Nickel Interlayers Boost Bonding and Strength in Hot-Rolled Super Duplex–Carbon Steel Clads

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Syaiful Anwar, Firman Sihabudin, Arief Rakhman Hakim, Abdul Aziz Arfi, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8528011/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study examines the influence of nickel interlayers—battery-grade (BNS) and electroplated (ENS)—on the microstructure and mechanical properties of hot roll cladded Super Duplex Stainless Steel 2507 on Carbon Steel A36. XRD analysis revealed diffusion phases (α-FeNi, MgNi) that improved hardness and bonding, though increased dislocation density and microstrain. Mechanical tests showed enhanced tensile strength (≥ 575 MPa), elastic modulus (2.6 GPa), and hardness (167–289 HV), with reduced elongation (20–23%). Flexural modulus reached 177.5 GPa. Strain rate sensitivity varied, indicating different deformation behaviors. The technique offers a cost-effective solution for durable, corrosion-resistant components in oil and gas environments. Metallurgy Hot roll cladding super duplex stainless steel 2507 carbon steel A36 nickel interlayer microstructure mechanical properties Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 1. Introduction Metal cladding involves adding a protective metal layer to equipment surfaces to improve resistance to corrosion, wear, and high temperatures. In the oil and gas industry, it is widely applied to pipes, tanks, and drilling equipment exposed to harsh conditions. This technique extends equipment lifespan, enhances safety, and ensures efficient operations [ 1 ]. Some of the frequently used metals for cladding are stainless steel, nickel and nickel alloys, copper and copper alloys, and aluminium, depend on the specific requirements of the application, such as the type of environment and the mechanical stresses involved [ 2 , 3 ]. At present, laser cladding [ 4 ] and high-density infrared (HDIR) fusion cladding [ 5 ] methods have been used in the oil and gas industry due to their excellent control over the thickness and composition of the layer, high production speed, and product flexibility. However, both techniques have their own disadvantages, including high equipment cost [ 6 ], pore formation [ 5 , 7 ], material limitation [ 5 , 8 ], and process control [ 9 , 10 ]. Hot roll cladding combines two or more metal layers using heat and high pressure. The metals are heated to their recrystallization temperature and then rolled together, forming a strong, durable composite material [ 11 ]. This technique is also more cost-effective compared to other cladding methods due to lower energy consumption, easy of forming, and good ductility, allowing the creation of components with complex shapes and easy welding using various welding techniques [ 12 – 14 ]. Carbon Steel A36 is widely used in oil and gas industries due to its high tensile strength, good weldability, and cost-effectiveness. Its ferrite–pearlite microstructure provides a balance of strength and ductility, making it suitable for structural applications. However, it has lower corrosion resistance, limited high-temperature performance, and less hardness compared to alloy or high-carbon steels. On the other hand, Super Duplex Stainless Steel 2507 is a high-performance alloy designed for extreme environments. With a balanced ferrite–austenite microstructure, it offers excellent strength, toughness, and resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking. It is ideal for offshore and subsea applications but requires precise welding control and may lose toughness above 500°C or degrade in highly acidic environments [ 15 – 21 ]. Nickel-based alloys are essential in the oil and gas industry for their superior corrosion resistance, mechanical strength, and high-temperature performance. They are widely used in coating and cladding to protect metal surfaces, extend equipment life, and reduce maintenance costs [ 22 , 23 ]. While Carbon Steel A36 is cost-effective and mechanically strong, Super Duplex 2507 offers superior corrosion resistance but at a higher cost. By cladding Super Duplex 2507 onto Carbon Steel A36, components can achieve a combination of strength, corrosion resistance, and cost-efficiency—making them highly suitable for harsh oil and gas environments. The addition of a nickel interlayer enhances the mechanical properties of cladded components, improving both strength and toughness [ 24 ]. Nickel serves as an effective bonding layer between carbon steel and stainless steel, ensuring a strong and durable interface [ 23 ]. Various studies have explored methods to improve bonding strength in hot roll cladding. For example, BX Li et al. [ 25 ] used an IF steel + V interlayer for Ti/steel cladding, while S. Wang et al. [ 26 ] found that increasing rolling reduction improves SS304/steel bonding. Vacuum hot roll cladding was applied by H. Li et al. [ 27 ], Z. Zhu et al [ 28 ] and BX Liu et al [ 29 ] to strengthen SS/steel bonds. DS Zhao et al [ 30 ] showed that a Cu interlayer enhances titanium alloy bonding via simulation. BX Liu et al. [ 11 ] identified vacuum level, rolling temperature, and deformation ratio as key factors. Y. Wu et al. [ 31 ], B. Li et al [ 32 ] determined that 800–900°C is optimal for Ti/steel bonding. Z. Lin et al. [ 33 ] found that a Ni interlayer inhibits carbon diffusion, preventing decarburized and carburized layers. Achieving strong bonding while managing plastic deformation between dissimilar metals remains a technical challenge. This study aims to develop reliable structural materials for oil and gas applications by hot roll cladding Super Duplex Stainless Steel 2507 onto Carbon Steel A36, using a nickel interlayer sourced from battery-grade nickel strip and electroplated nickel sheet. It explores the interlayer’s impact on bonding quality, mechanical performance, and microstructure, providing insights to optimize cladding techniques for harsh environments. 2. Experimental 2.1. Materials Carbon Steel (CS) A36 plates were hot-rolled to reduce thickness, then normalized. The final plates were cut into substrate specimens measuring 150 × 30 × 10 mm. Super Duplex Stainless Steel (SDSS) 2507 tubing was cut and pressed into 150 × 30 × 1.77 mm plates, then cladded onto the CS substrate using hot roll cladding. Nickel interlayers used were battery-grade nickel strip (BNS, 0.09 mm) and electroplated nickel sheet (ENS, 0.53 mm). Chemical compositions of the materials are shown in Table 1 Table 1 Chemical composition of clad metal in this study (wt. %) C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni N W Cu Fe Carbon Steel 0.26 0.15 0.59 < 0.001 < 0.005 0.02 0.002 0.009 0.08 < 0.005 0.015 Bal. Super Duplex Steel 0.013 0.38 0.34 < 0.001 < 0.005 24.92 3.88 6.37 0.04 0.02 0.096 Bal. 2.2. Stacking and Cladding Process Overview The stacking process involved placing Carbon Steel (CS) A36 substrate and Super Duplex Stainless Steel (SDSS) 2507 clad, using both non-layered and layered nickel interlayers. Two plates were symmetrically clamped and fastened with nuts and bolts. Argon gas was introduced between the layers to prevent oxide formation during welding. To reduce thermal expansion mismatch during hot roll cladding, MIG welding was applied along the edges. The welded stack had a total thickness of ~ 12 mm. 2.3. Hot Roll Cladding Procedure The stacked metal was heated to 1050°C for 60 minutes, followed by two hot rolling passes. It was then reheated at the same temperature for 10 minutes, and hot rerolled until the thickness was reduced to ~ 5 mm. After rolling, the clad was straightened using a press machine, cooled to room temperature, and the sides were cut to inspect bonding quality between the CS substrate and SDSS clad—with and without nickel interlayers. An illustration of this process is shown in Fig. 1 . 2.4. Metallographic and Mechanical Characterization Metallographic specimens were prepared by grinding with silicon carbide (SiC) papers of increasing grit sizes—200, 400, 600, 1000, and 2000—followed by polishing using diamond paste with particle sizes of 5, 3.5, and 1 nanometer. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed using a SmartLab Rigaku system, scanning over an angle range of 10° to 90° with Cu-Kα radiation at a wavelength of 1.5406 Å. The resulting diffraction peaks were analyzed for intensity, and high-intensity peaks were matched with the PDF 5 + database using SIeve + software to identify the phases or compounds present in the cladding samples. Electrolytic etching was carried out using a 25% oxalic acid solution under a potential of 12 volts. Microstructural observations were conducted using an AmScope MIUI 1803 optical microscope and a JEOL JSM 6510LA scanning electron microscope. The mechanical properties of the cladded super duplex steel were evaluated through tensile, flexural, and hardness tests. Uniaxial tensile and flexural tests were performed at room temperature using a hydraulic universal testing machine (UTM) from Tinius Olsen, operating at a strain rate of 0.03 s⁻¹. Hardness distribution across the cladded layer and steel substrate was measured using a micro-Vickers hardness tester (Mitutoyo America Corporation) with a load of 0.3 N, an indentation dwell time of 10 seconds, and a step size of 0.25 mm. 3. Result and Discussion 3.1. Microstructure observation As can be seen in Fig. 2 presents an X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of super duplex/steel clad metal, both non-layered and layered nickel as interlayer, on the cross-section surface. In this figure, the horizontal axis (x-axis) denotes the diffraction angle (2θ), while the vertical axis (y-axis) represents the peak intensity, reflecting the number of X-rays detected at each specific angle. The differentiation of XRD line shown in Fig. 2 is affected by the use of nickel as an interlayer, the thickness of the nickel, and the hot roll process. The sharper peak observed in Fig. 2 is suggest that the crystallite size is larger, and the dislocation density and the microstrain are lower [ 34 ]. XRD line broadening analysis has been used as a semi-quantitative method for measuring the weight of phases or compounds, crystallite size, dislocation density, and microstrain of super duplex/steel clad metal. As displayed in Table 2 below, presents the phase identification, weight phase, and PDF matches of hot-rolled super duplex/steel clad metal. The table indicates two primary phases in the cladding metal: the ferrite (α) phase, which originates from both the carbon steel substrate and the super duplex clad, and the austenite (γ) phase, which is from the super duplex clad. Adding nickel as an interlayer between the carbon steel substrate and the super duplex clad can lead to diffusion bonding, forming α-Fe-Ni phases. This interlayer likely improves the bonding strength between the carbon steel substrate and the super duplex clad, as reported in previous studies [ 35 – 37 ]. Table 2 Phase identification, estimated of weight phase, and PDF matched of hot rolled super duplex/steel clad metal Steel types Phases or compounds Estimated of weight (%) PDF # CS-SD Cladding non-interlayered 1. α-Fe 77 04-003-3884 2. γ-Fe 23 04-016-6641 CS-SD Cladding interlayered BNS 2. γ-Fe 18 01-081-8775 3. α-FeNi 82 04-015-0311 CS-SD Cladding interlayered ENS 3. α-FeNi 48 04-015-0311 4. FeZn 13 01-081-8174 5. MgNi 39 04-016-4855 Based on the XRD line in Fig. 2 , key physical parameters of the super duplex/steel cladding—both with and without nickel interlayers—can be determined: crystallite size (D), dislocation density (δ), and microstrain (ε). These are calculated using the following equations: The crystallites (grain) size is calculated from XRD data using the Scherrer equation, as seen in Eq. 1 . $$\:D=\frac{K\bullet\:\lambda\:}{\beta\:\bullet\:\text{cos}\theta\:}$$ 1 Where: D : crystallites size (nm), K : 0.9 (Scherrer constant), λ : 0.15406 (wavelength of the X-ray source), β : FWHM (radians), θ : peak position (radians). The calculate dislocation density (δ) and micro strain (ε) using Eqs. 2 and 3 . $$\:\delta\:=\frac{1}{{D}^{2}}$$ 2 $$\:\epsilon\:=\frac{\beta\:}{4\text{tan}\theta\:}$$ 3 Table 3 summarizes crystallite size (D), dislocation density (δ), and microstrain (ε) for different phases. In non-interlayered CS-SDS cladding, α-Fe has the largest crystallite size (29.52 nm), lowest dislocation density (1.46×10⁻³ nm⁻²), and low microstrain (5.43×10⁻³), indicating good structural stability. In contrast, γ-Fe shows smaller crystallites (9.51 nm) with higher dislocation density and microstrain. With BNS interlayering, γ-Fe crystallites grow slightly (11.4 nm) and show reduced defects. The α-FeNi phase appears with moderate crystallite size and defect levels. In ENS interlayered cladding, α-FeNi crystallites shrink (7.6 nm) but exhibit very high dislocation density and microstrain. FeZn and MgNi phases show even smaller crystallites and extreme defect levels, especially MgNi. Nickel addition (via BNS or ENS) tends to increase dislocation density and microstrain, especially in α-FeNi and MgNi phases—suggesting enhanced hardness and strength, but also more internal stress and defects [ 38 – 40 ]. Crystallite size tends to be smaller in materials with nickel, especially in the MgNi phase, which has the smallest crystallite size and the highest dislocation density and micro strain. This indicates that nickel can refine the grain structure, potentially improving hardnenability [ 41 ]. Table 3 Crystallites size (D), dislocation density (δ), and micro strain (ε) of super duplex/steel clad both non-layered and layered nickel as interlayer Steel types Phases or compounds Crystallite size, D (nm) Dislocation density, δ x10 − 3 (nm − 2 ) micro strain, ε x10 − 3 CS-SD Cladding non-interlayered 1. α-Fe 29.52 1.46 5.43 2. γ-Fe 9.51 15.7 10.19 CS-SD Cladding interlayered (BNS) 2. γ-Fe 11.4 7.69 8.22 3. α-FeNi 9.54 12.81 7.33 CS-SD Cladding interlayered ENS 3. α-FeNi 7.6 62.4 13.44 4. FeZn 6.9 20.71 10.76 5. MgNi 1.33 567.21 83.36 Figure 3 shows the cross-sectional microstructure of super duplex cladding on carbon steel, with and without a nickel interlayer. In Fig. 3 (a), an oxide layer forms between the substrate and cladding despite argon shielding during welding, likely due to incomplete protection allowing oxygen to reach the weld zone [ 42 ]. Figures 3 (b) reveal that interlayered BNS effectively prevents the formation of oxides at the interface as previous study [ 33 ]. In the ENS-interlayered cladding, oxide layers appear above and below the nickel strip, likely due to the ENS manufacturing process. Morphologically, BNS and ENS differ: BNS forms a single layer, while ENS consists of three. This aligns with XRD findings in Table 3 , which show that BNS produces a more uniform structure with better oxidation resistance. In contrast, ENS shows phase variation, potentially affecting mechanical and corrosion properties. Then, the SEM and element mapping analysis is carried out to confirm composition contained microstructure of super duplex/steel clad as shown in Fig. 4 . Figure 4 (a) shows that the layer between the substrate and cladding contains mainly oxygen and some carbon, likely from the heating process. These elements can react with iron to form iron oxide and carbide, with mapping indicating more oxide—suggesting poor oxygen shielding during welding. In Fig. 4 (b), the addition of a BNS interlayer eliminates these compounds. Nickel acts as a barrier, forming a stable layer that resists oxidation and carburization [ 43 , 44 ]. In ENS cladding, oxygen, carbon, and zinc are still present. Zinc oxide (ZnO) likely originates from the electroplating process used to produce ENS. During hot roll cladding, zinc can bond with iron through thermal diffusion, forming FeZn compounds. This bonding ensures strong adhesion between the zinc layer and the steel substrate [ 45 ]. Magnesium cannot be detected by SEM and element mapping because it is distributed very thinly or is present in a form that does not produce a strong signal. 3.2. Tensile and fracture analysis of super duplex/steel clad metal Figure 5 (a–b) presents the tensile properties of different materials. Carbon Steel (CS) shows high ductility (43% elongation) but lower strength (341 MPa) and stiffness (2.5 GPa). Super Duplex Stainless Steel (SDS) has the highest strength (1056.8 MPa) and stiffness (10.9 GPa), but low ductility (13%). The CS-SDS cladding improves strength (590.9 MPa) over CS but reduces elongation. Adding a BNS interlayer increases stiffness (2.6 GPa) slightly but lowers elongation to 20%. The ENS interlayer results in slightly lower strength (575.2 MPa) but maintains ductility (23%). Figure 5 (b) shows that CS-SDS cladding without a nickel interlayer has a noticeably different fracture strain compared to cladding with a nickel interlayer. In both cases, the super duplex layer fractures first, followed by the carbon steel substrate. This sequential failure suggests that the nickel interlayer improves bonding strength and reduces strain mismatch. Figure 5 (c) further confirms that the nickel interlayer enhances mechanical compatibility between carbon steel and super duplex stainless steel. Additionally, Table 4 presents the strain rate sensitivity of CS-SDS cladding with and without nickel, highlighting the relationship between deformation rate and flow stress. Table 4 Strain rate sensitivity of CS-SDS cladding metal non-interlayered and interlayered nickel in the room temperature Strain rate sensitivity, m CS-SDS Cladding non-interlayered 0.045 CS-SDS Cladding interlayered BNS -0.035 CS-SDS Cladding interlayered ENS -0.02 The table shows strain rate sensitivity (m) values for CS-SDS cladding samples. Non-interlayered cladding has a positive m (0.045), meaning stress increases with strain rate, improving strength under dynamic loading. In contrast, interlayered BNS (-0.035) and ENS (-0.02) have negative m values, indicating stress decreases as strain rate rises, making them weaker at high strain rates. This behavior is linked to dislocation–solute interactions. Flow stress predictions (Fig. 6 ) confirm these trends: non-interlayered cladding strengthens with strain rate, while BNS and ENS weaken, with BNS showing the most pronounced effect. Fracture morphologies of CS-SDS cladding metal non-interlayered and interlayered nickel using SEM are shown in Fig. 7 . In Fig. 7 (a)-(b), it is evident that the super duplex, acting as the cladding metal, undergoes brittle fracture. Conversely, the carbon steel, serving as the base metal, exhibits ductile fracture. Furthermore, Fig. 7 (c) reveals that both the super duplex and the carbon steel experience ductile fracture. This observation indicates that the application of nickel interlayers with different thicknesses and chemical compositions can significantly influence the fracture patterns of super duplex stainless steel when used as cladding metal. The presence of the nickel interlayer appears to enhance the bonding strength and alter the mechanical response of the composite material, thereby affecting its overall fracture characteristics. 3.3. Flexural analysis of CS-SDS cladding metal Figure 8 . Flexural behavior of CS-SDS cladding metal non-interlayer and interlayer nickel, (a) Flexural stress vs flexural strain, (b) Flexural strength and flexural modulus, (c) Maximum Flexural strain, and (d) Flexural specimen after 3- point bending test with no crack appearance The addition of a nickel interlayer in CS-SDS cladding increases stiffness, as shown by higher flexural modulus (172.8 GPa for BNS and 177.5 GPa for ENS). However, it reduces maximum flexural stress (478.6 MPa for BNS and 516.8 MPa for ENS) and slightly lowers ductility (flexural strain: 0.049% for BNS, 0.054% for ENS). Despite these changes, all samples showed no cracks during flexural tests, indicating good resistance to bending loads. Overall, the nickel interlayer enhances stiffness without compromising flexural performance, though it decreases stress capacity. 3.4. Micro Vickers Hardness Figure 9 presents micro-Vickers hardness profiles for CS-SDSS cladding with and without nickel interlayers. In the A36 carbon steel zone, surface hardness is highest in the non-interlayered sample, followed by BNS and ENS interlayered samples. Hardness fluctuates with depth but remains within expected ranges. Across all samples, carbon steel hardness (0–1.5 µm) exceeds that of annealed A36 (120–170 HV), ranging from 167 to 289 HV—likely due to residual stress from the hot roll cladding process. [ 46 ]. The presence of a nickel interlayer significantly affects hardness at the interface. In the BNS-interlayered sample, the nickel layer shows higher hardness than the surrounding carbon steel, indicating a defect-free bond, as seen in Fig. 4 . The transition to super duplex stainless steel is sharp. In contrast, the ENS-interlayered sample shows much lower nickel hardness, closer to the annealed range (60–100 HV). This highlights a clear difference in nickel layer quality, with BNS providing a harder, more stable interlayer than ENS. According to Lin et al. [ 47 ], hot rolling temperature affects the metallurgical bonding between carbon steel and the nickel interlayer. Oxide layers observed in samples without a nickel interlayer and with ENS interlayer can reduce interface bond quality. In the non-interlayered sample, a significant hardness transition occurs around 2.2 mm, with an oxide layer detected at the interface. The softer ENS interlayer and nearby oxide impurities suggest it may not function effectively as a diffusion barrier or bonding enhancer. These findings highlight the importance of a nickel interlayer—particularly BNS—in preventing oxide formation and improving bond integrity. The Super Duplex 2507 clad zone in all three samples shows consistently high hardness values, exceeding the typical range of 250–280 HV—likely due to residual stress from the hot roll cladding process. Minor variations in hardness within the zone may stem from microstructural differences. Notably, the sample with a nickel interlayer exhibits slightly higher hardness in the super duplex region. The nickel layer alters the hardness profile at the interface, with significant differences observed between BNS and ENS interlayered samples. These differences, along with the presence of oxide layers, suggest variations in interface layer formation, as illustrated in Fig. 4 . 4. Conclusion This study shows that hot roll cladding Super Duplex 2507 onto Carbon Steel A36 using a nickel interlayer forms a strong metallurgical bond and enhances mechanical and microstructural properties. The nickel interlayer improves bonding by reducing oxide formation and promoting diffusion phases (α-FeNi, MgNi), resulting in increased hardness and strength but reduced ductility. Mechanical tests revealed tensile strength > 575 MPa, flexural modulus up to 177.5 GPa, and hardness between 167–289 HV, with elongation reduced to 20–23%. Strain rate sensitivity analysis showed positive behavior in non-interlayered clads and negative in interlayered samples, indicating different deformation mechanisms under dynamic loading. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge that this research was funded in part by the Research Organization for Nanotechnology and Materials, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), through the 2024 Research Grant. Special thanks are extended to Mr. Rahadian Roberto and Mr. Dedi Pria Utama from the Deputy for Research and Innovation Infrastructure, BRIN, for their valuable support. 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(2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-025-10707-7 Zhao, J., Wang, X., Yang, Q., Wang, Q., Wang, Y., Li, W.: Mechanism of lateral metal flow on residual stress distribution during hot strip rolling. J Mater Process Technol. 288, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116838 Lin, C.-M., Mohsen, &, Rizi, S., Chen, C.-K.: Effects of temperature on interfacial evolution and mechanical properties of pure titanium and carbon steel sheets bonded via new multi-pass continuous hot-roll diffusion with nickel interlayer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-07455-y/Published Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":816122,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMicrostructure observations of super duplex/steel clad metal (a) non-interlayered, (b) with interlayered BNS, and (c) with interlayered ENS\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8528011/v1/57aac08737cb50cdb9e2c795.jpeg"},{"id":99796217,"identity":"d8b8d083-c1e3-4a3d-bcef-c5da31c54386","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 13:40:45","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1273580,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM and element mapping analysis of super duplex/steel clad metal (a) non-interlayered, (b) interlayered BNS, and (c) interlayered ENS\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8528011/v1/e5336275bd22b2d6df25ba6e.jpeg"},{"id":99700939,"identity":"b49e5c32-fa91-46ba-b300-7a4d5d16a38c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-07 11:41:45","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":789290,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTensile test result of CS-SDS cladding metal non-interlayered and interlayered nickel using testing speed of 50 mm/min.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8528011/v1/09cc7984fd150a596d0af2f7.jpeg"},{"id":99700931,"identity":"5a200a8c-f490-4b9c-951b-99e078403409","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-07 11:41:45","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":9474,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePrediction of flow stress (Δσ/σ) on strain rate (έ\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/έ\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) for several values of strain sensitivity, m, of CS-SDSS cladding metal (a) non-interlayered, (b) interlayered BNS, (c) and interlayered ENS\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8528011/v1/8d84f87924e1cebfb84af937.png"},{"id":99796780,"identity":"f487db12-7461-43e9-b237-00acfa9e7b4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 13:43:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1255377,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFracture morphologies of CS-SDS cladding metal (a) non-interlayered nickel, (b) interlayered BNS, and (c) interleyered ENS using SEM with magnification of 500X\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8528011/v1/1f0fa41a322f82e290e74adc.jpeg"},{"id":99796709,"identity":"900c7f4c-f365-4d10-942d-eb1c5d95c827","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 13:43:12","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":499218,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlexural behavior of CS-SDS cladding metal non-interlayer and interlayer nickel, (a) Flexural stress vs flexural strain, (b) Flexural strength and flexural modulus, (c) Maximum Flexural strain, and (d) Flexural specimen after 3- point bending test with no crack appearance\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8528011/v1/c24da55c3f3c196df3492a02.jpeg"},{"id":99797311,"identity":"43b21821-e5c4-4a30-ba4a-62fd32b675cc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 13:45:36","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":55224,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003emicro–Vickers Hardness distribution value for CS-SDSS cladding metal non-interlayer and interlayered nickel\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8528011/v1/136245b1deb6689876d18544.png"},{"id":99805145,"identity":"a59ba443-4285-406f-93e3-be7c2e09f1d9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 14:15:47","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":5547056,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8528011/v1/6d864e8c-791e-49a5-85b1-da3e94d59cc1.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eNickel Interlayers Boost Bonding and Strength in Hot-Rolled Super Duplex–Carbon Steel Clads\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMetal cladding involves adding a protective metal layer to equipment surfaces to improve resistance to corrosion, wear, and high temperatures. In the oil and gas industry, it is widely applied to pipes, tanks, and drilling equipment exposed to harsh conditions. This technique extends equipment lifespan, enhances safety, and ensures efficient operations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Some of the frequently used metals for cladding are stainless steel, nickel and nickel alloys, copper and copper alloys, and aluminium, depend on the specific requirements of the application, such as the type of environment and the mechanical stresses involved [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. At present, laser cladding [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e] and high-density infrared (HDIR) fusion cladding [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] methods have been used in the oil and gas industry due to their excellent control over the thickness and composition of the layer, high production speed, and product flexibility. However, both techniques have their own disadvantages, including high equipment cost [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], pore formation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], material limitation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], and process control [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Hot roll cladding combines two or more metal layers using heat and high pressure. The metals are heated to their recrystallization temperature and then rolled together, forming a strong, durable composite material [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. This technique is also more cost-effective compared to other cladding methods due to lower energy consumption, easy of forming, and good ductility, allowing the creation of components with complex shapes and easy welding using various welding techniques [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon Steel A36 is widely used in oil and gas industries due to its high tensile strength, good weldability, and cost-effectiveness. Its ferrite\u0026ndash;pearlite microstructure provides a balance of strength and ductility, making it suitable for structural applications. However, it has lower corrosion resistance, limited high-temperature performance, and less hardness compared to alloy or high-carbon steels. On the other hand, Super Duplex Stainless Steel 2507 is a high-performance alloy designed for extreme environments. With a balanced ferrite\u0026ndash;austenite microstructure, it offers excellent strength, toughness, and resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking. It is ideal for offshore and subsea applications but requires precise welding control and may lose toughness above 500\u0026deg;C or degrade in highly acidic environments [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19 CR20\" citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNickel-based alloys are essential in the oil and gas industry for their superior corrosion resistance, mechanical strength, and high-temperature performance. They are widely used in coating and cladding to protect metal surfaces, extend equipment life, and reduce maintenance costs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. While Carbon Steel A36 is cost-effective and mechanically strong, Super Duplex 2507 offers superior corrosion resistance but at a higher cost. By cladding Super Duplex 2507 onto Carbon Steel A36, components can achieve a combination of strength, corrosion resistance, and cost-efficiency\u0026mdash;making them highly suitable for harsh oil and gas environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe addition of a nickel interlayer enhances the mechanical properties of cladded components, improving both strength and toughness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Nickel serves as an effective bonding layer between carbon steel and stainless steel, ensuring a strong and durable interface [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Various studies have explored methods to improve bonding strength in hot roll cladding. For example, BX Li et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] used an IF steel\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;V interlayer for Ti/steel cladding, while S. Wang et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] found that increasing rolling reduction improves SS304/steel bonding. Vacuum hot roll cladding was applied by H. Li et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e], Z. Zhu et al [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] and BX Liu et al [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] to strengthen SS/steel bonds. DS Zhao et al [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] showed that a Cu interlayer enhances titanium alloy bonding via simulation. BX Liu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] identified vacuum level, rolling temperature, and deformation ratio as key factors. Y. Wu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], B. Li et al [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] determined that 800\u0026ndash;900\u0026deg;C is optimal for Ti/steel bonding. Z. Lin et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] found that a Ni interlayer inhibits carbon diffusion, preventing decarburized and carburized layers. Achieving strong bonding while managing plastic deformation between dissimilar metals remains a technical challenge.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to develop reliable structural materials for oil and gas applications by hot roll cladding Super Duplex Stainless Steel 2507 onto Carbon Steel A36, using a nickel interlayer sourced from battery-grade nickel strip and electroplated nickel sheet. It explores the interlayer\u0026rsquo;s impact on bonding quality, mechanical performance, and microstructure, providing insights to optimize cladding techniques for harsh environments.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Experimental","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon Steel (CS) A36 plates were hot-rolled to reduce thickness, then normalized. The final plates were cut into substrate specimens measuring 150 \u0026times; 30 \u0026times; 10 mm. Super Duplex Stainless Steel (SDSS) 2507 tubing was cut and pressed into 150 \u0026times; 30 \u0026times; 1.77 mm plates, then cladded onto the CS substrate using hot roll cladding. Nickel interlayers used were battery-grade nickel strip (BNS, 0.09 mm) and electroplated nickel sheet (ENS, 0.53 mm). Chemical compositions of the materials are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical composition of clad metal in this study (wt. %)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon Steel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuper Duplex Steel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.096\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Stacking and Cladding Process Overview\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe stacking process involved placing Carbon Steel (CS) A36 substrate and Super Duplex Stainless Steel (SDSS) 2507 clad, using both non-layered and layered nickel interlayers. Two plates were symmetrically clamped and fastened with nuts and bolts. Argon gas was introduced between the layers to prevent oxide formation during welding. To reduce thermal expansion mismatch during hot roll cladding, MIG welding was applied along the edges. The welded stack had a total thickness of ~\u0026thinsp;12 mm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Hot Roll Cladding Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe stacked metal was heated to 1050\u0026deg;C for 60 minutes, followed by two hot rolling passes. It was then reheated at the same temperature for 10 minutes, and hot rerolled until the thickness was reduced to ~\u0026thinsp;5 mm. After rolling, the clad was straightened using a press machine, cooled to room temperature, and the sides were cut to inspect bonding quality between the CS substrate and SDSS clad\u0026mdash;with and without nickel interlayers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn illustration of this process is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Metallographic and Mechanical Characterization\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetallographic specimens were prepared by grinding with silicon carbide (SiC) papers of increasing grit sizes\u0026mdash;200, 400, 600, 1000, and 2000\u0026mdash;followed by polishing using diamond paste with particle sizes of 5, 3.5, and 1 nanometer. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed using a SmartLab Rigaku system, scanning over an angle range of 10\u0026deg; to 90\u0026deg; with Cu-Kα radiation at a wavelength of 1.5406 \u0026Aring;. The resulting diffraction peaks were analyzed for intensity, and high-intensity peaks were matched with the PDF 5\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;database using SIeve\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;software to identify the phases or compounds present in the cladding samples. Electrolytic etching was carried out using a 25% oxalic acid solution under a potential of 12 volts. Microstructural observations were conducted using an AmScope MIUI 1803 optical microscope and a JEOL JSM 6510LA scanning electron microscope. The mechanical properties of the cladded super duplex steel were evaluated through tensile, flexural, and hardness tests. Uniaxial tensile and flexural tests were performed at room temperature using a hydraulic universal testing machine (UTM) from Tinius Olsen, operating at a strain rate of 0.03 s⁻\u0026sup1;. Hardness distribution across the cladded layer and steel substrate was measured using a micro-Vickers hardness tester (Mitutoyo America Corporation) with a load of 0.3 N, an indentation dwell time of 10 seconds, and a step size of 0.25 mm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Result and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Microstructure observation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs can be seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents an X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of super duplex/steel clad metal, both non-layered and layered nickel as interlayer, on the cross-section surface. In this figure, the horizontal axis (x-axis) denotes the diffraction angle (2θ), while the vertical axis (y-axis) represents the peak intensity, reflecting the number of X-rays detected at each specific angle. The differentiation of XRD line shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e is affected by the use of nickel as an interlayer, the thickness of the nickel, and the hot roll process. The sharper peak observed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e is suggest that the crystallite size is larger, and the dislocation density and the microstrain are lower [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. XRD line broadening analysis has been used as a semi-quantitative method for measuring the weight of phases or compounds, crystallite size, dislocation density, and microstrain of super duplex/steel clad metal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs displayed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e below, presents the phase identification, weight phase, and PDF matches of hot-rolled super duplex/steel clad metal. The table indicates two primary phases in the cladding metal: the ferrite (α) phase, which originates from both the carbon steel substrate and the super duplex clad, and the austenite (γ) phase, which is from the super duplex clad. Adding nickel as an interlayer between the carbon steel substrate and the super duplex clad can lead to diffusion bonding, forming α-Fe-Ni phases. This interlayer likely improves the bonding strength between the carbon steel substrate and the super duplex clad, as reported in previous studies [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR36\" citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase identification, estimated of weight phase, and PDF matched of hot rolled super duplex/steel clad metal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026minus;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSteel types\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhases or compounds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstimated of weight (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDF #\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS-SD Cladding non-interlayered\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. α-Fe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026minus;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e04-003-3884\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. γ-Fe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026minus;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e04-016-6641\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS-SD Cladding interlayered BNS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. γ-Fe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026minus;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e01-081-8775\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. α-FeNi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026minus;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e04-015-0311\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS-SD Cladding interlayered ENS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. α-FeNi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026minus;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e04-015-0311\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. FeZn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026minus;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e01-081-8174\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. MgNi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026minus;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e04-016-4855\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the XRD line in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, key physical parameters of the super duplex/steel cladding\u0026mdash;both with and without nickel interlayers\u0026mdash;can be determined: crystallite size (D), dislocation density (δ), and microstrain (ε). These are calculated using the following equations:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe crystallites (grain) size is calculated from XRD data using the Scherrer equation, as seen in Eq.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:D=\\frac{K\\bullet\\:\\lambda\\:}{\\beta\\:\\bullet\\:\\text{cos}\\theta\\:}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere: \u003cem\u003eD\u003c/em\u003e: crystallites size (nm), \u003cem\u003eK\u003c/em\u003e: 0.9 (Scherrer constant), \u003cem\u003eλ\u003c/em\u003e: 0.15406 (wavelength of the X-ray source), \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e: FWHM (radians), \u003cem\u003eθ\u003c/em\u003e: peak position (radians).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe calculate dislocation density (δ) and micro strain (ε) using Eqs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Equ3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\delta\\:=\\frac{1}{{D}^{2}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ3\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\epsilon\\:=\\frac{\\beta\\:}{4\\text{tan}\\theta\\:}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e summarizes crystallite size (D), dislocation density (δ), and microstrain (ε) for different phases. In non-interlayered CS-SDS cladding, α-Fe has the largest crystallite size (29.52 nm), lowest dislocation density (1.46\u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup3; nm⁻\u0026sup2;), and low microstrain (5.43\u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup3;), indicating good structural stability. In contrast, γ-Fe shows smaller crystallites (9.51 nm) with higher dislocation density and microstrain. With BNS interlayering, γ-Fe crystallites grow slightly (11.4 nm) and show reduced defects. The α-FeNi phase appears with moderate crystallite size and defect levels. In ENS interlayered cladding, α-FeNi crystallites shrink (7.6 nm) but exhibit very high dislocation density and microstrain. FeZn and MgNi phases show even smaller crystallites and extreme defect levels, especially MgNi. Nickel addition (via BNS or ENS) tends to increase dislocation density and microstrain, especially in α-FeNi and MgNi phases\u0026mdash;suggesting enhanced hardness and strength, but also more internal stress and defects [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Crystallite size tends to be smaller in materials with nickel, especially in the MgNi phase, which has the smallest crystallite size and the highest dislocation density and micro strain. This indicates that nickel can refine the grain structure, potentially improving hardnenability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrystallites size (D), dislocation density (δ), and micro strain (ε) of super duplex/steel clad both non-layered and layered nickel as interlayer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSteel types\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhases or compounds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrystallite size, D (nm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocation density,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eδ x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e (nm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emicro strain, ε x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS-SD Cladding non-interlayered\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. α-Fe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. γ-Fe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS-SD Cladding interlayered (BNS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. γ-Fe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. α-FeNi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS-SD Cladding interlayered ENS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. α-FeNi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. FeZn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. MgNi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e567.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the cross-sectional microstructure of super duplex cladding on carbon steel, with and without a nickel interlayer. In Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(a), an oxide layer forms between the substrate and cladding despite argon shielding during welding, likely due to incomplete protection allowing oxygen to reach the weld zone [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Figures\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(b) reveal that interlayered BNS effectively prevents the formation of oxides at the interface as previous study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. In the ENS-interlayered cladding, oxide layers appear above and below the nickel strip, likely due to the ENS manufacturing process. Morphologically, BNS and ENS differ: BNS forms a single layer, while ENS consists of three. This aligns with XRD findings in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, which show that BNS produces a more uniform structure with better oxidation resistance. In contrast, ENS shows phase variation, potentially affecting mechanical and corrosion properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThen, the SEM and element mapping analysis is carried out to confirm composition contained microstructure of super duplex/steel clad as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(a) shows that the layer between the substrate and cladding contains mainly oxygen and some carbon, likely from the heating process. These elements can react with iron to form iron oxide and carbide, with mapping indicating more oxide\u0026mdash;suggesting poor oxygen shielding during welding. In Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(b), the addition of a BNS interlayer eliminates these compounds. Nickel acts as a barrier, forming a stable layer that resists oxidation and carburization [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. In ENS cladding, oxygen, carbon, and zinc are still present. Zinc oxide (ZnO) likely originates from the electroplating process used to produce ENS. During hot roll cladding, zinc can bond with iron through thermal diffusion, forming FeZn compounds. This bonding ensures strong adhesion between the zinc layer and the steel substrate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. Magnesium cannot be detected by SEM and element mapping because it is distributed very thinly or is present in a form that does not produce a strong signal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Tensile and fracture analysis of super duplex/steel clad metal\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e(a\u0026ndash;b) presents the tensile properties of different materials. Carbon Steel (CS) shows high ductility (43% elongation) but lower strength (341 MPa) and stiffness (2.5 GPa). Super Duplex Stainless Steel (SDS) has the highest strength (1056.8 MPa) and stiffness (10.9 GPa), but low ductility (13%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CS-SDS cladding improves strength (590.9 MPa) over CS but reduces elongation. Adding a BNS interlayer increases stiffness (2.6 GPa) slightly but lowers elongation to 20%. The ENS interlayer results in slightly lower strength (575.2 MPa) but maintains ductility (23%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e(b) shows that CS-SDS cladding without a nickel interlayer has a noticeably different fracture strain compared to cladding with a nickel interlayer. In both cases, the super duplex layer fractures first, followed by the carbon steel substrate. This sequential failure suggests that the nickel interlayer improves bonding strength and reduces strain mismatch.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e(c) further confirms that the nickel interlayer enhances mechanical compatibility between carbon steel and super duplex stainless steel. Additionally, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the strain rate sensitivity of CS-SDS cladding with and without nickel, highlighting the relationship between deformation rate and flow stress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrain rate sensitivity of CS-SDS cladding metal non-interlayered and interlayered nickel in the room temperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrain rate sensitivity, m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS-SDS Cladding non-interlayered\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS-SDS Cladding interlayered BNS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.035\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS-SDS Cladding interlayered ENS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe table shows strain rate sensitivity (m) values for CS-SDS cladding samples. Non-interlayered cladding has a positive m (0.045), meaning stress increases with strain rate, improving strength under dynamic loading. In contrast, interlayered BNS (-0.035) and ENS (-0.02) have negative m values, indicating stress decreases as strain rate rises, making them weaker at high strain rates. This behavior is linked to dislocation\u0026ndash;solute interactions. Flow stress predictions (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e) confirm these trends: non-interlayered cladding strengthens with strain rate, while BNS and ENS weaken, with BNS showing the most pronounced effect.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFracture morphologies of CS-SDS cladding metal non-interlayered and interlayered nickel using SEM are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. In Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e (a)-(b), it is evident that the super duplex, acting as the cladding metal, undergoes brittle fracture. Conversely, the carbon steel, serving as the base metal, exhibits ductile fracture. Furthermore, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e (c) reveals that both the super duplex and the carbon steel experience ductile fracture. This observation indicates that the application of nickel interlayers with different thicknesses and chemical compositions can significantly influence the fracture patterns of super duplex stainless steel when used as cladding metal. The presence of the nickel interlayer appears to enhance the bonding strength and alter the mechanical response of the composite material, thereby affecting its overall fracture characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Flexural analysis of CS-SDS cladding metal\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e. Flexural behavior of CS-SDS cladding metal non-interlayer and interlayer nickel, (a) Flexural stress vs flexural strain, (b) Flexural strength and flexural modulus, (c) Maximum Flexural strain, and (d) Flexural specimen after 3- point bending test with no crack appearance\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe addition of a nickel interlayer in CS-SDS cladding increases stiffness, as shown by higher flexural modulus (172.8 GPa for BNS and 177.5 GPa for ENS). However, it reduces maximum flexural stress (478.6 MPa for BNS and 516.8 MPa for ENS) and slightly lowers ductility (flexural strain: 0.049% for BNS, 0.054% for ENS). Despite these changes, all samples showed no cracks during flexural tests, indicating good resistance to bending loads. Overall, the nickel interlayer enhances stiffness without compromising flexural performance, though it decreases stress capacity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Micro Vickers Hardness\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e presents micro-Vickers hardness profiles for CS-SDSS cladding with and without nickel interlayers. In the A36 carbon steel zone, surface hardness is highest in the non-interlayered sample, followed by BNS and ENS interlayered samples. Hardness fluctuates with depth but remains within expected ranges. Across all samples, carbon steel hardness (0\u0026ndash;1.5 \u0026micro;m) exceeds that of annealed A36 (120\u0026ndash;170 HV), ranging from 167 to 289 HV\u0026mdash;likely due to residual stress from the hot roll cladding process. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe presence of a nickel interlayer significantly affects hardness at the interface. In the BNS-interlayered sample, the nickel layer shows higher hardness than the surrounding carbon steel, indicating a defect-free bond, as seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The transition to super duplex stainless steel is sharp. In contrast, the ENS-interlayered sample shows much lower nickel hardness, closer to the annealed range (60\u0026ndash;100 HV). This highlights a clear difference in nickel layer quality, with BNS providing a harder, more stable interlayer than ENS. According to Lin et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e], hot rolling temperature affects the metallurgical bonding between carbon steel and the nickel interlayer. Oxide layers observed in samples without a nickel interlayer and with ENS interlayer can reduce interface bond quality. In the non-interlayered sample, a significant hardness transition occurs around 2.2 mm, with an oxide layer detected at the interface. The softer ENS interlayer and nearby oxide impurities suggest it may not function effectively as a diffusion barrier or bonding enhancer. These findings highlight the importance of a nickel interlayer\u0026mdash;particularly BNS\u0026mdash;in preventing oxide formation and improving bond integrity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Super Duplex 2507 clad zone in all three samples shows consistently high hardness values, exceeding the typical range of 250\u0026ndash;280 HV\u0026mdash;likely due to residual stress from the hot roll cladding process. Minor variations in hardness within the zone may stem from microstructural differences. Notably, the sample with a nickel interlayer exhibits slightly higher hardness in the super duplex region. The nickel layer alters the hardness profile at the interface, with significant differences observed between BNS and ENS interlayered samples. These differences, along with the presence of oxide layers, suggest variations in interface layer formation, as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study shows that hot roll cladding Super Duplex 2507 onto Carbon Steel A36 using a nickel interlayer forms a strong metallurgical bond and enhances mechanical and microstructural properties. The nickel interlayer improves bonding by reducing oxide formation and promoting diffusion phases (α-FeNi, MgNi), resulting in increased hardness and strength but reduced ductility. Mechanical tests revealed tensile strength\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;575 MPa, flexural modulus up to 177.5 GPa, and hardness between 167\u0026ndash;289 HV, with elongation reduced to 20\u0026ndash;23%. Strain rate sensitivity analysis showed positive behavior in non-interlayered clads and negative in interlayered samples, indicating different deformation mechanisms under dynamic loading.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors acknowledge that this research was funded in part by the Research Organization for Nanotechnology and Materials, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), through the 2024 Research Grant. Special thanks are extended to Mr. Rahadian Roberto and Mr. Dedi Pria Utama from the Deputy for Research and Innovation Infrastructure, BRIN, for their valuable support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDeclaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the preparation of this work, the authors used Copilot to analyze data and correct English. After using this tool, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eData Availability\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Due to confidentiality agreements, the data are not publicly available.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRanjan, R., Kumar Das, A.: Protection from corrosion and wear by different weld cladding techniques: A review. In: Materials Today: Proceedings. pp. 1687\u0026ndash;1693. 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Mater Today Commun. 41, (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2024.110514\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi, M., Li, N., Zhang, J., Zhou, C.: Inhibiting effect of Ni-Re interlayer between Ni-Al coating and steel substrate on interdiffusion and carburization. Surf Coat Technol. 337, 68\u0026ndash;74 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2017.12.065\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSejč, P., G\u0026aacute;bri\u0026scaron;ov\u0026aacute;, Z., Vanko, B., Belanov\u0026aacute;, J.: The Influence of Different Hot-Dip Zinc Coating Types on the Gas Metal Arc Welding of Galvanized Steel Sheets. J Mater Eng Perform. (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-025-10707-7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao, J., Wang, X., Yang, Q., Wang, Q., Wang, Y., Li, W.: Mechanism of lateral metal flow on residual stress distribution during hot strip rolling. J Mater Process Technol. 288, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116838\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLin, C.-M., Mohsen, \u0026amp;, Rizi, S., Chen, C.-K.: Effects of temperature on interfacial evolution and mechanical properties of pure titanium and carbon steel sheets bonded via new multi-pass continuous hot-roll diffusion with nickel interlayer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-07455-y/Published\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"National Research and Innovation Agency Indonesia","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Hot roll cladding, super duplex stainless steel 2507, carbon steel A36, nickel interlayer, microstructure, mechanical properties","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8528011/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8528011/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examines the influence of nickel interlayers\u0026mdash;battery-grade (BNS) and electroplated (ENS)\u0026mdash;on the microstructure and mechanical properties of hot roll cladded Super Duplex Stainless Steel 2507 on Carbon Steel A36. XRD analysis revealed diffusion phases (α-FeNi, MgNi) that improved hardness and bonding, though increased dislocation density and microstrain. Mechanical tests showed enhanced tensile strength (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;575 MPa), elastic modulus (2.6 GPa), and hardness (167\u0026ndash;289 HV), with reduced elongation (20\u0026ndash;23%). Flexural modulus reached 177.5 GPa. Strain rate sensitivity varied, indicating different deformation behaviors. The technique offers a cost-effective solution for durable, corrosion-resistant components in oil and gas environments.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Nickel Interlayers Boost Bonding and Strength in Hot-Rolled Super Duplex–Carbon Steel Clads","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-07 11:41:40","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8528011/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3453c80c-0e1f-4ed9-9dd7-b3d6cfe4a16e","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 7th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":60653443,"name":"Metallurgy"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-07T11:41:40+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-07 11:41:40","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8528011","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8528011","identity":"rs-8528011","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}