajimalofin, D. A. (2023). Recycling of Periwinkle Shell Waste as Partial Substitute for Sand and Stone Dust in Lightweight Hollow Sandcrete Blocks towards Environmental Sustainability. Materials, \u003cem\u003e16\u003c/em\u003e(5), 1853.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOlutaiwo, A. O., Yekini, O. S., \u0026amp; Ezegbunem, I. I. (2018). Utilizing Cow Bone Ash (CBA) as partial replacement for cement in highway rigid pavement construction. SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering, \u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e(2), 13\u0026ndash;19.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSeraj, S. (2014). \u003cem\u003eEvaluating natural pozzolans for use as alternative supplementary cementitious materials in concrete\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStandard, B. (1997). Tests for Geometrical Properties of Aggregates-Determination of Particle Size Distribution British Standard Institution. \u003cem\u003eLondon, UK BS EN\u003c/em\u003e, 931\u0026ndash;933.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVarma, S., Naidu, M., Mohan, S., \u0026amp; Reddy, D. (2016). An Effective study on utilizing bone powder ash as partial replacement of construction material. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Research, \u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e(3), 3060\u0026ndash;3062.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"cowbone ash, blended cement concrete, compressive strength, aggressive environments, Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4) and Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4)","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4008860/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4008860/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe research investigated the impact of cowbone ash blended cement concrete (CBABC) on compressive strength, considering various mix ratios and curing periods. The study involved several phases: production of cowbone ash (CBA) from waste cowbones, characterization of CBA's physical and chemical properties, and formulation of CBABC mixes with 0%, 5%, and 10% CBA as partial replacements of cement. Concrete samples were prepared at ratios of 1:2:4 and 1:3:6 and cured for 7, 14, and 28 days. Cubic CBAC specimens sized 100mm by 100mm by 100mm underwent testing for compressive strength under both aggressive and non-aggressive conditions after 7, 14 and 28-days curing period. Analysis of oxide composition revealed a high calcium oxide content in CBA, constituting 68.34% by weight. With increasing CBA proportion, CBAC mixes showed enhanced workability. Under water curing at 28 days curing conditions, CBAC concrete exhibited average compressive strengths of 12.47 N/mm\u0026sup2;, 26.34 N/mm\u0026sup2; and 20.34 N/mm\u0026sup2; for 0%, 5% and 10% CBA content, respectively. Upon exposure to aggressive conditions, both conventional concrete (0% CBA) and CBABC concrete experienced decreased compressive strength. Notably, the CBABC mix with 5% CBA displayed greater resistance to aggressive conditions compared to other mixes. In conclusion, CBABC with 5% CBA replacement demonstrates potential for application in aggressive environments, particularly in Sodium Sulphate (Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e), offering a durable alternative to conventional Grade C25 concrete mixes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Strength and Durability Characteristics of Concrete Blended with Cow-Bone Ash (CBA) in Sulphate Environments","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-03-14 07:43:51","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4008860/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c6d541cf-ac57-4bb5-8d9f-8c6e9af60a36","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 14th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-04-10T06:29:24+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-03-14 07:43:51","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4008860","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4008860","identity":"rs-4008860","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}