Determinants of Parental Beliefs Regarding Child Physical Punishment in Bangladesh Based on Nationally Representative Data

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Shariful Islam, Md. Nazrul Islam Mondal, Moynul Haque, Shela Parvin, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9117074/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Parents’ belief in the effectiveness of physical punishment increases its use and influences children’s emotional and behavioural outcomes. This study explored the factors associated with parents’ beliefs regarding physical punishment of children aged 5–14 years in Bangladesh. Methods Data from 19,675 respondents in the Bangladesh Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2019 were analysed. Socio-demographic variables were included as key exposures, and parental beliefs regarding child physical punishment served as the outcome variable. Associations were assessed using Chi-square tests, and significant predictors were identified through binary logistic regression analysis. Results The findings indicated that 34.57% of parents endorsed physical punishment as a means of ensuring proper upbringing. Significant predictors of this belief included the child’s age, sex, region, education level, household wealth quintile, mother’s education, and number of children. Parents of children aged 10–14 years were significantly less likely to believe physically punishing children compared with those aged 5–9 years (aOR: 0.91; 95% CI: 0.84–0.98). Similarly, parents of female children were less likely to believe in physical punishment compared to parents of male children (aOR: 0.89; 95% CI: 0.84–0.95). In contrast, parents were more likely to believe that children with functional difficulties needed physical punishment, with 47% higher odds compared to children without such difficulties (aOR: 1.47; 95% CI: 1.31–1.64). Conclusions Child physical punishment is common in Bangladesh, with many parents considering it necessary for proper child-rearing. Policymakers should take necessary initiatives to change parents’/caregivers’ point of view regarding child physical punishment, with giving priority to vulnerable groups. Physical Punishment Parental Belief Child Punishment Child Bangladesh Figures Figure 1 Introduction Children are the future leaders of a nation as the economic and social development depend heavily on them. Ensuring a healthy upbringing is therefore a very important duty for families, society and the country. But unfortunately, these children often face violence and aggression in the hands of their family members or society in the name of discipline. The word discipline refers to the act of imparting knowledge and skills, or teaching. However, it is frequently associated with control and punishment [ 1 ]. Physical punishment is defined as ‘any form of punishment in which physical form is used and intended to cause some level of pain or discomfort, even if it is minimal’ [ 2 , 3 ]. According to a recent World Health Organization (WHO) research, physical punishment is still frighteningly common and seriously impairs children's development and health. Every year, an estimated 1.2 billion children between the ages of 0 and 18 receive physical punishment at home. According to data from 58 nations, 17% of kids who had received physical punishment in the previous month had been slapped severely and repeatedly, or on the head, face, or ears. There are significant national differences in the use of physical punishment in homes. Parental and caregiver self-reported rates of physical punishment in the previous month among children aged 2–14 ranged from 30% in Kazakhstan and 32% in Ukraine to 63% in Serbia, 64% in Sierra Leone, and 77% in Togo [ 4 ]. Parental beliefs about child physical punishment diverge widely among cultures, societies, individual families, religions, socio-economic status, etc. Findings suggest that negative social norms that drive violent child-rearing approaches exist globally, with slightly more than one in four mothers and primary caregivers believing that physical punishment is required to properly raise and educate children [ 5 , 6 ]. In several Asian families, physical punishments are considered customary and a power relationship to teach children hierarchy and to obey elders. Furthermore, parents believe it is within their right to determine how they discipline their children [ 7 ]. Even though child physical punishment is recognized internationally as a form of violence that harms children [ 8 ] and violates their rights to dignity and protection [ 9 ], parents still refuse to believe it [ 10 ]. Like some countries, a proportion of Bangladeshi parents still believe that physical punishment toward children is necessary to rear a child [ 11 ]. An existing study shows that 35% of parents or caregivers believe that physically punishing children is necessary and this belief is a strong predictor of violent discipline [ 11 ]. According to the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2019 report, 35% mothers or caretakers believe in physically punishing the children [ 12 ]. According to a survey conducted by Save the Children (SCI) and Bangladesh Legal Aid and Services Trust (BLAST), physical punishment is viewed by 69% of respondents as a practical way to instil discipline in schools, 55% as an effective method for proper learning, and 27% as essential for keeping kids on the correct path [ 13 ]. Therefore, it is important to identify the influential predictors regarding parental beliefs on child physical punishment. Accordingly, this study aims to investigate the factors associated with parental beliefs regarding child physical punishment in Bangladesh. Data and Methods Data MICS is an international household survey program developed by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) in the 1990s to assist low- and middle-income countries. The MICS 2019 in Bangladesh represents the 6th round of surveys conducted by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) with the support of UNICEF. This survey recruited nationally representative samples to gather essential data. It has addressed various issues impacting children and women, with 144 indicators, 29 of which relate to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Additionally, it is a cross-sectional study which has used a rigorous multistage, stratified cluster sampling design, which ensured that the results are nationally representative and reflected all divisions and population groups in Bangladesh. In the sampling process, census enumeration areas in urban and rural districts are selected based on size, and then 20 households are chosen from each primary sampling unit (PSU). Between January 19 and June 1 in 2019, the survey interviewed 61,242 households from 3,220 PSUs across the country and collected data from women aged 15–49 years and children aged 0–17 years using standardized questionnaires. Further details of the survey are available elsewhere [ 14 ]. This study used only secondary data of children aged 5–14 years. Outcome variables : The main outcome variable was parental belief, which was measured by the simple sentence, ‘Child needs to be physically punished to be brought up properly.’ Each question offered two options: ‘No’ (coded as 0), which indicates the parents do not believe in child punishment to raise children properly, and ‘Yes’ (coded as 1), which indicates the parents believe that punishment is necessary to raise children properly. This question was answered by mother or caregiver. Exposure variables The exposure variables are child’s age, child’s sex, area, division, children having functional difficulties, mother’s and children's education, mothers/caretakers having functional difficulties, ethnicity, wealth index quintile, number of children, etc. Mothers/caretakers having functional difficulties was assessed using the adult module which is based on a short set of questions developed by the Washington Group of Disabilities Statistics, children having functional difficulties and difficulty making friends were assessed using child functioning modules [ 14 ]. The variable selection has been motivated by the availability of the MICS-2019 dataset and guided by relevant literature [ 15 – 26 ]. Statistical analysis We conducted descriptive analyses to estimate the percentage of parents who believe that children need punishment to grow up properly. We utilized a bivariate table to assess the prevalence of different disciplinary approaches based on various characteristics, such as the child's age, sex, and education. Multicollinearity among explanatory variables was examined using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) before fitting the regression model. Multivariable logistic regressions examined the relationship between parental attitudes towards punishment and various socio-demographic factors. To quantify these attitudes, we created a summary score by aggregating responses, resulting in values ranging from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates that punishment is unnecessary and 1 suggests that it is required. Both bivariate and multivariate (binary logistic regression) analyses were conducted. IBM SPSS (22.0) was used to analyse the data and statistical significance was accepted at \(\:p<0.05\) . Ethics The MICS study adheres to UNICEF's ethical standards for research, evaluation, data collection, and analysis, and includes a record of an ethics review. It is designed to protect and respect human and child rights in all research, evaluation, and data collection processes conducted or commissioned by UNICEF. Verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants in this study before the interviews. All respondents were made aware that their participation was voluntary and that their information would remain confidential and anonymous. Furthermore, they were informed of their right to decline to answer any specific questions and to withdraw from the interview at any time. Results The background characteristics of children aged 5–14 years and their parents, along with parental beliefs about child punishment are presented in Table 1 . Overall, 34.57% of parents believed that a child needs to be physically punished to be brought up properly. The findings show that parental belief about punishment varies significantly across different child, parental, and household characteristics. The bivariate analysis (Table 2 ) identified several factors that were significantly associated with parental beliefs about child punishment. Finally, the determinants of parental belief in the necessity of punishment for children are presented in Table 3 . Both the unadjusted (Model 1) and adjusted (Model 2) binary logistic regression models indicate that multiple child-, parent-, and household-level characteristics are significantly associated with parents’ beliefs of physical punishment as a necessary component of childrearing. Table 1 Child and household characteristics, N = 19,675 Characteristics Levels Percentage, (%), 95% CI Child related Child’s age (in years) 5–9 46.69(45.82–47.56) 10–14 53.31(52.44–54.18) Child’s sex Male 51.7(50.83–52.56) Female 48.3(47.44–49.17) Child’s education Pre-primary or none 15.22(14.58–15.88) Primary 55.45(54.56–56.34) Secondary 29.33(28.52–30.16) Child's having functional difficulties No 92.04(91.53–92.52) Yes 7.96(7.48–8.47) Engaged in any other activity for income in the past week No 97.37(97.05–97.65) Yes 2.63(2.34–2.95) The child has difficulty making friends No 98.37(98.14–98.58) Yes 1.63(1.42–1.86) Region related Area of residence Urban 20.7(19.97–21.45) Rural 79.3(78.55–80.03) Region Barishal 5.73(5.43–6.05) Chattogram 20.25(19.52–21.01) Dhaka 23.93(23.14–24.73) Khulna 10.84(10.41–11.27) Mymensingh 7.11(6.69–7.56) Rajshahi 12.43(11.91–12.97) Rangpur 11.42(10.93–11.94) Sylhet 8.28(7.54–9.07) Household related Number of children 5–7 years 1–2 Children 69.19(68.2-70.17) 3–4 Children 28.19(27.27–29.13) > 4 2.61(2.20–3.09) Household’s Ethnicity Bengali 98.86(98.56–99.09) Others 1.14(0.90–1.43) Wealth index quintile Poorest 21.2(20.25–22.19) Poorer 21.29(20.5–22.1) Middle 19.75(19.01–20.51) Richer 18.83(18.06–19.63) Richest 18.93(18.04–19.84) Parent related Mother’s education Pre-Primary or none 23.11(22.22–24.02) Primary 29.7(28.84–30.57) Secondary 38.69(37.75–39.64) Higher secondary and above 8.50(7.93–9.10) Mother/caretaker’s having functional difficulties No 96.73(96.41–97.01) Yes 3.27(2.98–3.58) Mother/caretaker of another child aged under 5 No 89.61(89.08–90.12) Yes 10.39(9.88–10.92) Table 2 Factors associated with parental belief, N = 19,675 Characteristics Levels Parental Belief Status p -values No (%), 95% CI Yes (%), 95% CI Child related Child’s age (in years) 5–9 62.95(62.68–64.21) 37.05(35.79–38.32) 0.000 10–14 65.69(64.51–66.84) 34.31(33.16–35.49) Child’s sex Male 63.22(62.01–64.43) 36.78(35.57–37.99) 0.000 Female 65.68(64.41–66.92) 34.32(33.08–35.59) Child’s education Pre-primary or none 61.62(59.38–63.81) 38.38(36.19–40.62) 0.000 Primary 63.37(62.15–64.58) 36.63(35.42–37.85) Secondary 67.82(66.33–69.27) 32.18(30.73–33.67) Child having functional difficulties No 65.36(64.43–66.28) 34.64(33.72–35.57) 0.000 Yes 53.42(50.36–56.45) 46.58(43.55–49.64) Engaged in any other activity for income in the past week No 64.5(63.6-65.39) 35.5(34.61–36.4) 0.160 Yes 61.05(55.12–66.67) 38.95(33.33–44.88) The child has difficulty making friends No 64.3(63.4-65.19) 35.7(34.81–36.6) 0.045 Yes 71.25(64.94–76.83) 28.75(23.17–35.06) Region related Area of residence Urban 70.08(68.03–72.05) 29.92(27.95–31.97) 0.000 Rural 62.93(61.94–63.91) 37.07(36.09–38.06) Region Barishal 61.66(58.78–64.47) 38.34(35.53–41.22) 0.000 Chattogram 58.91(56.6-61.18) 41.09(38.82–43.41) Dhaka 62.12(60.19-64) 37.88(36-39.81) Khulna 63.72(61.66–65.72) 36.28(34.28–38.34) Mymensingh 62.66(59.04–66.14) 37.34(33.86-34) Rajshahi 67.68(65.23–70.04) 32.32(29.96–34.77) Rangpur 61.55(59.23–63.82) 38.45(36.18–40.77) Sylhet 87.84(84.83–90.31) 12.16(9.68–15.17) Household related Number of children 5–7 years 1–2 Children 65.48(64.56–66.39) 34.52(33.61–35.44) 0.001 3–4 Children 61.59(59.64–63.51) 38.41(36.49–40.36) > 4 65.54(57.64–74.26) 33.49(25.74–42.18) Household’s Ethnicity Bengali 64.44(63.55–65.33) 35.56(34.67–36.45) 0.791 Others 61.34(49.88–71.67) 38.66(28.33–50.12) Wealth index quintile Poorest 60.41(58.52–62.27) 39.59(37.73–41.48) 0.000 Poorer 60.63(58.75–62.48) 39.37(37.52–41.25) Middle 63.42(61.52–36.58) 36.58(34.72–38.48) Richer 65.21(63.19–67.18) 34.79(32.82–36.81) Richest 73.37(71.15–75.48) 26.63(24.52–28.85) Parent related Mother’s education Pre-Primary or none 62.54(60.63–64.41) 37.46(35.59–39.29) 0.000 Primary 62.29(60.71–63.84) 37.71(36.16–39.29) Secondary 64.3(62.86–65.71) 35.7(34.29–37.14) Higher secondary and above 77.38(74.87–79.71) 22.62(20.29–25.13) Mother/caretaker’s having functional difficulties No 64.67(63.76–65.57) 35.33(34.43–36.24) 0.002 Yes 56.6(51.97) 43.4(38.89–48.03) Mother/caretaker of another child aged under 5 No 64.39(63.45–65.32) 35.61(34.68–36.55) 0.909 Yes 64.57(61.98–67.07) 35.43(32.93–38.02) Note : “CI, confidence interval” Table 3 Determinants of parental belief in the necessity of punishment for children aged 5–14 years Characteristics Model 1 Model 2 cOR (95% CI) aOR (95% CI) Child’s age (in years) (Ref.= 5–9) 10–14 0.85(0.80–0.90) *** 0.91(0.84–0.98) *** Child’s Sex (Ref.=Male) Female 0.89(0.84–0.95) *** 0.89(0.84–0.95) *** Area of residence (Ref.= Urban) Rural 1.24(1.14–1.33) *** 1.09(1-1.19) *** Region (Ref.=Barishal) Chattogram 0.94(0.84–1.06) 1.01(0.90–1.15) Dhaka 0.93(0.83–1.04) 1.07(0.94–1.20) Khulna 0.75(0.66–0.84) *** 0.82(0.73–0.93) *** Mymenshing 0.78(0.67–0.92) *** 0.77(0.65–0.91) ** Rajshahi 0.65(0.57–0.74) *** 0.68(0.60–0.78) *** Rangpur 0.92(0.81–1.04) 0.96(0.85–1.10) Sylhet 0.18(0.14–0.22) *** 0.18(0.14–0.22)*** Child's education (Ref.= Pre-primary or none) Primary 0.90(0.83–0.98) 0.93(0.85–1.19) Secondary 0.73(0.67–0.80) *** 0.80(0.71–0.91)*** Wealth index quintile (Ref.= Poorest) Poorer 0.97(0.89–1.05) 0.99(0.90–1.08) Middle 0.86(0.78–0.94) *** 0.91(0.83–1.01) Richer 0.79(0.72–0.87) *** 0.88(0.79–0.97)*** Richest 0.58(0.53–0.64) *** 0.71(0.62–0.80)*** Child’s having functional difficulties (Ref.= No) Yes 1.52(1.37–1.70) *** 1.47(1.31–1.64)*** Mother’s education (Ref.= Pre-Primary or None) Primary 1.05(0.97–1.15) 1.05(0.97–1.15) Secondary 0.93(0.86-1) 0.95(0.87–1.04) Higher Secondary and above 0.58(0.51–0.65) *** 0.67(0.58–0.77)*** Mother/caretaker’s having functional difficulties (Ref.=No) Yes 1.28(1.09–1.50) ** 1.23(1.04–1.45)** Number of Children aged 5–7(Ref.=1–2 Children) 3–4 Children 1.15(1.06–1.25) ** 1.19(1.09–1.29)** < 4 Children 0.98(0.71–1.35) 1.31(0.93–1.84) The child has difficulty making friends (Ref.=No Difficulties) Some difficulties 0.78(0.61–0.99) * 0.62(0.48–0.81)* Note: ‘Ref., reference category’, “CI, confidence interval”, “*” p < 0.05, “**” p < 0.01, “***” p < 0.001 cOR = Crude odds ratio; aOR = Adjusted odds ratio; The participation rates for both age groups were nearly identical; most parents did not believe in punishing children. Furthermore, similar results were seen among individual male and female respondents across age groups. In rural areas, 62.93% respondents opposed child punishment, while 37.07% supported it, compared to 29.92% in urban areas. Regional participation was Barishal (5.73%), Chattogram (20.25%), Dhaka (23.93%), Khulna (10.84%), Mymensingh (7.11%), Rajshahi (12.43%), Rangpur (11.43%), and Sylhet (8.28%). Most contributors believed that children should not be punished to develop properly. In the survey, 15.22% had children in pre-primary school, with 61.62% responding negatively, and 38.38% supported child punishment. For primary school, 55.45% had enrolled children, with 63.37% opposing punishment and 36.63% supporting it. In secondary school (29.33% participation), 67.82% opposed punishment, while 32.18% accepted it. Mothers’ education levels varied between Pre-primary (23.11%), Primary (29.7%), Secondary (38.69%), and higher secondary and above (8.50%). Opposition to punishment increased with education: 62.54% (Pre-Primary), 62.29% (Primary), 64.3% (Secondary), and 77.38% (Higher Secondary and above). Conversely, support decreased by 37.46%, 37.71%, 35.7%, and 22.62%, respectively. Family income significantly influences attitudes toward child punishment. The study included 21.2% from the Poorest, 21.29% from the Poorer, 19.75% from the Middle, 18.83% from the richer, and 18.93% from the richest families. Opposition to punishment increased with income by 60.41% (poorest), 60.63% (poorer), 63.42% (middle), 65.21% (richer), and 73.37% (richest), while the rest supported it. In the survey, 92.04% reported their children had no functional disabilities, 65.21% opposed punishment, and 34.64% supported it. Of the 7.96% with disabled children, 53.42% rejected punishment, whereas 46.58% approved. Among caretakers, 96.73% had no functional difficulties, with 64.67% opposing punishment. Of the 3.27% with difficulties, 56.6% rejected punishment. Parents with multiple children aged 5–17 primarily opposed punishment as the sole parenting method. Additionally, 98.37% said their children could form friendships, with 64.3% rejecting punishment. Only 1.63% reported social difficulties. Overall, 71.25% opposed child punishment. The VIF values ranged from 1.016 to 1.783, suggesting no significant multicollinearity among the predictor variables. Table 3 represents the influential factors of parental belief. Results indicate that parents with child aged 10–14 are less likely to believe in punishing children compared to parents with child aged 5–9 (aOR: 0.91, 95% CI: 0.84–0.98). The girls’ parents were less likely to believe in punishing children compared to boys’ parents (aOR: 0.89, 95% CI: 0.84–0.95). Parents in rural areas had slightly higher odds in believing in the necessity of punishment compared to those in urban areas (aOR: 1.09, 95% CI: 1.00-1.19). The region of residence also plays a crucial role in shaping parental belief presented in Fig. 1 . Several regions show a significant reduction in the possibility of parents believing in punishment compared to the reference region, Barishal. For instance, parents from Khulna were 18%, Mymenshing were 23%, Rajshahi were 32% and Sylhet were 82% less likely to believe in punishing children. The study revealed that parents of children who completed their secondary education were significantly less likely to hold beliefs supporting the necessity of punishment (aOR: 0.80, 95% CI: 0.71–0.91). The wealth index of households was another influential factor. Parents in the richer (aOR: 0.88, 95% CI: 0.79–0.97) and richest quintiles (aOR: 0.71, 95% CI: 0.62–0.80) were less likely to believe in the necessity of punishment, compared to those in the poorest quintile. Furthermore, parents of children with functional problems were 1.47 times more likely to believe that punishment was necessary compared to parents of children without such problems (aOR: 1.47, 95% CI: 1.31–1.64). The data show that children whose mothers have higher secondary education or above were 33% less likely to hold such beliefs compared to those whose mothers have no education or only pre-primary education (aOR: 0.67, 95% CI: 0.58–0.77). Mothers with functional difficulties are 1.23 times more likely to believe in punishing children (aOR: 1.23, 95% CI: 1.04–1.45). Parents of children who have difficulty making friends were 38% less likely to believe in punishment (aOR: 0.62, 95% CI: 0.48–0.81). Finally, the number of children in a family was significantly linked to parents' beliefs and behaviours regarding discipline. Families with three or four children are 1.19 times more likely to believe in the necessity of punishment compared to those with one or two children (aOR: 1.19, 95% CI: 1.09–1.29). Discussion The study found a high prevalence of parental support for child punishment in Bangladesh, with variations across child and parental characteristics, and identified key factors influencing these beliefs using nationally representative data. More than one-thirds parents believed that a child needs to be physically punished to be brought up properly. This finding aligns with regional patterns of violent discipline across South Asia, where caregivers frequently endorse physical punishment as necessary for childrearing. In Nepal's MICS, 36.1% of mothers and caregivers in 2010 and 22.8% in 2019 believed physical punishment was needed, with over 80% of children aged 2–14 experiencing violent discipline. Comparable attitudes prevail in Pakistan, such as 18.8% in Baluchistan’s 2019–2020 MICS and higher rates exceeding 80% in other provinces like Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, while broader studies report 82.3% violent discipline prevalence in Bangladesh and around 40–80% in India and Sri Lanka. This finding is consistent with regional patterns in South Asia. A review of violent discipline found that about 40.9% of caretakers in Pakistan and 35% in Nepal reported that physical punishment was necessary for childrearing. These findings suggest that the prevalence of parental support for punishment in Bangladesh reflects broader regional trends and entrenched norms around child discipline, highlighting the need for interventions promoting non-violent, positive parenting. The analysis shows that parents are more likely to believe that younger children (especially those aged 5–9 years) should be punished compared to older children. However, punishment can cause serious harm. Young children are at greater risk of physical punishment, and they often do not understand why they are being punished or how to manage with the emotional distress it creates [ 27 ]. Moreover, research evidence highlights the importance of vicarious exposure or direct exposure to spanking and corporal punishment in families with children of different ages. It suggests that the adverse effects of social development are regardless of children’s age [ 28 ]. The findings from the current study show that rural areas may emphasize child punishment. Similar to findings from other studies, children living in rural areas were more prone to experiencing physical and severe punishment practices than children living in urban areas [ 29 ]. This suggests a 10.4% lower likelihood of rural parents supporting punishment, which might be attributed to differing cultural norms or parenting styles between rural and urban settings. In Malaysia, 60% of parents believe that physical punishment is necessary for raising children [ 19 ]. Among the divisions, belief in the punishment status of Mymensingh was high, and this significant difference may suggest that cultural or religious values in Sylhet strongly discourage punitive measures for children. These results indicate substantial regional variation in beliefs about child punishment, which may be influenced by educational levels and economic conditions. Notably, parents from Sylhet are the least likely to support punishment compared to Barishal. This finding points to a potential relationship between socio-economic status and attitudes toward child punishment, where wealthier families might have greater access to alternative parenting resources or educational opportunities that discourage punishment as a disciplinary method. So, the Richest believed that children need to be less punished to be raised. A previous study found that lower-income households were also linked to the belief in the necessity of child punishment [ 30 ]. This result raises concerns about the vulnerability of children with functional challenges, as it suggests that parents may view punishment to manage behaviours associated with these difficulties, potentially exacerbating the challenges faced by these children. The findings further show that secondary school children were less punished than primary school children. This association may reflect a parenting style emphasizing academic success and intellectual development. On the other hand, this could reflect the increased expectations educated mothers place on their children. Mothers who have received primary education may adopt more structured parenting approaches, where discipline or enforcement of rules plays a crucial role. Research indicates that educating parents about positive parenting techniques, alternatives to physical punishment, and its negative effects can decrease their support for using physical punishment. However, it is essential to remember that cultural norms continue to strongly influence parents' acceptance of physical punishment [ 31 ]. Parents may feel that physical punishment is necessary to stop misbehaviour immediately and believe it may be more effective in the long term for safeguarding the child from future dangers, even if they are aware of its negative consequences [ 32 ]. The observed risk factors of parental beliefs point to clear priorities for policy action aimed at promoting non-violent child-rearing practices in Bangladesh. It is necessary to create integrated packages rather than single, isolated activities; align national child protection efforts with INSPIRE guidance, as the WHO emphasizes that preventing physical punishment and its consequences necessitates multisectoral strategies, including law reform, shifting harmful norms, parent and caregiver support, and school-based programming. These are all components of the INSPIRE technical package of evidence-based treatments [ 3 ]. Expanding vulnerable community and parent involvement platforms and collaborating closely with current government and civil society stakeholders are needed. According to recent UNICEF data, approximately 9 out of 10 children aged 1–14 in Bangladesh are subjected to violent discipline each month, highlighting the critical need for effective programs and collaboration with the government and communities [ 33 ]. It is important to integrate violence prevention messaging and parenting assistance into poverty reduction, cash transfer, or livelihood initiatives; guarantee that families experiencing financial hardship receive tailored help and education on nonviolent discipline. According to research in Bangladesh, socioeconomic hardship is associated with a higher incidence of physical disciplinary practices, with poverty and stress serving as drivers. A national investigation found a high link between socioeconomic position, poor homes, and corporal punishment [ 34 ]. Using rural health professionals, community centers, sports or youth activities, and local leaders to promote healthy parenting and non-punitive discipline, in line with UNICEF's continuing community involvement efforts in Bangladesh is needed. Given the magnitude of the discipline and the WHO's request for norm-based interventions, rural and community level programming is vital, especially where beliefs and practices differ from urban contexts and service access may be less [ 33 ]. Lastly, implementing screening, counselling, and referral in primary health, social welfare, and disability services to ensure that programs address increased stress or the requirements of caregivers of children with functional challenges. Global recommendations and evidence emphasize the significance of caregiver support and response services, as well as prevention. The WHO framework specifically includes response and support services for early recognition and care of families to reduce the occurrence and consequences of harsh punishment [ 3 ]. The strength of this study lies in using the MICS 2019 dataset, which is a highly reliable and nationally representative survey on child and maternal indicators in Bangladesh. MICS is conducted by UNICEF using a rigorous sampling method that covers all divisions and population groups, ensuring that the findings represent the whole country. The survey uses standardized and well-tested questionnaires, which help maintain consistency and reduce errors. The Child Discipline Module is specifically designed to collect sensitive information on child-rearing practices using validated questions, making the data trustworthy. In addition, the large sample size, high response rate, strong data quality checks, and trained interviewers further improve the accuracy and reliability of the dataset. The survey follows standardized questionnaires and globally harmonized measurement protocols, allowing for robust cross-country comparability and minimizing measurement bias. Importantly, the Child Discipline Module in MICS is specifically designed to capture sensitive information related to child-rearing practices using validated items, increasing the reliability of responses. The large sample size, high response rate, strict data quality monitoring, and standardized interviewer training further enhance the credibility and statistical power of the dataset. The limitation of this study also lies in using MICS 2019 data as the exposure variables are limited in the dataset. Due to this limitation, it was not possible to consider some potential exposure variables. Another major limitation is that, MICS dataset does not include variable regarding fathers’ perspective on punishing children which restricts a more comprehensive understanding of household attitudes toward physical punishment. Conclusions The findings of this study shows that parental beliefs regarding punishing children in Bangladesh result from a complex interplay of child, parent, and family related factors, socioeconomic status, and regional influences. For instance, parents of older children and girls were less likely to have such beliefs, whereas rural residence and larger family size were associated with these beliefs. Notably, there was considerable regional variation in these beliefs, suggesting regional influences on social norms. Socioeconomic status, measured in terms of household wealth, children’s educational attainments, and mothers’ educational attainments, was negatively associated with parental beliefs in child punishment. Conversely, parents of children with functional difficulties and mothers with functional limitations were significantly more likely to have such beliefs. The results of this study suggest that in order to reduce support for child punishment, it is necessary to address socioeconomic inequalities, improve children’s educational opportunities, and provide support to vulnerable families, especially in rural areas and large families. Abbreviations BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster survey SDG Sustainable Development Goal UNICEF International Children's Emergency Fund WHO World Health Organization NGO Non-Government Organization SCI Save the Children BLAST Bangladesh Legal Aid and Services Trust PSU Primary sampling unit VIF Variance Inflation Factor CI Confidence interval aOR Adjusted odds ratio Declarations Acknowledgements : The authors would like to express their gratitude to UNICEF for granting permission to use the data. Authors’ contribution: Conceptualization, M.N.I.M., M.S.I, and S.P.; methodology, M.N.I.M. and M.A.H.M.; writing- original draft preparation, M.E.A., M.H., S.P., and M.A.H.M.; writing- review and editing, M.S.I, M.H., M.M.H, M.M.I, S.P., M.R.H, and M.A.H.M.; supervision, M.N.I.M., and M.S.I. All the authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Ethical approval - Not Applicable The study used anonymized, publicly available secondary data from MICS 2019, which had prior ethical approval by the Bangladesh National Ethics Committee. No additional approval was required. Consent to participate - Not Applicable Informed consent was obtained during the original MICS 2019 survey. No new consent was required for this secondary analysis. Consent to publish - Not Applicable The manuscript contains no individual-level identifying data; no additional consent for publication was required. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Sources of funding: This research received no external funding. Funding Declaration : This study did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Clinical Trial Number : Not applicable. Clinical Trial Registration : This study is not a clinical trial; therefore, clinical trial registration is not applicable. Availability of data: MICS data are publicly available from UNICEF’s database at http://mics.unicef.org/surveys. References Nieman P, et al. Effective discipline for children. Paediatr Child Health. 2004;9(1):37–41. UNCRC, General comment No. 8 (2006): The Right of the Child to Protection from Corporal Punishment and Other Cruel or Degrading Forms of Punishment (Arts. 19; 28, Para. 2; and 37, inter alia) . 2007: Geneva. WHO. Corporal punishment of children and health. 2025; Available from: Avaiable at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/corporal-punishment-and-health WHO. New report demonstrates that corporal punishment harms children’s health . 2025. UNICEF. Nearly 400 million young children worldwide regularly experience violent discipline at home – UNICEF . 2024. UNICEF. Violent discipline. 2025; Available from: Available at: https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-protection/violence/violent-discipline/#:~:text=Harmful%20social%20norms%20that%20underpin,raise%20and%20educate%20children%20properly Auemaneekul N. Parents' perceptions of child abuse and child discipline in Bangkok, Thailand. J Med Association Thailand= Chotmaihet Thangphaet. 2013;96:S181–9. Durrant J, Ensom R. Physical punishment of children: lessons from 20 years of research. CMAJ. 2012;184(12):1373–7. UNHCR. UN Committee on the Rights of the Child UNHCR: Geneva, Switzerland. 2006. Heilmann A, et al. Physical punishment and child outcomes: a narrative review of prospective studies. Lancet. 2021;398(10297):355–64. Islam MM. Child Disciplinary Practices at Home and Parental Attitudes Towards Physical Punishment to Children in Bangladesh. J Child Fam stud. 2024;33(12):3904–19. BBS. and UNICEF, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2019 . 2019. Shanta SP. Corporal punishment is an outdated practice , in The Daily Observer . 2023. Statistics BBo, Bangladesh U. Progotir pathey, Bangladesh multiple indicator cluster survey 2019, survey findings report. Dhaka, Bangladesh: BBS;; 2019. Islam MM. The gradients of the relationship between child discipline practices at home and early childhood development of young children. Volume 147. Child Abuse & Neglect; 2024. p. 106536. Atteraya MS, Ebrahim NB, Gnawali S. Determinants of child maltreatment in Nepal: Results from the 2014 Nepal multiple indicator cluster survey (the 2014 NMICS). Volume 76. Child abuse & neglect; 2018. pp. 400–7. Gershoff ET. Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: a meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychol Bull. 2002;128(4):539. Cuartas J. Corporal punishment and early childhood development in 49 low-and middle-income countries. Child Abuse Negl. 2021;120:105205. Ganapathy SS, et al. Practice of Disciplinary Methods and Factors Associated With Belief for Physical Punishment Among Malaysian Parents: Findings From NHMS 2016. Global Pediatr Health. 2022;9:2333794X221113820. Gao Y, et al. Association between household crowding and violent discipline and neglect of children: Analysis of Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys in 26 low-and middle-income countries. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(4):1685. Hughes K, et al. Parental adverse childhood experiences and perpetration of child physical punishment in Wales. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(19):12702. Pengpid S, Peltzer K. Prevalence and factors associated with physical punishment and psychological aggression towards children in Laos: Results of the 2017 social indicator survey. Iran J Psychiatry Behav Sci, 2020. 14(4). Lansford JE, et al. Attitudes justifying domestic violence predict endorsement of corporal punishment and physical and psychological aggression towards children: a study in 25 low-and middle-income countries. J Pediatr. 2014;164(5):1208–13. Heilmann A, et al. Physical punishment and child outcomes: a narrative review of prospective studies. Lancet. 2021;398(10297):355–64. Baker-Henningham H, Francis T. Parents' use of harsh punishment and young children's behaviour and achievement: a longitudinal study of Jamaican children with conduct problems. Global Mental Health. 2018;5:e32. Kelmendi K, Arënliu A, Halimi T. Child Discipline Practices in Kosovo: Attitudes and Sociodemographic Correlates. J Family Violence. 2022;37(7):1111–24. UNICEF. Child disciplinary practices at home: evidence from a range of low and middle income countries . 2020. Pace GT, Lee SJ, Grogan-Kaylor A. Spanking and young children’s socioemotional development in low-and middle-income countries. Child Abuse Negl. 2019;88:84–95. Akmatov MK. Child abuse in 28 developing and transitional countries—results from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys. Int J Epidemiol. 2011;40(1):219–27. Malaysia Po. Child Act 601: Parliment of Malaysia; 2001 . 2001. Chiocca EM. American Parents' Attitudes and Beliefs About Corporal Punishment: An Integrative Literature Review. J Pediatr Health Care. 2017;31(3):372–83. Ispa J, Halgunseth L. Talking about corporal punishment: Nine low-income African American mothers' perspectives. Early Child Res Q. 2004;19:463–84. UNICEF. 9 out of 10 children in Bangladesh experience violent discipline at home every month – UNICEF . 2024. Ibrahim M, Patwary MH. Understanding the influence of socioeconomic status on children physical disciplinary practices in Bangladeshi households. PLoS ONE. 2025;20(4):e0320239. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 14 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 10 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 27 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 26 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 20 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 15 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 24 Mar, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 23 Mar, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 22 Mar, 2026 First submitted to journal 22 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Shariful Islam","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Rajshahi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Shariful","lastName":"Islam","suffix":""},{"id":627206372,"identity":"db66102f-0892-429e-a71c-372968ac1256","order_by":1,"name":"Md. Nazrul Islam Mondal","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYNCCAgkGPgYGxgcQHg+DBGEtBhIMbAwMzAakaGEAaWGTIEqLOfvxZ595DCzs2dhPp1VXtjHI8zfwHryBT4tlT0LybB4DicQ2ntxtN8+2MRjOOMCXbIHXSQcSDjMDtSSwMQC1NLYxMG5g4DHD6zCD8w+bQVrs2fjfbisEarEnrOVGMjNIC2ObRO42RqCWRCK0PGNmnAPyi8TbzZIN5ySSZxwm5Jfz6Y8Z3lTU2fPz52782FBmY9vf3os/xNAB0EnMpKgfBaNgFIyCUYAVAAChOD1Dnqc+ogAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Rajshahi","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Nazrul Islam","lastName":"Mondal","suffix":""},{"id":627206373,"identity":"48db1be1-a2d0-4d4b-ab99-3264ca6bb65d","order_by":2,"name":"Moynul Haque","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Rajshahi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Moynul","middleName":"","lastName":"Haque","suffix":""},{"id":627206374,"identity":"080bd8a5-4f01-400f-bfeb-c7797d5264e4","order_by":3,"name":"Shela Parvin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Rajshahi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shela","middleName":"","lastName":"Parvin","suffix":""},{"id":627206375,"identity":"426c482e-861c-4fe4-8cd6-4c646a27f7ac","order_by":4,"name":"Mst Rahnuma Haque","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Rajshahi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mst","middleName":"Rahnuma","lastName":"Haque","suffix":""},{"id":627206376,"identity":"31bbd07c-0ac5-4170-a2c8-1ecb3e64bc3a","order_by":5,"name":"Md. Eakub Ali","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Rajshahi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Eakub","lastName":"Ali","suffix":""},{"id":627206377,"identity":"91dbd8cf-71e7-4ba1-b45a-74bc98bced26","order_by":6,"name":"Md Mosharaf Hossain","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Bangladesh University of Business and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md","middleName":"Mosharaf","lastName":"Hossain","suffix":""},{"id":627206378,"identity":"9db63b4b-fd48-4715-9293-2ffba97f48dc","order_by":7,"name":"Mohammad Mazharul Islam","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"King Abdulaziz University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohammad","middleName":"Mazharul","lastName":"Islam","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-13 17:23:28","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9117074/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9117074/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":107619140,"identity":"19120cfc-acab-41a9-b22f-efb138e188cb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-23 09:27:28","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1056716,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRegional distribution of prenatal belief in the necessity of physical punishment for raising children\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9117074/v1/5d4a5bb69e966df7e14ea95c.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Determinants of Parental Beliefs Regarding Child Physical Punishment in Bangladesh Based on Nationally Representative Data","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eChildren are the future leaders of a nation as the economic and social development depend heavily on them. Ensuring a healthy upbringing is therefore a very important duty for families, society and the country. But unfortunately, these children often face violence and aggression in the hands of their family members or society in the name of discipline. The word discipline refers to the act of imparting knowledge and skills, or teaching. However, it is frequently associated with control and punishment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Physical punishment is defined as \u0026lsquo;any form of punishment in which physical form is used and intended to cause some level of pain or discomfort, even if it is minimal\u0026rsquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. According to a recent World Health Organization (WHO) research, physical punishment is still frighteningly common and seriously impairs children's development and health. Every year, an estimated 1.2\u0026nbsp;billion children between the ages of 0 and 18 receive physical punishment at home. According to data from 58 nations, 17% of kids who had received physical punishment in the previous month had been slapped severely and repeatedly, or on the head, face, or ears. There are significant national differences in the use of physical punishment in homes. Parental and caregiver self-reported rates of physical punishment in the previous month among children aged 2\u0026ndash;14 ranged from 30% in Kazakhstan and 32% in Ukraine to 63% in Serbia, 64% in Sierra Leone, and 77% in Togo [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParental beliefs about child physical punishment diverge widely among cultures, societies, individual families, religions, socio-economic status, etc. Findings suggest that negative social norms that drive violent child-rearing approaches exist globally, with slightly more than one in four mothers and primary caregivers believing that physical punishment is required to properly raise and educate children [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. In several Asian families, physical punishments are considered customary and a power relationship to teach children hierarchy and to obey elders. Furthermore, parents believe it is within their right to determine how they discipline their children [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Even though child physical punishment is recognized internationally as a form of violence that harms children [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e] and violates their rights to dignity and protection [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], parents still refuse to believe it [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Like some countries, a proportion of Bangladeshi parents still believe that physical punishment toward children is necessary to rear a child [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. An existing study shows that 35% of parents or caregivers believe that physically punishing children is necessary and this belief is a strong predictor of violent discipline [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. According to the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2019 report, 35% mothers or caretakers believe in physically punishing the children [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. According to a survey conducted by Save the Children (SCI) and Bangladesh Legal Aid and Services Trust (BLAST), physical punishment is viewed by 69% of respondents as a practical way to instil discipline in schools, 55% as an effective method for proper learning, and 27% as essential for keeping kids on the correct path [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, it is important to identify the influential predictors regarding parental beliefs on child physical punishment. Accordingly, this study aims to investigate the factors associated with parental beliefs regarding child physical punishment in Bangladesh.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Data and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMICS is an international household survey program developed by the United Nations Children\u0026rsquo;s Fund (UNICEF) in the 1990s to assist low- and middle-income countries. The MICS 2019 in Bangladesh represents the 6th round of surveys conducted by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) with the support of UNICEF. This survey recruited nationally representative samples to gather essential data. It has addressed various issues impacting children and women, with 144 indicators, 29 of which relate to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Additionally, it is a cross-sectional study which has used a rigorous multistage, stratified cluster sampling design, which ensured that the results are nationally representative and reflected all divisions and population groups in Bangladesh. In the sampling process, census enumeration areas in urban and rural districts are selected based on size, and then 20 households are chosen from each primary sampling unit (PSU). Between January 19 and June 1 in 2019, the survey interviewed 61,242 households from 3,220 PSUs across the country and collected data from women aged 15\u0026ndash;49 years and children aged 0\u0026ndash;17 years using standardized questionnaires. Further details of the survey are available elsewhere [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. This study used only secondary data of children aged 5\u0026ndash;14 years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eOutcome variables\u003c/b\u003e: The main outcome variable was parental belief, which was measured by the simple sentence, \u0026lsquo;Child needs to be physically punished to be brought up properly.\u0026rsquo; Each question offered two options: \u0026lsquo;No\u0026rsquo; (coded as 0), which indicates the parents do not believe in child punishment to raise children properly, and \u0026lsquo;Yes\u0026rsquo; (coded as 1), which indicates the parents believe that punishment is necessary to raise children properly. This question was answered by mother or caregiver.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eExposure variables\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe exposure variables are child\u0026rsquo;s age, child\u0026rsquo;s sex, area, division, children having functional difficulties, mother\u0026rsquo;s and children's education, mothers/caretakers having functional difficulties, ethnicity, wealth index quintile, number of children, etc. Mothers/caretakers having functional difficulties was assessed using the adult module which is based on a short set of questions developed by the Washington Group of Disabilities Statistics, children having functional difficulties and difficulty making friends were assessed using child functioning modules [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. The variable selection has been motivated by the availability of the MICS-2019 dataset and guided by relevant literature [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19 CR20 CR21 CR22 CR23 CR24 CR25\" citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted descriptive analyses to estimate the percentage of parents who believe that children need punishment to grow up properly. We utilized a bivariate table to assess the prevalence of different disciplinary approaches based on various characteristics, such as the child's age, sex, and education. Multicollinearity among explanatory variables was examined using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) before fitting the regression model. Multivariable logistic regressions examined the relationship between parental attitudes towards punishment and various socio-demographic factors. To quantify these attitudes, we created a summary score by aggregating responses, resulting in values ranging from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates that punishment is unnecessary and 1 suggests that it is required. Both bivariate and multivariate (binary logistic regression) analyses were conducted. IBM SPSS (22.0) was used to analyse the data and statistical significance was accepted at \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:p\u0026lt;0.05\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe MICS study adheres to UNICEF's ethical standards for research, evaluation, data collection, and analysis, and includes a record of an ethics review. It is designed to protect and respect human and child rights in all research, evaluation, and data collection processes conducted or commissioned by UNICEF. Verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants in this study before the interviews. All respondents were made aware that their participation was voluntary and that their information would remain confidential and anonymous. Furthermore, they were informed of their right to decline to answer any specific questions and to withdraw from the interview at any time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe background characteristics of children aged 5\u0026ndash;14 years and their parents, along with parental beliefs about child punishment are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Overall, 34.57% of parents believed that a child needs to be physically punished to be brought up properly. The findings show that parental belief about punishment varies significantly across different child, parental, and household characteristics. The bivariate analysis (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) identified several factors that were significantly associated with parental beliefs about child punishment. Finally, the determinants of parental belief in the necessity of punishment for children are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Both the unadjusted (Model 1) and adjusted (Model 2) binary logistic regression models indicate that multiple child-, parent-, and household-level characteristics are significantly associated with parents\u0026rsquo; beliefs of physical punishment as a necessary component of childrearing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild and household characteristics, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19,675\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevels\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage, (%), 95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild related\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild\u0026rsquo;s age (in years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.69(45.82\u0026ndash;47.56)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.31(52.44\u0026ndash;54.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild\u0026rsquo;s sex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.7(50.83\u0026ndash;52.56)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.3(47.44\u0026ndash;49.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild\u0026rsquo;s education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-primary or none\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.22(14.58\u0026ndash;15.88)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.45(54.56\u0026ndash;56.34)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.33(28.52\u0026ndash;30.16)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild's having functional difficulties\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.04(91.53\u0026ndash;92.52)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.96(7.48\u0026ndash;8.47)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngaged in any other activity for income in the past week\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.37(97.05\u0026ndash;97.65)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.63(2.34\u0026ndash;2.95)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe child has difficulty making friends\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.37(98.14\u0026ndash;98.58)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63(1.42\u0026ndash;1.86)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRegion related\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea of residence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.7(19.97\u0026ndash;21.45)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.3(78.55\u0026ndash;80.03)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBarishal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.73(5.43\u0026ndash;6.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChattogram\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.25(19.52\u0026ndash;21.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDhaka\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.93(23.14\u0026ndash;24.73)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKhulna\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.84(10.41\u0026ndash;11.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMymensingh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.11(6.69\u0026ndash;7.56)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRajshahi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.43(11.91\u0026ndash;12.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRangpur\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.42(10.93\u0026ndash;11.94)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSylhet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.28(7.54\u0026ndash;9.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold related\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of children 5\u0026ndash;7 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2 Children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.19(68.2-70.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;4 Children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.19(27.27\u0026ndash;29.13)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.61(2.20\u0026ndash;3.09)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold\u0026rsquo;s Ethnicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBengali\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.86(98.56\u0026ndash;99.09)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.14(0.90\u0026ndash;1.43)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWealth index quintile\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoorest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2(20.25\u0026ndash;22.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoorer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.29(20.5\u0026ndash;22.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.75(19.01\u0026ndash;20.51)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRicher\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.83(18.06\u0026ndash;19.63)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRichest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.93(18.04\u0026ndash;19.84)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eParent related\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-Primary or none\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.11(22.22\u0026ndash;24.02)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.7(28.84\u0026ndash;30.57)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.69(37.75\u0026ndash;39.64)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher secondary and above\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.50(7.93\u0026ndash;9.10)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother/caretaker\u0026rsquo;s having functional difficulties\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96.73(96.41\u0026ndash;97.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.27(2.98\u0026ndash;3.58)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother/caretaker of another child aged under 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.61(89.08\u0026ndash;90.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.39(9.88\u0026ndash;10.92)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors associated with parental belief, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19,675\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevels\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParental Belief Status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-values\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo (%),\u0026nbsp;95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes (%), 95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild related\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild\u0026rsquo;s age (in years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.95(62.68\u0026ndash;64.21)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.05(35.79\u0026ndash;38.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.69(64.51\u0026ndash;66.84)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.31(33.16\u0026ndash;35.49)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild\u0026rsquo;s sex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.22(62.01\u0026ndash;64.43)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.78(35.57\u0026ndash;37.99)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.68(64.41\u0026ndash;66.92)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.32(33.08\u0026ndash;35.59)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild\u0026rsquo;s education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-primary or none\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.62(59.38\u0026ndash;63.81)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.38(36.19\u0026ndash;40.62)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.37(62.15\u0026ndash;64.58)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.63(35.42\u0026ndash;37.85)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.82(66.33\u0026ndash;69.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.18(30.73\u0026ndash;33.67)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild having functional difficulties\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.36(64.43\u0026ndash;66.28)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.64(33.72\u0026ndash;35.57)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.42(50.36\u0026ndash;56.45)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.58(43.55\u0026ndash;49.64)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngaged in any other activity for income in the past week\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.5(63.6-65.39)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.5(34.61\u0026ndash;36.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.160\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.05(55.12\u0026ndash;66.67)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.95(33.33\u0026ndash;44.88)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe child has difficulty making friends\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.3(63.4-65.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.7(34.81\u0026ndash;36.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.25(64.94\u0026ndash;76.83)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.75(23.17\u0026ndash;35.06)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRegion related\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea of residence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.08(68.03\u0026ndash;72.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.92(27.95\u0026ndash;31.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.93(61.94\u0026ndash;63.91)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.07(36.09\u0026ndash;38.06)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBarishal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.66(58.78\u0026ndash;64.47)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.34(35.53\u0026ndash;41.22)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChattogram\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.91(56.6-61.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.09(38.82\u0026ndash;43.41)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDhaka\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.12(60.19-64)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.88(36-39.81)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKhulna\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.72(61.66\u0026ndash;65.72)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.28(34.28\u0026ndash;38.34)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMymensingh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.66(59.04\u0026ndash;66.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.34(33.86-34)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRajshahi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.68(65.23\u0026ndash;70.04)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.32(29.96\u0026ndash;34.77)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRangpur\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.55(59.23\u0026ndash;63.82)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.45(36.18\u0026ndash;40.77)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSylhet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.84(84.83\u0026ndash;90.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.16(9.68\u0026ndash;15.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold related\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of children 5\u0026ndash;7 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2 Children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.48(64.56\u0026ndash;66.39)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.52(33.61\u0026ndash;35.44)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;4 Children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.59(59.64\u0026ndash;63.51)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.41(36.49\u0026ndash;40.36)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.54(57.64\u0026ndash;74.26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.49(25.74\u0026ndash;42.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold\u0026rsquo;s Ethnicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBengali\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.44(63.55\u0026ndash;65.33)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.56(34.67\u0026ndash;36.45)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.791\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.34(49.88\u0026ndash;71.67)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.66(28.33\u0026ndash;50.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWealth index quintile\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoorest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.41(58.52\u0026ndash;62.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.59(37.73\u0026ndash;41.48)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoorer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.63(58.75\u0026ndash;62.48)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.37(37.52\u0026ndash;41.25)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.42(61.52\u0026ndash;36.58)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.58(34.72\u0026ndash;38.48)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRicher\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.21(63.19\u0026ndash;67.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.79(32.82\u0026ndash;36.81)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRichest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.37(71.15\u0026ndash;75.48)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.63(24.52\u0026ndash;28.85)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eParent related\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-Primary or none\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.54(60.63\u0026ndash;64.41)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.46(35.59\u0026ndash;39.29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.29(60.71\u0026ndash;63.84)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.71(36.16\u0026ndash;39.29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.3(62.86\u0026ndash;65.71)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.7(34.29\u0026ndash;37.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher secondary and above\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.38(74.87\u0026ndash;79.71)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.62(20.29\u0026ndash;25.13)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother/caretaker\u0026rsquo;s having functional difficulties\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.67(63.76\u0026ndash;65.57)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.33(34.43\u0026ndash;36.24)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.6(51.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.4(38.89\u0026ndash;48.03)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother/caretaker of another child aged under 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.39(63.45\u0026ndash;65.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.61(34.68\u0026ndash;36.55)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.909\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.57(61.98\u0026ndash;67.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.43(32.93\u0026ndash;38.02)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e: \u0026ldquo;CI, confidence interval\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeterminants of parental belief in the necessity of punishment for children aged 5\u0026ndash;14 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eaOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild\u0026rsquo;s age (in years) (Ref.= 5\u0026ndash;9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85(0.80\u0026ndash;0.90)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91(0.84\u0026ndash;0.98)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eChild\u0026rsquo;s Sex (Ref.=Male)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89(0.84\u0026ndash;0.95)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89(0.84\u0026ndash;0.95)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eArea of residence (Ref.= Urban)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.24(1.14\u0026ndash;1.33)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09(1-1.19)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRegion (Ref.=Barishal)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChattogram\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.94(0.84\u0026ndash;1.06)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01(0.90\u0026ndash;1.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDhaka\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93(0.83\u0026ndash;1.04)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.07(0.94\u0026ndash;1.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKhulna\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75(0.66\u0026ndash;0.84)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82(0.73\u0026ndash;0.93)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMymenshing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78(0.67\u0026ndash;0.92)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77(0.65\u0026ndash;0.91) \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRajshahi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65(0.57\u0026ndash;0.74)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68(0.60\u0026ndash;0.78)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRangpur\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92(0.81\u0026ndash;1.04)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96(0.85\u0026ndash;1.10)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSylhet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18(0.14\u0026ndash;0.22)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18(0.14\u0026ndash;0.22)***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eChild's education (Ref.= Pre-primary or none)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.90(0.83\u0026ndash;0.98)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93(0.85\u0026ndash;1.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73(0.67\u0026ndash;0.80)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.80(0.71\u0026ndash;0.91)***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWealth index quintile (Ref.= Poorest)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoorer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97(0.89\u0026ndash;1.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.99(0.90\u0026ndash;1.08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86(0.78\u0026ndash;0.94)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91(0.83\u0026ndash;1.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRicher\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79(0.72\u0026ndash;0.87)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.88(0.79\u0026ndash;0.97)***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRichest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58(0.53\u0026ndash;0.64)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71(0.62\u0026ndash;0.80)***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eChild\u0026rsquo;s having functional difficulties (Ref.= No)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.52(1.37\u0026ndash;1.70)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.47(1.31\u0026ndash;1.64)***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s education (Ref.= Pre-Primary or None)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.05(0.97\u0026ndash;1.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.05(0.97\u0026ndash;1.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93(0.86-1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95(0.87\u0026ndash;1.04)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher Secondary and above\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58(0.51\u0026ndash;0.65)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67(0.58\u0026ndash;0.77)***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMother/caretaker\u0026rsquo;s having functional difficulties (Ref.=No)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.28(1.09\u0026ndash;1.50)\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.23(1.04\u0026ndash;1.45)**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNumber of Children aged 5\u0026ndash;7(Ref.=1\u0026ndash;2 Children)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;4 Children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.15(1.06\u0026ndash;1.25)\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.19(1.09\u0026ndash;1.29)**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4 Children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.98(0.71\u0026ndash;1.35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.31(0.93\u0026ndash;1.84)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe child has difficulty making friends (Ref.=No Difficulties)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome difficulties\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78(0.61\u0026ndash;0.99)\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62(0.48\u0026ndash;0.81)*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNote: \u0026lsquo;Ref., reference category\u0026rsquo;, \u0026ldquo;CI, confidence interval\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;*\u0026rdquo; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, \u0026ldquo;**\u0026rdquo; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, \u0026ldquo;***\u0026rdquo; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003ecOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Crude odds ratio; aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Adjusted odds ratio;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe participation rates for both age groups were nearly identical; most parents did not believe in punishing children. Furthermore, similar results were seen among individual male and female respondents across age groups. In rural areas, 62.93% respondents opposed child punishment, while 37.07% supported it, compared to 29.92% in urban areas. Regional participation was Barishal (5.73%), Chattogram (20.25%), Dhaka (23.93%), Khulna (10.84%), Mymensingh (7.11%), Rajshahi (12.43%), Rangpur (11.43%), and Sylhet (8.28%). Most contributors believed that children should not be punished to develop properly. In the survey, 15.22% had children in pre-primary school, with 61.62% responding negatively, and 38.38% supported child punishment. For primary school, 55.45% had enrolled children, with 63.37% opposing punishment and 36.63% supporting it. In secondary school (29.33% participation), 67.82% opposed punishment, while 32.18% accepted it.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMothers\u0026rsquo; education levels varied between Pre-primary (23.11%), Primary (29.7%), Secondary (38.69%), and higher secondary and above (8.50%). Opposition to punishment increased with education: 62.54% (Pre-Primary), 62.29% (Primary), 64.3% (Secondary), and 77.38% (Higher Secondary and above). Conversely, support decreased by 37.46%, 37.71%, 35.7%, and 22.62%, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily income significantly influences attitudes toward child punishment. The study included 21.2% from the Poorest, 21.29% from the Poorer, 19.75% from the Middle, 18.83% from the richer, and 18.93% from the richest families. Opposition to punishment increased with income by 60.41% (poorest), 60.63% (poorer), 63.42% (middle), 65.21% (richer), and 73.37% (richest), while the rest supported it. In the survey, 92.04% reported their children had no functional disabilities, 65.21% opposed punishment, and 34.64% supported it. Of the 7.96% with disabled children, 53.42% rejected punishment, whereas 46.58% approved. Among caretakers, 96.73% had no functional difficulties, with 64.67% opposing punishment. Of the 3.27% with difficulties, 56.6% rejected punishment. Parents with multiple children aged 5\u0026ndash;17 primarily opposed punishment as the sole parenting method. Additionally, 98.37% said their children could form friendships, with 64.3% rejecting punishment. Only 1.63% reported social difficulties. Overall, 71.25% opposed child punishment. The VIF values ranged from 1.016 to 1.783, suggesting no significant multicollinearity among the predictor variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e represents the influential factors of parental belief. Results indicate that parents with child aged 10\u0026ndash;14 are less likely to believe in punishing children compared to parents with child aged 5\u0026ndash;9 (aOR: 0.91, 95% CI: 0.84\u0026ndash;0.98). The girls\u0026rsquo; parents were less likely to believe in punishing children compared to boys\u0026rsquo; parents (aOR: 0.89, 95% CI: 0.84\u0026ndash;0.95). Parents in rural areas had slightly higher odds in believing in the necessity of punishment compared to those in urban areas (aOR: 1.09, 95% CI: 1.00-1.19). The region of residence also plays a crucial role in shaping parental belief presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Several regions show a significant reduction in the possibility of parents believing in punishment compared to the reference region, Barishal. For instance, parents from Khulna were 18%, Mymenshing were 23%, Rajshahi were 32% and Sylhet were 82% less likely to believe in punishing children. The study revealed that parents of children who completed their secondary education were significantly less likely to hold beliefs supporting the necessity of punishment (aOR: 0.80, 95% CI: 0.71\u0026ndash;0.91). The wealth index of households was another influential factor. Parents in the richer (aOR: 0.88, 95% CI: 0.79\u0026ndash;0.97) and richest quintiles (aOR: 0.71, 95% CI: 0.62\u0026ndash;0.80) were less likely to believe in the necessity of punishment, compared to those in the poorest quintile. Furthermore, parents of children with functional problems were 1.47 times more likely to believe that punishment was necessary compared to parents of children without such problems (aOR: 1.47, 95% CI: 1.31\u0026ndash;1.64). The data show that children whose mothers have higher secondary education or above were 33% less likely to hold such beliefs compared to those whose mothers have no education or only pre-primary education (aOR: 0.67, 95% CI: 0.58\u0026ndash;0.77). Mothers with functional difficulties are 1.23 times more likely to believe in punishing children (aOR: 1.23, 95% CI: 1.04\u0026ndash;1.45). Parents of children who have difficulty making friends were 38% less likely to believe in punishment (aOR: 0.62, 95% CI: 0.48\u0026ndash;0.81). Finally, the number of children in a family was significantly linked to parents' beliefs and behaviours regarding discipline. Families with three or four children are 1.19 times more likely to believe in the necessity of punishment compared to those with one or two children (aOR: 1.19, 95% CI: 1.09\u0026ndash;1.29).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study found a high prevalence of parental support for child punishment in Bangladesh, with variations across child and parental characteristics, and identified key factors influencing these beliefs using nationally representative data. More than one-thirds parents believed that a child needs to be physically punished to be brought up properly.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis finding aligns with regional patterns of violent discipline across South Asia, where caregivers frequently endorse physical punishment as necessary for childrearing. In Nepal's MICS, 36.1% of mothers and caregivers in 2010 and 22.8% in 2019 believed physical punishment was needed, with over 80% of children aged 2\u0026ndash;14 experiencing violent discipline. Comparable attitudes prevail in Pakistan, such as 18.8% in Baluchistan\u0026rsquo;s 2019\u0026ndash;2020 MICS and higher rates exceeding 80% in other provinces like Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, while broader studies report 82.3% violent discipline prevalence in Bangladesh and around 40\u0026ndash;80% in India and Sri Lanka.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis finding is consistent with regional patterns in South Asia. A review of violent discipline found that about 40.9% of caretakers in Pakistan and 35% in Nepal reported that physical punishment was necessary for childrearing. These findings suggest that the prevalence of parental support for punishment in Bangladesh reflects broader regional trends and entrenched norms around child discipline, highlighting the need for interventions promoting non-violent, positive parenting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis shows that parents are more likely to believe that younger children (especially those aged 5\u0026ndash;9 years) should be punished compared to older children. However, punishment can cause serious harm. Young children are at greater risk of physical punishment, and they often do not understand why they are being punished or how to manage with the emotional distress it creates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, research evidence highlights the importance of vicarious exposure or direct exposure to spanking and corporal punishment in families with children of different ages. It suggests that the adverse effects of social development are regardless of children\u0026rsquo;s age [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. The findings from the current study show that rural areas may emphasize child punishment. Similar to findings from other studies, children living in rural areas were more prone to experiencing physical and severe punishment practices than children living in urban areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. This suggests a 10.4% lower likelihood of rural parents supporting punishment, which might be attributed to differing cultural norms or parenting styles between rural and urban settings. In Malaysia, 60% of parents believe that physical punishment is necessary for raising children [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Among the divisions, belief in the punishment status of Mymensingh was high, and this significant difference may suggest that cultural or religious values in Sylhet strongly discourage punitive measures for children. These results indicate substantial regional variation in beliefs about child punishment, which may be influenced by educational levels and economic conditions. Notably, parents from Sylhet are the least likely to support punishment compared to Barishal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis finding points to a potential relationship between socio-economic status and attitudes toward child punishment, where wealthier families might have greater access to alternative parenting resources or educational opportunities that discourage punishment as a disciplinary method. So, the Richest believed that children need to be less punished to be raised. A previous study found that lower-income households were also linked to the belief in the necessity of child punishment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. This result raises concerns about the vulnerability of children with functional challenges, as it suggests that parents may view punishment to manage behaviours associated with these difficulties, potentially exacerbating the challenges faced by these children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings further show that secondary school children were less punished than primary school children. This association may reflect a parenting style emphasizing academic success and intellectual development. On the other hand, this could reflect the increased expectations educated mothers place on their children. Mothers who have received primary education may adopt more structured parenting approaches, where discipline or enforcement of rules plays a crucial role. Research indicates that educating parents about positive parenting techniques, alternatives to physical punishment, and its negative effects can decrease their support for using physical punishment. However, it is essential to remember that cultural norms continue to strongly influence parents' acceptance of physical punishment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Parents may feel that physical punishment is necessary to stop misbehaviour immediately and believe it may be more effective in the long term for safeguarding the child from future dangers, even if they are aware of its negative consequences [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observed risk factors of parental beliefs point to clear priorities for policy action aimed at promoting non-violent child-rearing practices in Bangladesh. It is necessary to create integrated packages rather than single, isolated activities; align national child protection efforts with INSPIRE guidance, as the WHO emphasizes that preventing physical punishment and its consequences necessitates multisectoral strategies, including law reform, shifting harmful norms, parent and caregiver support, and school-based programming. These are all components of the INSPIRE technical package of evidence-based treatments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Expanding vulnerable community and parent involvement platforms and collaborating closely with current government and civil society stakeholders are needed. According to recent UNICEF data, approximately 9 out of 10 children aged 1\u0026ndash;14 in Bangladesh are subjected to violent discipline each month, highlighting the critical need for effective programs and collaboration with the government and communities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. It is important to integrate violence prevention messaging and parenting assistance into poverty reduction, cash transfer, or livelihood initiatives; guarantee that families experiencing financial hardship receive tailored help and education on nonviolent discipline. According to research in Bangladesh, socioeconomic hardship is associated with a higher incidence of physical disciplinary practices, with poverty and stress serving as drivers. A national investigation found a high link between socioeconomic position, poor homes, and corporal punishment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing rural health professionals, community centers, sports or youth activities, and local leaders to promote healthy parenting and non-punitive discipline, in line with UNICEF's continuing community involvement efforts in Bangladesh is needed. Given the magnitude of the discipline and the WHO's request for norm-based interventions, rural and community level programming is vital, especially where beliefs and practices differ from urban contexts and service access may be less [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Lastly, implementing screening, counselling, and referral in primary health, social welfare, and disability services to ensure that programs address increased stress or the requirements of caregivers of children with functional challenges. Global recommendations and evidence emphasize the significance of caregiver support and response services, as well as prevention. The WHO framework specifically includes response and support services for early recognition and care of families to reduce the occurrence and consequences of harsh punishment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe strength of this study lies in using the MICS 2019 dataset, which is a highly reliable and nationally representative survey on child and maternal indicators in Bangladesh. MICS is conducted by UNICEF using a rigorous sampling method that covers all divisions and population groups, ensuring that the findings represent the whole country. The survey uses standardized and well-tested questionnaires, which help maintain consistency and reduce errors. The Child Discipline Module is specifically designed to collect sensitive information on child-rearing practices using validated questions, making the data trustworthy. In addition, the large sample size, high response rate, strong data quality checks, and trained interviewers further improve the accuracy and reliability of the dataset.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe survey follows standardized questionnaires and globally harmonized measurement protocols, allowing for robust cross-country comparability and minimizing measurement bias. Importantly, the Child Discipline Module in MICS is specifically designed to capture sensitive information related to child-rearing practices using validated items, increasing the reliability of responses. The large sample size, high response rate, strict data quality monitoring, and standardized interviewer training further enhance the credibility and statistical power of the dataset.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe limitation of this study also lies in using MICS 2019 data as the exposure variables are limited in the dataset. Due to this limitation, it was not possible to consider some potential exposure variables. Another major limitation is that, MICS dataset does not include variable regarding fathers\u0026rsquo; perspective on punishing children which restricts a more comprehensive understanding of household attitudes toward physical punishment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study shows that parental beliefs regarding punishing children in Bangladesh result from a complex interplay of child, parent, and family related factors, socioeconomic status, and regional influences. For instance, parents of older children and girls were less likely to have such beliefs, whereas rural residence and larger family size were associated with these beliefs. Notably, there was considerable regional variation in these beliefs, suggesting regional influences on social norms. Socioeconomic status, measured in terms of household wealth, children\u0026rsquo;s educational attainments, and mothers\u0026rsquo; educational attainments, was negatively associated with parental beliefs in child punishment. Conversely, parents of children with functional difficulties and mothers with functional limitations were significantly more likely to have such beliefs. The results of this study suggest that in order to reduce support for child punishment, it is necessary to address socioeconomic inequalities, improve children\u0026rsquo;s educational opportunities, and provide support to vulnerable families, especially in rural areas and large families.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eBBS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBangladesh Bureau of Statistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMICS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple Indicator Cluster survey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSDG\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainable Development Goal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eUNICEF\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternational Children's Emergency Fund\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eWHO\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorld Health Organization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eNGO\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-Government Organization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSCI\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSave the Children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eBLAST\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBangladesh Legal Aid and Services Trust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePSU\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary sampling unit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eVIF\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariance Inflation Factor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCI\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfidence interval\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eaOR\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdjusted odds ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors would like to express their gratitude to UNICEF for granting permission to use the data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contribution:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eConceptualization, M.N.I.M., M.S.I, and S.P.; methodology, M.N.I.M. and M.A.H.M.; writing- original draft preparation, M.E.A., M.H., S.P., and M.A.H.M.; writing- review and editing, M.S.I, M.H., M.M.H, M.M.I, S.P., M.R.H, and M.A.H.M.; supervision, M.N.I.M., and M.S.I. All the authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e - Not Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study used anonymized, publicly available secondary data from MICS 2019, which had prior ethical approval by the Bangladesh National Ethics Committee. No additional approval was required.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e - Not Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained during the original MICS 2019 survey. No new consent was required for this secondary analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e - Not Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe manuscript contains no individual-level identifying data; no additional consent for publication was required.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConflict of interest:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSources of funding:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding Declaration\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eThis study did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eClinical Trial Registration\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eThis study is not a clinical trial; therefore, clinical trial registration is not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvailability of data:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eMICS data are publicly available from UNICEF\u0026rsquo;s database at http://mics.unicef.org/surveys.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNieman P, et al. Effective discipline for children. Paediatr Child Health. 2004;9(1):37\u0026ndash;41.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUNCRC, \u003cem\u003eGeneral comment No. 8 (2006): The Right of the Child to Protection from Corporal Punishment and Other Cruel or Degrading Forms of Punishment (Arts. 19; 28, Para. 2; and 37, inter alia)\u003c/em\u003e. 2007: Geneva.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWHO. Corporal punishment of children and health. 2025; Available from: Avaiable at: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/corporal-punishment-and-health\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/corporal-punishment-and-health\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWHO. \u003cem\u003eNew report demonstrates that corporal punishment harms children\u0026rsquo;s health\u003c/em\u003e. 2025.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUNICEF. \u003cem\u003eNearly 400 million young children worldwide regularly experience violent discipline at home \u0026ndash; UNICEF\u003c/em\u003e. 2024.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUNICEF. 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CMAJ. 2012;184(12):1373\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUNHCR. \u003cem\u003eUN Committee on the Rights of the Child UNHCR: Geneva, Switzerland.\u003c/em\u003e 2006.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHeilmann A, et al. Physical punishment and child outcomes: a narrative review of prospective studies. Lancet. 2021;398(10297):355\u0026ndash;64.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIslam MM. Child Disciplinary Practices at Home and Parental Attitudes Towards Physical Punishment to Children in Bangladesh. J Child Fam stud. 2024;33(12):3904\u0026ndash;19.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBBS. and UNICEF, \u003cem\u003eMultiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2019\u003c/em\u003e. 2019.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShanta SP. \u003cem\u003eCorporal punishment is an outdated practice\u003c/em\u003e, in \u003cem\u003eThe Daily Observer\u003c/em\u003e. 2023.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStatistics BBo, Bangladesh U. Progotir pathey, Bangladesh multiple indicator cluster survey 2019, survey findings report. Dhaka, Bangladesh: BBS;; 2019.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIslam MM. The gradients of the relationship between child discipline practices at home and early childhood development of young children. Volume 147. Child Abuse \u0026amp; Neglect; 2024. p. 106536.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAtteraya MS, Ebrahim NB, Gnawali S. Determinants of child maltreatment in Nepal: Results from the 2014 Nepal multiple indicator cluster survey (the 2014 NMICS). Volume 76. Child abuse \u0026amp; neglect; 2018. pp. 400\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGershoff ET. Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: a meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychol Bull. 2002;128(4):539.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCuartas J. Corporal punishment and early childhood development in 49 low-and middle-income countries. Child Abuse Negl. 2021;120:105205.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGanapathy SS, et al. Practice of Disciplinary Methods and Factors Associated With Belief for Physical Punishment Among Malaysian Parents: Findings From NHMS 2016. Global Pediatr Health. 2022;9:2333794X221113820.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGao Y, et al. Association between household crowding and violent discipline and neglect of children: Analysis of Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys in 26 low-and middle-income countries. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(4):1685.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHughes K, et al. Parental adverse childhood experiences and perpetration of child physical punishment in Wales. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(19):12702.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePengpid S, Peltzer K. Prevalence and factors associated with physical punishment and psychological aggression towards children in Laos: Results of the 2017 social indicator survey. Iran J Psychiatry Behav Sci, 2020. 14(4).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLansford JE, et al. Attitudes justifying domestic violence predict endorsement of corporal punishment and physical and psychological aggression towards children: a study in 25 low-and middle-income countries. J Pediatr. 2014;164(5):1208\u0026ndash;13.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHeilmann A, et al. Physical punishment and child outcomes: a narrative review of prospective studies. Lancet. 2021;398(10297):355\u0026ndash;64.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBaker-Henningham H, Francis T. Parents' use of harsh punishment and young children's behaviour and achievement: a longitudinal study of Jamaican children with conduct problems. Global Mental Health. 2018;5:e32.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKelmendi K, Ar\u0026euml;nliu A, Halimi T. Child Discipline Practices in Kosovo: Attitudes and Sociodemographic Correlates. J Family Violence. 2022;37(7):1111\u0026ndash;24.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUNICEF. \u003cem\u003eChild disciplinary practices at home: evidence from a range of low and middle income countries\u003c/em\u003e. 2020.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePace GT, Lee SJ, Grogan-Kaylor A. Spanking and young children\u0026rsquo;s socioemotional development in low-and middle-income countries. Child Abuse Negl. 2019;88:84\u0026ndash;95.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkmatov MK. Child abuse in 28 developing and transitional countries\u0026mdash;results from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys. Int J Epidemiol. 2011;40(1):219\u0026ndash;27.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMalaysia Po. \u003cem\u003eChild Act 601: Parliment of Malaysia; 2001\u003c/em\u003e. 2001.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChiocca EM. American Parents' Attitudes and Beliefs About Corporal Punishment: An Integrative Literature Review. J Pediatr Health Care. 2017;31(3):372\u0026ndash;83.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIspa J, Halgunseth L. Talking about corporal punishment: Nine low-income African American mothers' perspectives. Early Child Res Q. 2004;19:463\u0026ndash;84.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUNICEF. \u003cem\u003e9 out of 10 children in Bangladesh experience violent discipline at home every month \u0026ndash; UNICEF\u003c/em\u003e. 2024.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIbrahim M, Patwary MH. Understanding the influence of socioeconomic status on children physical disciplinary practices in Bangladeshi households. PLoS ONE. 2025;20(4):e0320239.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":false,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Public Health](https://link.springer.com/journal/12982)","snPcode":"12982","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/12982/3","title":"Discover Public Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Physical Punishment, Parental Belief, Child Punishment, Child, Bangladesh","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9117074/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9117074/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParents’ belief in the effectiveness of physical punishment increases its use and influences children’s emotional and behavioural outcomes. This study explored the factors associated with parents’ beliefs regarding physical punishment of children aged 5–14 years in Bangladesh.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData from 19,675 respondents in the Bangladesh Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2019 were analysed. Socio-demographic variables were included as key exposures, and parental beliefs regarding child physical punishment served as the outcome variable. Associations were assessed using Chi-square tests, and significant predictors were identified through binary logistic regression analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings indicated that 34.57% of parents endorsed physical punishment as a means of ensuring proper upbringing. Significant predictors of this belief included the child’s age, sex, region, education level, household wealth quintile, mother’s education, and number of children. Parents of children aged 10–14 years were significantly less likely to believe physically punishing children compared with those aged 5–9 years (aOR: 0.91; 95% CI: 0.84–0.98). Similarly, parents of female children were less likely to believe in physical punishment compared to parents of male children (aOR: 0.89; 95% CI: 0.84–0.95). In contrast, parents were more likely to believe that children with functional difficulties needed physical punishment, with 47% higher odds compared to children without such difficulties (aOR: 1.47; 95% CI: 1.31–1.64).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChild physical punishment is common in Bangladesh, with many parents considering it necessary for proper child-rearing. Policymakers should take necessary initiatives to change parents’/caregivers’ point of view regarding child physical punishment, with giving priority to vulnerable groups.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Determinants of Parental Beliefs Regarding Child Physical Punishment in Bangladesh Based on Nationally Representative Data","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-23 09:26:30","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9117074/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-14T11:54:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-10T14:04:20+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-27T07:23:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"14987883995280497267174062728813147659","date":"2026-04-26T13:18:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"136171404634826626411053597183789123465","date":"2026-04-21T01:55:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-15T08:59:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-24T15:36:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-23T16:19:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-22T06:11:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Public Health","date":"2026-03-22T06:00:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Public Health](https://link.springer.com/journal/12982)","snPcode":"12982","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/12982/3","title":"Discover Public Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"07b76842-9544-4398-9927-fb829bb03a87","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 23rd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-14T11:54:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-10T14:04:20+00:00","index":75,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-14T12:09:06+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-23 09:26:30","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9117074","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9117074","identity":"rs-9117074","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}