Lithic Artifacts Starch Residues from Fenghuangzui Neolithic Site (4400-4200 cal BP) in Central China: Identification and Implications

Lithic Artifacts Starch Residues from Fenghuangzui Neolithic Site (4400-4200 cal BP) in Central China: Identification and Implications | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Lithic Artifacts Starch Residues from Fenghuangzui Neolithic Site (4400-4200 cal BP) in Central China: Identification and Implications Wentai Lou, Feng Wang, Xuan Wei, Ying Guan, Xin Wang, Yinghua Li This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5741165/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 11 Oct, 2025 Read the published version in npj Heritage Science → Version 1 posted 8 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Starch residues on lithics are crucial for exploring the function and use pattern of stone tools and reconstructing the ecological environment, diet, and subsistence strategies of ancient populations. Recent excavations at Fenghuangzui Site (4400 − 4200 cal BP) revealed abundant Shijiahe Culture remains, especially feature H13 with a large amont of pottery, lithics and ashes were unearthed, which may indicate population gathering and communal activities. This paper analyses starch granules from 23 lithic artifacts (e.g., Fragment tools, Core-tools, Bipolar Products) unearthed from H13. The results indicate that the extracted starch granules primarily belong to nuts, roots, and tubers, demonstrating that these lithic artifacts were used for processing local rhizome plants. Combined with rice and millet indicated by macro-remains and phytoliths, the finding showed a wide diet of these inhabitants. This paper provides a new case study of starch granules in the Late Neolithic sites of the Middle Yangtze River valley. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. INTRODUCTION Humans have had a close relationship with plants since the beginning of their existence. One scientific method to explore this relationship is through the identification of archaeobotanical remains, which provides insights into how people utilized, managed, and cultivated plants to meet their needs[1]. Among the various analytical methods developed for this purpose, starch granule analysis stands out. Starch is a long-chain compound formed by the polymerization of glucose molecules and is stored in the parenchyma of roots, stems, leaves, fruits, and seeds of plants as starch granules[2]. Different plant species have starch granules that exhibit distinct morphological characteristics[3]. Numerous studies on starch granules have contributed valuable theoretical insights into the vitality patterns of ancient populations in China and the status of agricultural development. To date, over 150 case studies on starch granules have been reported across more than 130 prehistoric sites in China, focusing on materials such as pottery, lithics, mussels, dental calculus, and soils ( Fig. 1 ). The most frequently discussed topics in these studies include the use of plants as food resources and the actual functions and usage patterns of various artifacts or tools, such as stone knives, grinding stones, pointed-bottom bottles, and grooved basins[4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Additionally, starch granule analysis has been employed to investigate the domestication of plants[9, 10, 11], food processing techniques[12, 13], and beverage production[5, 14, 15, 16]. ***Insert Figure 1 here*** The Yangtze River valley is a crucial region for understanding the formation and development of Chinese civilization, with a long history of rice farming supported by archaeobotanical evidence. This has led some researchers to suggest that it may be one of the centers of rice cultivation. While many macro-plant remains have been reported from the area, studies focused on starch granules are relatively scarce. The Late Neolithic Fenghuangzui site, located in Xiangyang City of Hubei Province in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River valley, presents an opportunity to explore the potential and application of starch granule analysis in central China. During the excavation conducted from 2020 to 2021, a hearth feature (referred to as H13) was uncovered in the southern part of the site, alongside numerous lithic artifacts, pottery, and plant and animal remains. This paper presents the findings from the recent analysis of starch granules extracted from the lithic artifacts found in H13. The goal is to identify the functions of these lithic tools and to investigate the formation process of H13. By categorizing and analyzing the types of starch granules recovered from the lithic tools, this study discusses how the inhabitants of Fenghuangzui may have utilized both wild and cultivated plants. 2. METHODOLOGY 2.1 ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SETTINGS 2.1.1 The Fenghuangzui Site and Feature H13 The Fenghuangzui site, located at coordinates 111°59′20.39″ E and 32°14′42.67″ N, reaches a maximum elevation of 94 meters above sea level. It is situated between Yanying Village and Qianwang Village in Longwang Town, within the Xiangzhou District of Xiangyang City, Hubei Province, central China ( Fig. 2 ). The site lies in the upper reaches of the Han River, near the southern edge of the Nanyang Basin. It primarily extends across an irregular platform, with a river flowing to the east and behind the platform[17]. ***Insert Figure 2 here*** Feature H13 was uncovered during the 2020 excavation. The feature has an oval shape, with well-defined walls and a nearly flat bottom. It measures 6.6 meters in length (long diameter) and 2.1 meters in width (short diameter), with a depth of 0.5 meters. The cultural deposits within H13 have been divided into two strata: upper and lower[18]. The upper stratum, measuring up to 0.21 meters thick, consists of yellow-brown clay with a loose texture, mixed with red burnt clods and charcoal. Artifacts found in this layer include pottery, a few lithics, and animal bones. In contrast, the lower stratum ranges from 0.05 to 0.29 meters thick and contains gray-black soil with a loose texture, along with plant ash, charcoal, and some braised soil. Numerous sherds, lithics, and animal bones were excavated from this lower layer. Four radiocarbon dating samples (see Table 1 ) from feature H13 indicate that it dates back to between 4400 and 4200 calibrated years before present (cal BP), placing it firmly within the Shijiahe Culture period[18]. 2.1.2 Archaeobotanical research on the Shijiahe Culture The ash pit H13 is dated to the Shijiahe Culture period (4400–4200 cal BP). Evidence from plant remains, such as carbonized rice grains and rice husks, suggests that the subsistence economy during the Shijiahe Culture period was primarily based on rice farming. Additionally, fishing, hunting, and gathering wild plants contributed to the diet to varying[1, 19, 20, 21]. Recent archaeobotanical research has made significant advancements regarding the Qujialing and Shijiahe cultural sites in the Jianghan Plain and nearby regions (see Table 2 for a list of sites where archaeobotanical remains have been excavated and analyzed). These studies indicate that rice and millet agriculture played a crucial role in the local and regional diet of the Jianghan Plain, incorporating domesticated plants such as Setaria italica , Panicum miliaceum , Oryza sativa , and Glycine max . Additionally, various weeds were collected and cultivated, including Setaria viridis , Digitaria sanguinalis , Echinochloa Beauv, and Perilla frutescens , along with fruiting plants like Actinidia and Ampelopsis brevipedunculata, as well as nuts and drupe shells. The findings from macro-remain analysis strongly support these conclusions. ***Insert Table 1 here*** Moreover, plant microfossils have been vital for understanding the diverse methods of food procurement and consumption. Figure 1 illustrates the phytolith and starch granule analyses performed at the Chengtoushan site in Lixian, Hunan[22], the Qujialing site in Jingmen, Hubei[23, 24], and the Gouwan site in Xichuan, Henan[25]. Phytolith analysis suggests that the Qujialing people began cultivating and utilizing rice approximately 5800 years ago, indicating advanced domestication of rice at that time. These discoveries provide a scientific foundation for understanding late Neolithic human life and rice domestication in the eastern part of the Hanshui River in the Jianghan Plain[23]. Although starch granule analysis has significant potential to reveal food sources and provide insights into plants used for various purposes, including food processing, medicinal use, and crafting, it has been less frequently applied in Neolithic studies on the Jianghan Plain compared to other research methods. The present paper tentatively employs starch granule analysis on lithic artifacts from H13, aiming to enhance our understanding of the functions of these tools and to contribute new information about food exploitation and subsistence practices in the late Neolithic middle Yangtze River valley. 2.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.2.1 Sampling and extraction of starch granules Twenty-four lithic specimens were excavated from H13, with five originating from the upper stratum and 19 from the lower stratum. Twenty-three of these specimens were included in the current study for starch granule analysis ( Fig. 3 ). The technological analysis of the twenty-four lithic artifacts has been described in detail in Supplementary Material. The technological analysis indicates that most artifacts from H13 are knapped stone tools, while polished tools are rare, represented only by a few chisels and a small number of partially polished pieces. Among the knapped objects, many could not be categorized by their technological origins (i.e., shaping or flaking); only a few were identified as simple core-flaking and bipolar-flaking products. Some stone artifacts featured cutting edges, exhibiting various morphologies from transversal to convergent. The techno-functional analysis suggested that these stone tools might have been used to cut plant materials. Fig. 3 displays some of the lithic artifacts analyzed in this study. ***Insert Figure 3 here*** The extraction of starch granules was conducted at the archaeological laboratories of Wuhan University and theKey Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, China. The extraction procedure followed methods outlined by Deborah M. Pearsalla [26], Guan Ying[27], Huw Barton, Robin Torrence and Richard Fullagar et al[28, 29, 30]. Sample collection involved inspecting the entire surface of each lithic artifact, without sectional sampling. Each specimen underwent three cleaning steps, referred to as Sediment 1, Sediment 2, and Sediment 3. First, the lithic was brushed to remove surface dirt (Sediment 1); then it was washed with distilled water, and the collected liquid constituted Sediment 2; finally, ultrasonic cleaning was applied, yielding Sediment 3 samples. It was anticipated that the various sediments would reveal residues from different sources: Sediment 1 would contain more residues from the soil, and Sediment 3 would consist of materials closely associated with the specimen's surface, and Sediment 2 would include mixed contents from both soil and lithic surfaces. The primary goal of wet cleaning was to separate Sediments 1 and 3 to minimize cross-contamination from soil to lithic surfaces. All three sediments were processed following the same laboratory protocols. To prevent potential contamination, several measures were implemented before and after extraction: 1. Preservation: Excavated lithic artifacts were placed in sealed bags. Prior to sampling, these artifacts were stored in the warehouse of the Field Archaeological Base at the Fenghuangzui Site, Wuhan University. 2. Experiment Protocol: During the experiments, all personnel wore lab clothes, masks, gloves, and other protective gear. All equipment used for sampling was disposable and thoroughly rinsed with pure water before use to eliminate contamination. 3. Decontamination: The topsoil sample served as a control for comparison with the ultrasonic sample. The starch granule extraction process adhered to the methods detailed in Guan et al.[27, 31], encompassing the following steps: concentration, deflocculation, and heavy liquid flotation. (i) Concentration: A sample was filled with pure water until the liquid reached 50 ml in a test tube, which was then capped and centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 5 minutes. After centrifugation, the surface liquid was discarded, retaining approximately 5 ml at the bottom. This step aimed to concentrate the sample while removing some clay and impurities. (ii) Deflocculation: A 10 ml solution of Disodium EDTA (Na 2 EDTA) at a concentration of 0.1% was added to the sample, which was then shaken on a reciprocating shaker for over 2 hours to detach starch granules from soil particles. Subsequently, pure water was added for cleaning, and the sample underwent centrifugation at 2500 rpm for 2 minutes, after which the surface liquid was discarded, retaining about 5 ml at the bottom. This process was repeated two more times to ensure the complete removal of Na 2 EDTA. (iii) Heavy Liquid Flotation: About 10 ml of heavy liquid (sodium polytungstate solution) with a density of 1.85 g /cm³ was addedto the sample, which was centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 5 minutes. The surface liquid was then poured from the starch granules sample tube. This step was repeated to maximize starch granule recovery. Finally, the starch granules sample (SS) and the original sample (S) were washed by centrifugation in pure water to eliminate the heavy liquid. (iv) The starch granule sample (SS) was stored in a cool, dark place to prepare for observation. The slide was placed horizontally on a desk, and the observation sample number was recorded. A drop of 100% pure glycerin was added to the slide's center to improve the consistency of the starch granule sample and minimize the fluidity of the liquid. A pipette gun was employed to extract the starch granule samples during the extraction procedure. 2.2.2 Microscopic observation Starch granules were examined under a microscope at a magnification of 200X and photographed at 400X using an Olympus BX 53 microscope. During this microscopic observation, various morphological characteristics of the starch granules were recorded, including their integrity, shape, position of fissures, lamellae, location of the central hilum, state and shape of extinction crosses, visibility of umbilical points, and the overall contour of the starch granules. ***Insert Figure 4 here*** 3. RESULTS A total of 111 starch granules were extracted from 22 of the 23 lithic artifacts, of which 101 granules were morphologically identifiable in subsequent analyses (Fig. 4 ). Each starch granule collected from Sediment 3 (Sed 3) was initially compared with modern starch granules. Details regarding the starch granules from H13 lithics are presented in Table 3. The classification and identification of starch granules mainly rely on the method used by Guan Ying and Zhang Xi[ 32 , 33 , 34 ]. This method is mainly based on Geometric Morphometrics Morphometrics and Supporting Vector Machine (SVM) in Supervised Machine Learning. And the unknown starch granules are primarily based on the modern starch grain database established by the Archaeological Residue Research Group at the Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins, Chinese Academy of Sciences. ***Insert Table 2 here*** Given the possibility that starch residues from Sediment 2 (Sed 2) may have originated from both the soil and the lithic surfaces, they were excluded from further discussion in this study. It is also believed that Sed 1 has been influenced by taphonomic contamination at the site; thus, it serves as a control sample to eliminate contamination effects. We compared starch granules obtained from Sed 1 and Sed 3 for geometric morphological analysis. Using Canonical Variate Analysis (CVA), we observed a significant difference between the starch granules from Sed 1 and those from Sed 3 ( p < 0.001), indicating distinct peaks (Fig. 5 ). This suggests that starch granules from Sed 3 were minimally affected by soil contamination during the deposition process, providing insight into the utilization of the sampled specimens. ***Insert Fig. 5 here*** 3.1 CVA Results The CVA of starch granules in the soil (Sed 1) identified four significant canonical variates ( Fig. 6 ). The eigenvalues indicate that canonical variate 1 (CV1) accounts for 66.3%, canonical variate 2 (CV2) for 22.1%, and canonical variate 3 (CV3) for 8.9%, altogether explaining 97.4% of the total variance. The CVA scatter plot shows that starch granules in the soil overlapped with three control groups, suggesting the presence of legumina types in the soil. CVA of starch granules on lithic artifacts (Sed 3) identified six significant canonical variates ( Fig. 6 ). The eigenvalues indicate that canonical variate 1 (CV1) accounts for 52.5%, CV2 for 25.2%, and CV3 for 11.0% of the total variables, collectively explaining 88.7% of the total variance. The CVA scatter plot shows that the starch granules on lithic artifacts overlapped with six control groups, indicating that these granules primarily came from underground storage organ types and legumina types. ***Insert Fig. 6 here*** 3.2 SVM Prediction A Support Vector Machine (SVM) analysis was employed to examine and categorize starch granules. The prediction results from the SVM (Table 4 ) indicate potential sources for the starch granules found in H13 soil (Sed 1), with the analysis suggesting a higher likelihood of these granules originating from Dioscorea type, Maranta type, Cicer type, and Vicia type. In contrast, the starch granules identified on H13 lithic artifacts (Sed 3) are most likely associated with Amaranthus (root) type, Dioscorea type, Acorus type, Manihot type, Amorphophallus type, Saururus type, and Vigna type. However, it should be noted that these identifications represent probabilistic inferences rather than definitive determinations of plant species.To accurately identify the starch granules and eliminate soil contamination in Sed 3 samples, the SVM model results highlight plant taxa likely derived from soil sediments. The results indicate that Amaranthus (root) type, Dioscorea type, Acorus type, Manihot type, Amorphophallus type, and Saururus type may be considered positive taxa, with model accuracy greater than or equal to 92% (Table 4 ). ***Insert Table 3 here*** 4. DISCUSSIONS Recent investigations into lithic artifacts excavated from site H13 have revealed the presence of starch granules primarily derived from roots and tubers, such as Acorus type, Amorphophallus type and Saururs type. This finding underscores the diverse array of food resources that the inhabitants of Fenghuangzui relied upon. In conjunction with rice farming, wild roots and tubers were a significant aspect of their diet. Although these plant sources are rich in starch, their fragile nature makes them difficult to preserve, which contributes to their rarity in surface flotation collections. Additionally, these plants typically produce fewer phytoliths (according to Dolores R. Piperno[ 35 ]), making it more likely for starch granules to be preserved and identified in archaeological residue samples (as noted by Robin Torrence[ 3 ]). Edible roots and tubers represent vital wild resources that were gathered, especially during the early to late Neolithic periods in China. The practice of gathering coexisted alongside agriculture, forming a crucial part of local livelihoods. The interplay between ecological resources and gathering practices in dietary patterns was shaped by temporal and regional ecological factors. The presence of starch granules from roots and tubers at multiple prehistoric sites across China suggests that these foods played an essential role in Neolithic diets (as documented by Li et al.[ 36 ]; Sun et al.[ 7 ]; Wan et al.[ 37 ]; Wu et al.[ 38 ]; Zhang et al.[ 39 ]; Zhao et al.[ 40 ]; Liu et al.[ 41 ]). The findings from this study indicate that wild food resources were likely a significant component of the diet of the ancestors of Fenghuangzui over 4,000 years ago. Techno-functional analysis reveals that some lithic artifacts uncovered in H13, such as fragments, ground flakes, and bipolar products, possess potential cutting edges and may have been utilized as tools. Starch granules were identified in the Sed 3 sample of 12 lithic artifacts, indicating they were once employed in plant processing. Notably, no starch granules were found on the surface of the grinding stone fragment (H13①:5). The extensive weathering of the lithic surface prevents the identification of the raw material type. Three possible explanations exist for the absence of starch granules: the lithic artifacts may have been unused; residues on the surface could have been destroyed during post-depositional processes; or the artifacts may have been used for non-plant materials. Fragments: Starch granules are present on four fragments (H13②:65, H13②:82, H13①:8, and H13②:84). This presence suggests that these fragments may have been utilized as tools while in a fractured state. Further grouping showed that the identification of this set of starch granules did not yield results with high accuracy. Technological analysis indicates that fragment (H13②:84) has a cutting edge, while fragments (H13②:65, H13②:82, and H13①:8) only show chipped traces, making their mode of production difficult to ascertain. Lithic Artifacts with Cutting Edges: Starch granules were also found on several tools with cutting edges, including a stone adze (H13②:73), ground flake (H13②:72), core-tools (H13②:56 and H13①:3), and a fragment tool (H13②:6). We suggest these lithics were used for harvesting, cutting, and processing plants. In further analysis, four starch granules in this group were identified as Manihot type, and Amorphophallus type. The cutting-edge lithic artifacts primarily dealt with Amorphophallus paeoniifolius and Saururus chinensis. Bipolar Products: Starch granules were also identified on bipolar product 1 and 2 (H13②:18 and H13②:83, respectively). Bipolar Product 1 features a unilateral extended concave notch, suggesting it could be used for processing and cutting plant food resources. In contrast, Bipolar Product 2 may have been used for pounding plants or foods. In further analysis, three starch granules from this group were identified as Castanea mollissima . Lithic artifacts with unclear technological types have been found in the excavation. Although determining the specific types of some lithic artifacts is challenging, some starch granules have been identified on their surfaces (H13②:63). The presence of these starch granules suggests that the lithics may have been used; however, it does not eliminate the possibility that the granules were introduced through contamination for various reasons. Further investigation is needed to determine how these artifacts were utilized. In H13, only one lithic artifact (Core-tool, H13①:3) was excavated from the upper stratum, while the rest were found in the lower stratum. The research shows that the upper stratum is yellowish brown soil, and most of the unearthed pottery is broken pottery pieces, with few stone tools and animal bones and the relics are scattered and irregular. There are many complementary pottery unearthed in the lower stratum, and the distribution of these pottery has certain rules. There are also many animal bones and stone tools unearthed in the lower layer. Based on the study of pottery, stone tools and animals and plants, the researchers believe that the formation of H13 lower stratum is the result of multiple dietary activities by ancient people here, and the pottery, stone tools and animal bones used in each activity will be left in the pit, and the upper stratum should be formed after the ash pit was abandoned. This study involved the extraction and identification of starch granules found on lithic artifacts excavated from pit H13 at the Fenghuangzui site in Xiangyang City, Hubei Province. The results indicate that the extracted starch granules primarily belong to nuts, roots, and tubers. This finding is significant for understanding how the inhabitants of the Fenghuangzui site exploited plant food resources, the functions of the lithic artifacts, and the characteristics of pit H13. The Neolithic inhabitants of Fenghuangzui had a diverse diet, incorporating a variety of local wild plants alongside rice and millets. This research contributes to the archaeobotanical understanding of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River valley, specifically through the analysis of starch granules. Additionally, it lays an important foundation for comprehending human life in this region more than 4,000 years ago. The lithic artifacts discovered in pit H13 were likely used for cutting and processing roots and tubers. In conjunction with other artifacts recovered from H13, such as pottery, animal bones, ashes, and carbonized plant seeds, this analysis suggests that the starch granules obtained from the lithic artifacts are associated with the food preparation practices of the Fenghuangzui inhabitants in their daily lives. Currently, we can only conclude that these lithic artifacts were discarded in the pit after use. Future research involving a greater number of lithic artifacts is necessary for a more comprehensive discussion. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Additional information The online version contains supplementary material available Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Ying Guan and Xin Wang. Author Contribution Yinghua Li, Ying Guan and Xin Wang conceived the study. Wentai Lou, Feng Wang, Xuan Wei conducted the experiments and analyzed the data. Wentai Lou were significant contributors to the writing of the manuscript. Yinghua Li, Ying Guan and Xin Wang revised the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgement We thank Professor Xiyun Yu and Associate Professor Siwei Shan for conducting excavation at Fenghuangzui Site and their help in conceiving this analysis. We extend our gratitude to the Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of the Chinese Academy of Sciences for providing modern starch granules for comparative analysis. We also thank Yangyang Ni, Chuane Kong, Jiaxing Yang, Xi Zhang, Sen You, Rui Wang, Tao Li, Yuduan Zhou, Ruxi Yang, Junke Zhou and Wang Liu for their support and assistance in laboratory work and manuscript preparation. Data Availability All data supporting the conclusions of this article can be obtained from the corresponding authors, Ying Guan and Xin Wang, upon reasonable request. References Zhao, Z. 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Identification and Analysis of Starch Granules on the Surface of the Slabs from Peiligang Site. Quaternary Sciences . 5 , 891-899 (2011). Zhao, Z., Dang H., Jun G. Analysis of Starch Grain from Stone Tools and Plant Utilization of Plant Food Research at Yuhuangding Site,Jining. Agricultural History of China . 5 , 45-55 (2021). Liu, L., Wang J., Levin M.J., et al. The origins of specialized pottery and diverse alcohol fermentation techniques in Early Neolithic China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 26 , 12767-12774 (2019). Archaeology Department of Peking University, Zhumadian Municipal Office for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments. Yangzhuang, zhumadian--cultural remains and evironmental information of the middle holocene in the upper reachers of the huaihe river (Science Press, 1998). Jiang, Q., Zhang J. Phytolith eEvidence for Rice Cultivation during Prehistoric Periods at Baligang Site of Baizhuang, Dengzhou City, Henan Province. Acta Scientiarum Naturalium Universitatis Pekinensis . 1 , (1998). Deng, Z., Gao Y. Analysis of Plant Remains Excavated from the Baligang Site in Dengzhou, Henan Province. Cultural Relics in Southern China . 1 , 156-163 (2012). Wu, C., Liu H., Zhao Z. Discussion Prehistoric Agriculture of Jianghan Plain from Flotation Results of Yejia Temple Site in Xiaogan. Cultural Relics in Southern China . 4 , 65-69, 64 (2010). Wu, C. Analysis of Plant Remains from Qinglongquan Site in Yun County, Hubei Province. (Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Social Science; Beijing, 2011). Wang, Y., Zhang P., Jin G., et al. 2007 Floatation Results and Analysis of Gouwan Site of Henan Xichuan. Sichuan Cultural Relic . 2 , 80-92 (2011). Deng, Z., Liu H., Meng H. Analysis of Plant Remains Excavated from Sanfangwan and Tanjialing Sites of Shijiahe Ancient City, Tianmen City, Hubei Province. Archaeology . 1 , 91-99 (2013). Tang, L. Archaeobotanical Observations on the Dynamics of Agricultural Production from the Late Neolithic to Bronze Age in the Jianghan Area. (Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Social Science; Beijing, 2014). Tang, L., Luo Y., Tao Y., et al. Research on Charred Plant Remains from the Xiezidi Site in Daye City, Hubei Province. Quaternary Sciences . 1 , 97-105 (2014). Tang, L., Huang W., Guo C., et al. Research on the Neolithic Agriculture in the Region of the Northwest of Hubei Province and the Southwest of Henan Province from the Floatation Results of Dasi Site, Yun County, Hubei Province. Xibukaogu . 2 , 73-85 (2016). Tang, L., Luo Y., Zhao Z. Research on Charred Plant Remains from the Chengzishan Site, Ezhou. Jianghan Archaeology . 2 , 108-115 (2017). Fan, X., Wu R. Analysis of Botanic Remains from Sunjiagang Site, Li County. Jianghan Archaeology . 3 , 104-109 (2018). Tang, L., Tian J., Liu J., et al. Research on the Mode of Mountain Subsistence in the Period of Qujialing Culture——An Example of Mulingtou Site in Baokang, Hubei Province. Cultural Relics in Southern China . 5 , (2019). Tian, J., Tang L., Shi D., et al. Research on the Charred Plant Remains Unearthed from the Jijiawan Site in Fang County,Hubei Province. Cultural Relics in Southern China . 5 , 180-188 (2019). Yao, L., Tao Y., Zhang D., et al. Analysis of Charred Plant Remains from the Qujialing Site in Jingmen, Hubei Province. Jianghan Archaeology . 6 , 116-124, 86 (2019). Tang, L., Liu J., Shan S., et al. The Identification and Study of Prehistoric Plant Remains from the Zoumaling Site in Shishou, Hubei. Jianghan Archaeology . 3 , 109-115 (2021). Tables Tables 1 to 4 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Table1RadiocarbonDatingofH13.xlsx Table2TheSitesthatArchaeobotanicalRemainswereUnearthedandInvestigated.xlsx Table3LithicSamplesandEffectiveStarchgranulesFromFenghuangzui.xlsx Table4PredictionResultinSed1andSed3.xlsx SupplementaryMaterial.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 11 Oct, 2025 Read the published version in npj Heritage Science → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 03 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 01 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 30 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 Apr, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 08 Apr, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 08 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 26 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5741165","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":440277286,"identity":"8ad62859-a65e-46a2-9114-a1397b63ad7b","order_by":0,"name":"Wentai Lou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Wuhan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wentai","middleName":"","lastName":"Lou","suffix":""},{"id":440277287,"identity":"ab891c2d-7919-4899-9fda-61f91f92958a","order_by":1,"name":"Feng Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Wuhan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Feng","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":440277289,"identity":"c610cd3e-2347-4389-92e7-d1589ad19d39","order_by":2,"name":"Xuan Wei","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Wuhan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xuan","middleName":"","lastName":"Wei","suffix":""},{"id":440277292,"identity":"c959d0c1-765f-4e05-98d3-922ba4cdcec8","order_by":3,"name":"Ying Guan","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2UlEQVRIie3RoQrCUBTG8U8vbOXA6sSwV7hjsLX5GsbJBS0iSyIYFIQZrQu+hWBWLrii3WAbmMxiMLgty65rhvvP58cXDqDT/W0csFhj0lk1Hzr8eun0xT2n+BbuMvLzGKED81Kv3esw8IjfxV5S4KUQ7pImUT1JI79LXApfGsMugUWwiSvI6FkRb1WRhZo49rhaCTljp4JINeH0mHa2XEa2ZJmX8sxNaKxYWY/29uMte9bmmOTxbO5Y5lmxcgDaBAyWgMHKnxq19+VKcdp6AT1URKfT6XRf+gAAvzmfCre/0gAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Chinese Academy of Sciences","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ying","middleName":"","lastName":"Guan","suffix":""},{"id":440277294,"identity":"28fb7724-0f63-497b-9598-af64affae07d","order_by":4,"name":"Xin Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Wuhan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xin","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":440277296,"identity":"17b328bd-abe5-4167-bc87-f655ca737f3a","order_by":5,"name":"Yinghua Li","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Wuhan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yinghua","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-12-31 10:08:05","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5741165/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5741165/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s40494-025-02050-w","type":"published","date":"2025-10-11T15:57:12+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":80297359,"identity":"a12cba2a-66aa-40ea-975f-2098b2eb7edd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-10 08:41:50","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":12850986,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePrehistoric sites with starch granule studies published in China (The red box is the research area of this paper).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.1PrehistoricsiteswithstarchgranulestudiespublishedinChina.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5741165/v1/0a010076b202567fad7247c4.jpg"},{"id":80295354,"identity":"a09459e1-9ce9-488d-b10c-b34388ca9ae3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-10 08:33:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":10638464,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation of Fenghuangzui and other Late Neolithic sites in the middle Yangtze River.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.2LocationofFenghuangzuiandotherLateNeolithicsitesinthemiddleYangtzeRiver.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5741165/v1/ad26eec0b41cb4c1b043cb11.jpg"},{"id":80297351,"identity":"0eeb766f-351c-4fc7-9385-58e121e074b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-10 08:41:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":12248643,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMain lithic artifacts investigated in the present study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1. Fragment (H13①:8); 2. Fragment Tool (H13②:6); 3. Stone Adze (H13②:73);\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4. Grounding Flake (H13②:72); 5. Fragment (H13②:84); 6. Fragment (H13②:82);\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7. Core-Tool (H13①:3); 8. Core-Tool (H13②:56); 9. Fragment (H13②:65);\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10. Bipolar Products (H13②:18); 11. Bipolar Products (H13②:83)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(Red Line Indicates possible Techno-Functional Unit)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.3Mainlithicartifactsinvestigatedinthepresentstudy.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5741165/v1/030dac11815991392222e7c9.jpg"},{"id":80295369,"identity":"323ea525-2fc1-4e19-b22d-68b41414a2e4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-10 08:33:50","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":10480877,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMain types of starch granules discovered in the residue sample (scale bar = 50 μm).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.4Maintypesofstarchgranulesdiscoveredintheresiduesample.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5741165/v1/0d1ece6ad8e7e3d4a432428e.jpg"},{"id":80295338,"identity":"1771893f-44b0-45e5-8787-c4ca76fc7c5c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-10 08:33:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":325319,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFrequency plots of canonical variables for Sed 1 and Sed 3.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.5FrequencyplotsofcanonicalvariablesforSed1andSed3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5741165/v1/76e678e90f1ccc991934a893.jpg"},{"id":80295342,"identity":"a6724a0d-9fc9-4baf-888b-d766fd0c6840","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-10 08:33:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3047205,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConfidence ellipses (probability = 0.9) based on a canonical variate scatter plot of CV 1 and CV 2 for Sed 1 and Sed 3.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.6Confidenceellipsesprobability0.9basedonacanonicalvariatescatterplotofCV1andCV2forSed1andSed3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5741165/v1/58df9a18b7d1a2d2b67ef288.jpg"},{"id":93597674,"identity":"b90d8c4b-eed7-4f1e-86df-652c14ae2bdb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-15 14:19:21","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":50253988,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5741165/v1/9e2dcab8-6ac6-45ca-b474-852dfacc62cc.pdf"},{"id":80295331,"identity":"48a7bc0e-694c-4a3b-8e90-9e872cb83159","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-10 08:33:48","extension":"xlsx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":11450,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table1RadiocarbonDatingofH13.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5741165/v1/1829ffa44575ac915baba90c.xlsx"},{"id":80297338,"identity":"33970d68-7c88-4f16-bbf0-7937ffaff10c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-10 08:41:48","extension":"xlsx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":14546,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table2TheSitesthatArchaeobotanicalRemainswereUnearthedandInvestigated.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5741165/v1/288b576b21a385dca7d6efb1.xlsx"},{"id":80299140,"identity":"816d2310-1eef-4bad-80a1-5f7872344d02","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-10 08:57:49","extension":"xlsx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":15613,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table3LithicSamplesandEffectiveStarchgranulesFromFenghuangzui.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5741165/v1/28180492ea66c29b0e6a4078.xlsx"},{"id":80297339,"identity":"3ed4f9e6-5386-470e-b731-c7d63b7e1933","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-10 08:41:49","extension":"xlsx","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":12946,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table4PredictionResultinSed1andSed3.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5741165/v1/85a3d0c8a1c1b474ac47e076.xlsx"},{"id":80297344,"identity":"661b9153-b8b3-4438-a962-be34eebaed34","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-10 08:41:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":163141,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryMaterial.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5741165/v1/e16931199d917565f843f929.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Lithic Artifacts Starch Residues from Fenghuangzui Neolithic Site (4400-4200 cal BP) in Central China: Identification and Implications","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eHumans have had a close relationship with plants since the beginning of their existence. One scientific method to explore this relationship is through the identification of archaeobotanical remains, which provides insights into how people utilized, managed, and cultivated plants to meet their needs[1]. Among the various analytical methods developed for this purpose, starch granule analysis stands out. Starch is a long-chain compound formed by the polymerization of glucose molecules and is stored in the parenchyma of roots, stems, leaves, fruits, and seeds of plants as starch granules[2]. Different plant species have starch granules that exhibit distinct morphological characteristics[3].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNumerous studies on starch granules have contributed valuable theoretical insights into the vitality patterns of ancient populations in China and the status of agricultural development. To date, over 150 case studies on starch granules have been reported across more than 130 prehistoric sites in China, focusing on materials such as pottery, lithics, mussels, dental calculus, and soils (\u003cstrong\u003eFig. 1\u003c/strong\u003e). The most frequently discussed topics in these studies include the use of plants as food resources and the actual functions and usage patterns of various artifacts or tools, such as stone knives, grinding stones, pointed-bottom bottles, and grooved basins[4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Additionally, starch granule analysis has been employed to investigate the domestication of plants[9, 10, 11], food processing techniques[12, 13], and beverage production[5, 14, 15, 16].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e***Insert \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 1\u003c/strong\u003e here***\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Yangtze River valley is a crucial region for understanding the formation and development of Chinese civilization, with a long history of rice farming supported by archaeobotanical evidence. This has led some researchers to suggest that it may be one of the centers of rice cultivation. While many macro-plant remains have been reported from the area, studies focused on starch granules are relatively scarce. The Late Neolithic Fenghuangzui site, located in Xiangyang City of Hubei Province in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River valley, presents an opportunity to explore the potential and application of starch granule analysis in central China.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the excavation conducted from 2020 to 2021, a hearth feature (referred to as H13) was uncovered in the southern part of the site, alongside numerous lithic artifacts, pottery, and plant and animal remains. This paper presents the findings from the recent analysis of starch granules extracted from the lithic artifacts found in H13. The goal is to identify the functions of these lithic tools and to investigate the formation process of H13. By categorizing and analyzing the types of starch granules recovered from the lithic tools, this study discusses how the inhabitants of Fenghuangzui may have utilized both wild and cultivated plants.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SETTINGS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.1 The Fenghuangzui Site and Feature H13\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Fenghuangzui site, located at coordinates 111°59′20.39″ E and 32°14′42.67″ N, reaches a maximum elevation of 94 meters above sea level. It is situated between Yanying Village and Qianwang Village in Longwang Town, within the Xiangzhou District of Xiangyang City, Hubei Province, central China (\u003cstrong\u003eFig. 2\u003c/strong\u003e). The site lies in the upper reaches of the Han River, near the southern edge of the Nanyang Basin. It primarily extends across an irregular platform, with a river flowing to the east and behind the platform[17].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e***Insert \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2\u003c/strong\u003e here***\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFeature H13 was uncovered during the 2020 excavation. The feature has an oval shape, with well-defined walls and a nearly flat bottom. It measures 6.6 meters in length (long diameter) and 2.1 meters in width (short diameter), with a depth of 0.5 meters. The cultural deposits within H13 have been divided into two strata: upper and lower[18].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe upper stratum, measuring up to 0.21 meters thick, consists of yellow-brown clay with a loose texture, mixed with red burnt clods and charcoal. Artifacts found in this layer include pottery, a few lithics, and animal bones. In contrast, the lower stratum ranges from 0.05 to 0.29 meters thick and contains gray-black soil with a loose texture, along with plant ash, charcoal, and some braised soil. Numerous sherds, lithics, and animal bones were excavated from this lower layer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFour radiocarbon dating samples (see \u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e) from feature H13 indicate that it dates back to between 4400 and 4200 calibrated years before present (cal BP), placing it firmly within the Shijiahe Culture period[18].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.2 Archaeobotanical research on the Shijiahe Culture\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe ash pit H13 is dated to the Shijiahe Culture period (4400–4200 cal BP). Evidence from plant remains, such as carbonized rice grains and rice husks, suggests that the subsistence economy during the Shijiahe Culture period was primarily based on rice farming. Additionally, fishing, hunting, and gathering wild plants contributed to the diet to varying[1, 19, 20, 21].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecent archaeobotanical research has made significant advancements regarding the Qujialing and Shijiahe cultural sites in the Jianghan Plain and nearby regions (see \u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e for a list of sites where archaeobotanical remains have been excavated and analyzed). These studies indicate that rice and millet agriculture played a crucial role in the local and regional diet of the Jianghan Plain, incorporating domesticated plants such as \u003cem\u003eSetaria italica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePanicum miliaceum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eOryza sativa\u003c/em\u003e, and\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Glycine max\u003c/em\u003e. Additionally, various weeds were collected and cultivated, including \u003cem\u003eSetaria viridis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDigitaria sanguinalis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEchinochloa Beauv,\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePerilla frutescens\u003c/em\u003e, along with fruiting plants like \u003cem\u003eActinidia\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eAmpelopsis brevipedunculata,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eas well as nuts and drupe shells. The findings from macro-remain analysis strongly support these conclusions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e***Insert \u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e here***\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, plant microfossils have been vital for understanding the diverse methods of food procurement and consumption. Figure 1 illustrates the phytolith and starch granule analyses performed at the Chengtoushan site in Lixian, Hunan[22], the Qujialing site in Jingmen, Hubei[23, 24], and the Gouwan site in Xichuan, Henan[25]. Phytolith analysis suggests that the Qujialing people began cultivating and utilizing rice approximately 5800 years ago, indicating advanced domestication of rice at that time. These discoveries provide a scientific foundation for understanding late Neolithic human life and rice domestication in the eastern part of the Hanshui River in the Jianghan Plain[23].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough starch granule analysis has significant potential to reveal food sources and provide insights into plants used for various purposes, including food processing, medicinal use, and crafting, it has been less frequently applied in Neolithic studies on the Jianghan Plain compared to other research methods. The present paper tentatively employs starch granule analysis on lithic artifacts from H13, aiming to enhance our understanding of the functions of these tools and to contribute new information about food exploitation and subsistence practices in the late Neolithic middle Yangtze River valley.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2.1 Sampling and extraction of starch granules\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwenty-four lithic specimens were excavated from H13, with five originating from the upper stratum and 19 from the lower stratum. Twenty-three of these specimens were included in the current study for starch granule analysis (\u003cstrong\u003eFig. 3\u003c/strong\u003e). The technological analysis of the twenty-four lithic artifacts has been described in detail in \u0026nbsp;Supplementary Material. The technological analysis indicates that most artifacts from H13 are knapped stone tools, while polished tools are rare, represented only by a few chisels and a small number of partially polished pieces. Among the knapped objects, many could not be categorized by their technological origins (i.e., shaping or flaking); only a few were identified as simple core-flaking and bipolar-flaking products. Some stone artifacts featured cutting edges, exhibiting various morphologies from transversal to convergent. The techno-functional analysis suggested that these stone tools might have been used to cut plant materials. Fig. 3 displays some of the lithic artifacts analyzed in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e***Insert \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 3\u003c/strong\u003e here***\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe extraction of starch granules was conducted at the archaeological laboratories of Wuhan University and theKey Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, China. The extraction procedure followed methods outlined by Deborah M. Pearsalla\u0026nbsp;[26], Guan Ying[27],\u0026nbsp;Huw Barton, Robin Torrence and Richard Fullagar\u0026nbsp;et al[28, 29, 30]. Sample collection involved inspecting the entire surface of each lithic artifact, without sectional sampling. Each specimen underwent three cleaning steps, referred to as Sediment 1, Sediment 2, and Sediment 3. First, the lithic was brushed to remove surface dirt (Sediment 1); then it was washed with distilled water, and the collected liquid constituted Sediment 2; finally, ultrasonic cleaning was applied, yielding Sediment 3 samples. It was anticipated that the various sediments would reveal residues from different sources: Sediment 1 would contain more residues from the soil, and Sediment 3 would consist of materials closely associated with the specimen's surface, and Sediment 2 would include mixed contents from both soil and lithic surfaces. The primary goal of wet cleaning was to separate Sediments 1 and 3 to minimize cross-contamination from soil to lithic surfaces. All three sediments were processed following the same laboratory protocols.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo prevent potential contamination, several measures were implemented before and after extraction:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1. Preservation: Excavated lithic artifacts were placed in sealed bags. Prior to sampling, these artifacts were stored in the warehouse of the Field Archaeological Base at the Fenghuangzui Site, Wuhan University.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2. Experiment Protocol: During the experiments, all personnel wore lab clothes, masks, gloves, and other protective gear. All equipment used for sampling was disposable and thoroughly rinsed with pure water before use to eliminate contamination.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3. Decontamination: The topsoil sample served as a control for comparison with the ultrasonic sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe starch granule extraction process adhered to the methods detailed in Guan et al.[27, 31], encompassing the following steps: concentration, deflocculation, and heavy liquid flotation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(i) Concentration: A sample was filled with pure water until the liquid reached 50 ml in a test tube, which was then capped and centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 5 minutes. After centrifugation, the surface liquid was discarded, retaining approximately 5 ml at the bottom. This step aimed to concentrate the sample while removing some clay and impurities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(ii) Deflocculation: A 10 ml solution of Disodium EDTA (Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eEDTA) at a concentration of 0.1% was added to the sample, which was then shaken on a reciprocating shaker for over 2 hours to detach starch granules from soil particles. Subsequently, pure water was added for cleaning, and the sample underwent centrifugation at 2500 rpm for 2 minutes, after which the surface liquid was discarded, retaining about 5 ml at the bottom. This process was repeated two more times to ensure the complete removal of Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eEDTA.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(iii) Heavy Liquid Flotation: About 10 ml of heavy liquid (sodium polytungstate solution) with a density of 1.85 g\u003csup\u003e/cm³\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003ewas addedto the sample, which was centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 5 minutes. The surface liquid was then poured from the starch granules sample tube. This step was repeated to maximize starch granule recovery. Finally, the starch granules sample (SS) and the original sample (S) were washed by centrifugation in pure water to eliminate the heavy liquid.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(iv) The starch granule sample (SS) was stored in a cool, dark place to prepare for observation. The slide was placed horizontally on a desk, and the observation sample number was recorded. A drop of 100% pure glycerin was added to the slide's center to improve the consistency of the starch granule sample and minimize the fluidity of the liquid. A pipette gun was employed to extract the starch granule samples during the extraction procedure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2.2 Microscopic observation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStarch granules were examined under a microscope at a magnification of 200X and photographed at 400X using an Olympus BX 53 microscope. During this microscopic observation, various morphological characteristics of the starch granules were recorded, including their integrity, shape, position of fissures, lamellae, location of the central hilum, state and shape of extinction crosses, visibility of umbilical points, and the overall contour of the starch granules.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e***Insert \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 4\u003c/strong\u003e here***\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eA total of 111 starch granules were extracted from 22 of the 23 lithic artifacts, of which 101 granules were morphologically identifiable in subsequent analyses (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Each starch granule collected from Sediment 3 (Sed 3) was initially compared with modern starch granules. Details regarding the starch granules from H13 lithics are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe classification and identification of starch granules mainly rely on the method used by Guan Ying and Zhang Xi[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. This method is mainly based on Geometric Morphometrics Morphometrics and Supporting Vector Machine (SVM) in Supervised Machine Learning. And the unknown starch granules are primarily based on the modern starch grain database established by the Archaeological Residue Research Group at the Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins, Chinese Academy of Sciences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e***Insert \u003cb\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/b\u003e here***\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the possibility that starch residues from Sediment 2 (Sed 2) may have originated from both the soil and the lithic surfaces, they were excluded from further discussion in this study. It is also believed that Sed 1 has been influenced by taphonomic contamination at the site; thus, it serves as a control sample to eliminate contamination effects. We compared starch granules obtained from Sed 1 and Sed 3 for geometric morphological analysis. Using Canonical Variate Analysis (CVA), we observed a significant difference between the starch granules from Sed 1 and those from Sed 3 (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), indicating distinct peaks (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that starch granules from Sed 3 were minimally affected by soil contamination during the deposition process, providing insight into the utilization of the sampled specimens.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e***Insert Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e here***\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 CVA Results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CVA of starch granules in the soil (Sed 1) identified four significant canonical variates (\u003cb\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/b\u003e). The eigenvalues indicate that canonical variate 1 (CV1) accounts for 66.3%, canonical variate 2 (CV2) for 22.1%, and canonical variate 3 (CV3) for 8.9%, altogether explaining 97.4% of the total variance. The CVA scatter plot shows that starch granules in the soil overlapped with three control groups, suggesting the presence of legumina types in the soil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCVA of starch granules on lithic artifacts (Sed 3) identified six significant canonical variates (\u003cb\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/b\u003e). The eigenvalues indicate that canonical variate 1 (CV1) accounts for 52.5%, CV2 for 25.2%, and CV3 for 11.0% of the total variables, collectively explaining 88.7% of the total variance. The CVA scatter plot shows that the starch granules on lithic artifacts overlapped with six control groups, indicating that these granules primarily came from underground storage organ types and legumina types.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e***Insert \u003cb\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/b\u003e here***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 SVM Prediction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA Support Vector Machine (SVM) analysis was employed to examine and categorize starch granules. The prediction results from the SVM (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) indicate potential sources for the starch granules found in H13 soil (Sed 1), with the analysis suggesting a higher likelihood of these granules originating from \u003cem\u003eDioscorea\u003c/em\u003e type, \u003cem\u003eMaranta\u003c/em\u003e type, \u003cem\u003eCicer\u003c/em\u003e type, and \u003cem\u003eVicia\u003c/em\u003e type. In contrast, the starch granules identified on H13 lithic artifacts (Sed 3) are most likely associated with \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus\u003c/em\u003e (root) type, \u003cem\u003eDioscorea\u003c/em\u003e type, \u003cem\u003eAcorus\u003c/em\u003e type, \u003cem\u003eManihot\u003c/em\u003e type, \u003cem\u003eAmorphophallus\u003c/em\u003e type, \u003cem\u003eSaururus\u003c/em\u003e type, and \u003cem\u003eVigna\u003c/em\u003e type. However, it should be noted that these identifications represent probabilistic inferences rather than definitive determinations of plant species.To accurately identify the starch granules and eliminate soil contamination in Sed 3 samples, the SVM model results highlight plant taxa likely derived from soil sediments. The results indicate that \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus\u003c/em\u003e (root) type, \u003cem\u003eDioscorea\u003c/em\u003e type, \u003cem\u003eAcorus\u003c/em\u003e type, \u003cem\u003eManihot\u003c/em\u003e type, \u003cem\u003eAmorphophallus\u003c/em\u003e type, \u003cem\u003eand Saururus\u003c/em\u003e type may be considered positive taxa, with model accuracy greater than or equal to 92% (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e***Insert \u003cb\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;3\u003c/b\u003e here***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eRecent investigations into lithic artifacts excavated from site H13 have revealed the presence of starch granules primarily derived from roots and tubers, such as \u003cem\u003eAcorus\u003c/em\u003e type, \u003cem\u003eAmorphophallus\u003c/em\u003e type \u003cem\u003eand Saururs\u003c/em\u003e type. This finding underscores the diverse array of food resources that the inhabitants of Fenghuangzui relied upon. In conjunction with rice farming, wild roots and tubers were a significant aspect of their diet. Although these plant sources are rich in starch, their fragile nature makes them difficult to preserve, which contributes to their rarity in surface flotation collections. Additionally, these plants typically produce fewer phytoliths (according to Dolores R. Piperno[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]), making it more likely for starch granules to be preserved and identified in archaeological residue samples (as noted by Robin Torrence[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEdible roots and tubers represent vital wild resources that were gathered, especially during the early to late Neolithic periods in China. The practice of gathering coexisted alongside agriculture, forming a crucial part of local livelihoods. The interplay between ecological resources and gathering practices in dietary patterns was shaped by temporal and regional ecological factors. The presence of starch granules from roots and tubers at multiple prehistoric sites across China suggests that these foods played an essential role in Neolithic diets (as documented by Li et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]; Sun et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]; Wan et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]; Wu et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]; Zhang et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]; Zhao et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]; Liu et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]). The findings from this study indicate that wild food resources were likely a significant component of the diet of the ancestors of Fenghuangzui over 4,000 years ago.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechno-functional analysis reveals that some lithic artifacts uncovered in H13, such as fragments, ground flakes, and bipolar products, possess potential cutting edges and may have been utilized as tools. Starch granules were identified in the Sed 3 sample of 12 lithic artifacts, indicating they were once employed in plant processing. Notably, no starch granules were found on the surface of the grinding stone fragment (H13①:5). The extensive weathering of the lithic surface prevents the identification of the raw material type. Three possible explanations exist for the absence of starch granules: the lithic artifacts may have been unused; residues on the surface could have been destroyed during post-depositional processes; or the artifacts may have been used for non-plant materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFragments: Starch granules are present on four fragments (H13②:65, H13②:82, H13①:8, and H13②:84). This presence suggests that these fragments may have been utilized as tools while in a fractured state. Further grouping showed that the identification of this set of starch granules did not yield results with high accuracy. Technological analysis indicates that fragment (H13②:84) has a cutting edge, while fragments (H13②:65, H13②:82, and H13①:8) only show chipped traces, making their mode of production difficult to ascertain.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLithic Artifacts with Cutting Edges: Starch granules were also found on several tools with cutting edges, including a stone adze (H13②:73), ground flake (H13②:72), core-tools (H13②:56 and H13①:3), and a fragment tool (H13②:6). We suggest these lithics were used for harvesting, cutting, and processing plants. In further analysis, four starch granules in this group were identified as \u003cem\u003eManihot\u003c/em\u003e type, and \u003cem\u003eAmorphophallus\u003c/em\u003e type. The cutting-edge lithic artifacts primarily dealt with \u003cem\u003eAmorphophallus paeoniifolius and Saururus chinensis.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBipolar Products: Starch granules were also identified on bipolar product 1 and 2 (H13②:18 and H13②:83, respectively). Bipolar Product 1 features a unilateral extended concave notch, suggesting it could be used for processing and cutting plant food resources. In contrast, Bipolar Product 2 may have been used for pounding plants or foods. In further analysis, three starch granules from this group were identified as \u003cem\u003eCastanea mollissima\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLithic artifacts with unclear technological types have been found in the excavation. Although determining the specific types of some lithic artifacts is challenging, some starch granules have been identified on their surfaces (H13②:63). The presence of these starch granules suggests that the lithics may have been used; however, it does not eliminate the possibility that the granules were introduced through contamination for various reasons. Further investigation is needed to determine how these artifacts were utilized.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn H13, only one lithic artifact (Core-tool, H13①:3) was excavated from the upper stratum, while the rest were found in the lower stratum. The research shows that the upper stratum is yellowish brown soil, and most of the unearthed pottery is broken pottery pieces, with few stone tools and animal bones and the relics are scattered and irregular. There are many complementary pottery unearthed in the lower stratum, and the distribution of these pottery has certain rules. There are also many animal bones and stone tools unearthed in the lower layer. Based on the study of pottery, stone tools and animals and plants, the researchers believe that the formation of H13 lower stratum is the result of multiple dietary activities by ancient people here, and the pottery, stone tools and animal bones used in each activity will be left in the pit, and the upper stratum should be formed after the ash pit was abandoned.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study involved the extraction and identification of starch granules found on lithic artifacts excavated from pit H13 at the Fenghuangzui site in Xiangyang City, Hubei Province. The results indicate that the extracted starch granules primarily belong to nuts, roots, and tubers. This finding is significant for understanding how the inhabitants of the Fenghuangzui site exploited plant food resources, the functions of the lithic artifacts, and the characteristics of pit H13.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Neolithic inhabitants of Fenghuangzui had a diverse diet, incorporating a variety of local wild plants alongside rice and millets. This research contributes to the archaeobotanical understanding of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River valley, specifically through the analysis of starch granules. Additionally, it lays an important foundation for comprehending human life in this region more than 4,000 years ago. The lithic artifacts discovered in pit H13 were likely used for cutting and processing roots and tubers. In conjunction with other artifacts recovered from H13, such as pottery, animal bones, ashes, and carbonized plant seeds, this analysis suggests that the starch granules obtained from the lithic artifacts are associated with the food preparation practices of the Fenghuangzui inhabitants in their daily lives. Currently, we can only conclude that these lithic artifacts were discarded in the pit after use. Future research involving a greater number of lithic artifacts is necessary for a more comprehensive discussion.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAdditional information\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe online version contains supplementary material available\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrespondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Ying Guan and Xin Wang.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eYinghua Li, Ying Guan and Xin Wang conceived the study. Wentai Lou, Feng Wang, Xuan Wei conducted the experiments and analyzed the data. Wentai Lou were significant contributors to the writing of the manuscript. Yinghua Li, Ying Guan and Xin Wang revised the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe thank Professor Xiyun Yu and Associate Professor Siwei Shan for conducting excavation at Fenghuangzui Site and their help in conceiving this analysis. We extend our gratitude to the Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of the Chinese Academy of Sciences for providing modern starch granules for comparative analysis. We also thank Yangyang Ni, Chuane Kong, Jiaxing Yang, Xi Zhang, Sen You, Rui Wang, Tao Li, Yuduan Zhou, Ruxi Yang, Junke Zhou and Wang Liu for their support and assistance in laboratory work and manuscript preparation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll data supporting the conclusions of this article can be obtained from the corresponding authors, Ying Guan and Xin Wang, upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao, Z. 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The Identification and Study of Prehistoric Plant Remains from the Zoumaling Site in Shishou, Hubei. \u003cem\u003eJianghan Archaeology\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e, 109-115 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTables 1 to 4 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-heritage-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"hsci","sideBox":"Learn more about [Heritage Science](http://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"40494","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40494/3","title":"npj Heritage Science","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5741165/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5741165/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eStarch residues on lithics are crucial for exploring the function and use pattern of stone tools and reconstructing the ecological environment, diet, and subsistence strategies of ancient populations. Recent excavations at Fenghuangzui Site (4400\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4200 cal BP) revealed abundant Shijiahe Culture remains, especially feature H13 with a large amont of pottery, lithics and ashes were unearthed, which may indicate population gathering and communal activities. This paper analyses starch granules from 23 lithic artifacts (e.g., Fragment tools, Core-tools, Bipolar Products) unearthed from H13. The results indicate that the extracted starch granules primarily belong to nuts, roots, and tubers, demonstrating that these lithic artifacts were used for processing local rhizome plants. Combined with rice and millet indicated by macro-remains and phytoliths, the finding showed a wide diet of these inhabitants. This paper provides a new case study of starch granules in the Late Neolithic sites of the Middle Yangtze River valley.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Lithic Artifacts Starch Residues from Fenghuangzui Neolithic Site (4400-4200 cal BP) in Central China: Identification and Implications","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-10 08:33:43","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5741165/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-05-03T22:03:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-02T03:31:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-30T13:27:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"311040822826715131991276001787966019360","date":"2025-04-11T13:31:56+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"290329518105043012835755745379742707905","date":"2025-04-11T10:55:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-04-08T20:05:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-04-08T06:43:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Heritage Science","date":"2025-03-26T14:37:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-heritage-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"hsci","sideBox":"Learn more about [Heritage Science](http://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"40494","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40494/3","title":"npj Heritage Science","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c52558d3-67a5-4d8f-95d2-d9c1dd334a48","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 10th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-13T16:06:42+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5741165","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s40494-025-02050-w","journal":{"identity":"npj-heritage-science","isVorOnly":false,"title":"npj Heritage Science"},"publishedOn":"2025-10-11 15:57:12","publishedOnDateReadable":"October 11th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-10 08:33:43","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s40494-025-02050-w","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s40494-025-02050-w","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5741165","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5741165","identity":"rs-5741165","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}