Patterns of Self-medication Practices Among Medical and Non-medical University Students in Islamabad: A Cross-sectional Study

Patterns of Self-medication Practices Among Medical and Non-medical University Students in Islamabad: A Cross-sectional Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Data Note Patterns of Self-medication Practices Among Medical and Non-medical University Students in Islamabad: A Cross-sectional Study Najam Ali This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8518807/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract BACKGROUND: Self-medication is a common practice among university students, mainly among medical students, for minor illnesses and without consultation with healthcare professionals. Self-medication especially the use of antibiotics can lead to public health risks such as antibiotics resistance. METHODOLOGY: This was a cross-sectional study conducted among 100 university students using a self-reported questionnaire. The study collected information on self-medication for minor illnesses. Data were analyzed for frequency, percentage, and the association between field of study and self-medication practices. RESULTS: The prevalence of self-medication was 62% with 67% among medical students and 45% among non-medical students. Headache was reported by 96% of students. Analgesics and antibiotics were the most commonly used medicines with 42% of students using antibiotics without a prescription. The main reasons for self-medication were previous experience, old prescriptions, and easy access from pharmacies. About one-third of students reported side effects. A statistically significant association was found between field of study and self-medication (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Self-medication is highly widespread among university students especially medical students. This behavior plays serious health risks, particularly due to unsupervised use of antibiotics. Education, awareness campaigns, and strict regulations on over-the-counter medicines are recommended to reduce the unprofessional use of self-medication practices. Nursing Self-medication University students Medical students Non-medical students Analgesics Antibiotics Minor illnesses Prevalence Side effects Over-the-counter medicines (OTC) Awareness programs Public health risk Cross-sectional study. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 CHAPTER 01 1.0 INTRODUCTION: Self-medication is a practice in which individuals use medicines to treat self-diagnosed conditions without consulting a qualified healthcare professional. Nowadays, self-medication is common among different age groups, particularly undergraduate university students. Factors such as time constraints, easy availability of medicines, and reliance on online health information contribute to this practice. According to the World Health Organization, self-care refers to the ability of individuals, families, and communities to maintain health and prevent illness, either independently or with the support of healthcare providers. Among university students the practice of self-medication is often influenced by information shared on social media as well as advertisements from pharmaceutical companies(Murahwa, 2020 ). A previous study reported that the prevalence of self-medication with antibiotics was 39%. The main reasons for self-medication included time limitations (39%) and the use of old prescriptions (35%). Pharmacy shops were identified as the most common source of medicines, accounting for 75% of cases(Limaye et al., 2017 ). More than half of university students practice self-medication. Factors such as gender, income, year of study, and field of study were found to influence this behavior. Another major reason for self-medication, reported by 71.1% of students, was the perception that their illness was not serious(Zeru et al., 2020 ). Self-medication is a serious health-related problem that can increase the resistance of pathogens. Globally, antibiotic resistance has become a major risk to normal body functions, particularly in developing countries. One of the main reasons for this issue is the easy availability of antibiotics in the market, leading to their use without proper prescription(Mushtaq, Gul, & Naz, 2017 ). Medical students may practice self-medication due to partial medical knowledge, while non-medical students often rely on peer groups, advice from the internet, and pharmaceutical company advertisements. Although self-medication can be beneficial in saving time and cost, improper use may result in adverse drug reactions, antibiotic resistance, and delayed accurate diagnosis. Over-the-counter (OTC) medications are drugs that can be purchased without a medical prescription, such as paracetamol and antihistamines(Soller, Chan, & Shaheen, 2011 ). The prevalence of self-medication is reported to be as high as 90% in developing countries(Sánchez-Sánchez et al., 2021 ). The prevalence of self-medication is similar among medical and non-medical students; however, medical students are more likely to use antibiotics for infections, whereas non-medical students commonly use painkillers or home remedies(Alshogran, Alzoubi, Khabour, Farah, & policy, 2018). In Islamabad, few studies have compared self-medication practices between medical and non-medical university students. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess and compare self-medication practices among these two groups. 1.1 AIM OF STUDY: The aim of this study is to investigate and compare the prevalence, patterns, and determinants of self-medication among medical and non-medical university students in Islamabad. And which type of medicine most use in self-medication. Additionally, the study aims to identify the motivations behind common medication use and explore the potential risks associated with these practices. 1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY : To determine the prevalence of self-medication among medical and non-medical university students. To identify the most common reasons for self-medication in both groups. To explore which types of medicines are mostly used by medical and non-medical university students. To assess the potential risks associated with self-medication. To examine the sources of information and advice use by students. To provide recommendations for awareness campaign and policy interventions or educational strategies. 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: The significance of the study is to highlight self-medication practices among medical and non-medical university students, which can increase antibiotic resistance, cause adverse drug reactions, and contribute to delayed accurate diagnosis. The results of this study will help healthcare educators, drug policymakers, parents, and university authorities to develop strategies and raise awareness about the potential risks of self-medication. Self-medication is a growing global problem, especially the misuse of antibiotics, which can lead to antibiotic resistance. Limited studies exist on self-medication practices in Pakistan, particularly in Islamabad, and comparisons between medical and non-medical university students. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS: To determine the prevalence of self-medication among medical and non-medical university students. To identify the most common reasons for the use of self-medication in both groups. To explore which types of medicines are most commonly used and to examine the potential risks associated with self-medication. 1.5 PROBLEM STATEMENT: Self-medication is a major problem worldwide, especially in developing countries, with its prevalence significantly increasing among undergraduate university students. University students represent a vulnerable group due to easy access to pharmacy shops, academic pressure, and reliance on peers or online health information. Medical students, during internships (clinical rotations), may feel more confident in diagnosing and treating themselves, which can lead to inappropriate or excessive use of medicines. On the other hand, non-medical students often lack adequate knowledge about drug safety and adverse reactions, increasing the risk of misuse. There is limited research in Islamabad comparing self-medication practices between medical and non-medical students. Understanding these issues can help inform policies to promote safe medication practices. 1.6 KEY WORDS : Self-medication, University students, Medical students, Non-medical students, Analgesics, Antibiotics, Minor illnesses, Prevalence, Side effects, Over-the-counter medicines (OTC), Awareness programs, Public health risk, Cross-sectional study. CHAPTER 02 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW: Self-medication has been reported among university students worldwide, with a high prevalence of medicine use without professional consultation. A systematic review and meta-analysis found that the overall prevalence of self-medication was 70.1% globally, with medical students at 97.2% and non-medical students at 44.7%(Behzadifar et al., 2020 ). Another study from Karachi found that 39% of non-medical university students practiced self-medication with antibiotics, but they were unaware of antibiotic resistance(Shah et al., 2014 ). Similar research in Karachi documented that 66% of students practiced self-medication, with lack of time and old prescriptions being the main reasons. Pharmacies were also identified as the primary source for obtaining drugs without consulting a healthcare professional(Limaye et al., 2017 ). Local data from Islamabad show that prevalence rates vary, but self-medication remains a significant issue among female university students, with painkillers, antibiotics, and multivitamins being the most commonly used medicines(Abbas, Gul, Hussain, & Sciences, 2024 ). Analgesics and antibiotics were frequently used. Another study from northern Pakistan found that 83.0% of university students practiced self-medication, with common reasons including saving time, saving money, and easy access to medicines(Jabeen, 2020 ). A recent cross-sectional study compared self-medication among a large sample of 699 students from medical and non-medical backgrounds. It reported that 64.9% of students practiced self-medication, mainly for headache and pain(Asghar et al., 2025 ). An international study from Iran assessed the self-medication habits among healthcare and non-healthcare university students, reporting a prevalence of 44.8% with medicines used without a prescription(Rahimisadegh et al., 2022 ). Another international cross-sectional study conducted in Jordan reported a 62.9% prevalence of self-medication among 800 university students, highlighting it as a major public health issue(Salma, Hassan, Faten, & Journal, 2025 ) CHAPTER 03 MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY : 3.1 Hypothesis : Null Hypothesis (Ho) : There is no significant association between the field of study and self-medication practice among the university students. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) : There is significant association between the field of study and self-medication practice among the university students, with medical student more likely practice self-medication. 3.2 STUDY DESIGN: This study is descriptive Cross-sectional study aimed at assessment of prevalence and patterns of self-medication among medical and non-medical university students. 3.3 STUDY SITTING: The study was conducted at selected universities in Islamabad, including the Khyber Medical University (KMU) Institute of Health Sciences, Islamabad for medical students, and COMSATS University, Islamabad for non-medical students. 3.4 STUDY DURATION: The time period of this study is one months , which includes data collection, data entry, and analysis. 3.5 STUDY POPULATION: The study population consists of undergraduate students from Khyber Medical University, Institute of Health Sciences, Islamabad, and COMSATS University, Islamabad. 3.6 ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA : Inclusion Criteria : Age greater than 20 years. Undergraduate students currently enrolled in the selected universities. Students who are willing to participate and provide informed consent. Students present on campus during the data collection period. Exclusion Criteria : Students who use medication long-term for chronic illnesses. Students who are not willing to participate. Students who are absent during the data collection period. Submits incomplete questionnaires. 3.7 SAMPLE SIZE: The sample size of this study is a total of 100 students. 78 is medical students and 22 non-medical students, based on previous prevalence studies, it was expected that 70% of medical students and 30% of nonmedical students would use self-medication. 3.8 SAMPLING STYLE/TECHNIQUE: According to field of study (medical & non medial participation) is random sampling technique were applied on this study. 3.9 DATA COLLECTION TOOLS/ QUESTIONNAIRE: A self-administered structured questionnaire was used as the primary data collection tool. The questionnaire was designed to assess the prevalence, patterns, reasons, and potential risks of self-medication among undergraduate students. Demographic Information (Categorical and Continuous Data) : Age (continuous data) Gender (categorical: male/female) Year of study (categorical: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.) Field of study (categorical: medical/non-medical) Residence (categorical: hostel, home, other) Knowledge and Attitudes Toward Self-Medication (Categorical Data) : Awareness of self-medication practices (Yes/No) Knowledge about drug safety and antibiotic resistance (Yes/No/Unsure) Attitude toward self-medication (scale: strongly agree to strongly disagree) Patterns and Types of Medicines Used (Categorical Data) : Frequency of self-medication (categorical: daily, weekly, occasionally, rarely) Types of medicines used (categorical: analgesics, antibiotics, multivitamins, antihistamines, others) Source of medicines (categorical: pharmacy, old prescription, online, peers) Reasons for Self-Medication and Potential Risks (Categorical Data) : Motivations for self-medication (categorical: saving time, saving money, convenience, peer influence, others). Awareness of potential risks (categorical: adverse drug reactions, delayed diagnosis, antibiotic resistance, none). 3.10 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE: Ethical approval was obtained, and permission was taken from the administration and relevant department heads. Students were informed about the objectives of the study and their voluntary participation. Written or online informed consent was obtained before distributing the questionnaire. Completed questionnaires and online responses were collected and securely stored for analysis. 3.11 DATA ANALYSIS: Data were entered and analyzed using SPSS version 25. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, mean, and standard deviation were calculated. Chi square test will use to compare self-medication practices between medical and non-medical students. P values < 0.05 will be considered statistically significant. 3.12 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION: Informed consent was obtained from all participants before data collection. Participation in the study was voluntary, and the participants were informed about the purpose of the study. All data were collected from willing participants and were kept strictly confidential. The information obtained was used only for research purposes and was not shared with any unauthorized person. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the relevant Institutional Review Board (IRB). CHAPTER 04 4.1 RESULTS: A total of one hundred university students participated in the study. The prevalence of self-medication was found to be 62%. Self-medication practices were significantly higher among medical students compared to non-medical students, and this difference was statistically significant (p < 0.05). The most common reasons for self-medication were headache and fever. Approximately one-third of the participants reported experiencing side effects related to self-medication. Table 1 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: Variable Frequency (n) Percentage (%) Gender Male 45 45% Female 52 52% Prefer not to say 3 3% Field of Study Medical 78 78% Non-Medical 22 22% Residence With Family 55 55% Hostel 40 40% Other 5 5% Table 2 PREVALENCE OF SELF MEDICATION: Self-Medication Practice Frequency (n) Percentage (%) YES 62 62% NO 38 38% Interpretation More than half of student report use self-medication during the last six months. 62% of students reported self-medicating, while 38% did not. This highlights the common practice of self-medication among university students. Table 3 FIELD OF STUDY VS SELF-MEDICATION (COMPARISON) Field Yes (n) & % No (n) & % Total Medical 52, (67%) 26, (33%) 78 Non-medical 10, (45%) 12, (55%) 22 Total 62 38 100 STATISTICAL TEST : I can use Chi square Test because this test use for association of variable χ² ≈ 4.1 p-value < 0.05 Degree of freedom df = n-1 my calculated vale is 4.1 its means there is Statistically significant association between field of study and Self-medication practice. I can reject Null Hypothesis (No) in the favour of Alternative Hypothesis (Ha). Table 4 FREQUENCY OF SELF-MEDICATION: Frequency Percentage Rarely 30% Sometimes 45% Often 18% Very Often 7% Most students self-medicate sometimes (45%), followed by rarely (30%), often (18%), and very often (7%). Table 5 COMMON REASON FOR SELF-MEDICATION: Reason Percentage Mild illness 55% Previous Experience 48% Old prescription 40% Easy availability 38% Time Limitation 32% Cost saving 25% Mild illness (55%) and previous experience (48%) were the top reasons for self-medication. GRAPH 1: COMMON CONDITIONS : GRAPH 2: TYPES OF MEDICINES USED : Large amount of Antibiotic use without prescription. Table 6 SIDE EFFECT Side Effects Percentage Yes 35% No 65% Reported effects: Nausea, Vomiting, Diarrhea, Allergy, Dizziness, Stomach upset GRAPH 3: FIELD OF STUDY VS SELF MEDICATION : Medical Students 67% Practiced self-medication more than non-medical students is 45%. Chi square confirmed the significant association (p < 0.05). DISCUSSION The study showed that self-medication is a common behaviour among university students, with a prevalence rate of 62%. The results also showed that medical students had a higher practice of self-medication (67%) compared to non-medical students (45%). Previous studies have also shown that health-related knowledge may increase confidence in self-medication. Self-medication with analgesics and over-the-counter drugs is more common in diverse populations, especially among university students and pregnant women. Female university students often use OTC painkillers, including NSAIDs, during stressful periods such as exams(Alomaim et al., 2023 ). A systematic review of over-the-counter drug use in pregnancy showed that over one-third of pregnant women reported using these medications(Thiruchelvam et al., 2025 ). Fever and headache were the most frequently reported conditions. Alarmingly, 42% of students used antibiotics without a prescription, which indicates a risk of antibiotic resistance. Another study also reported frequently use of analgesics among pregnant women in Basra, Iraq(Jasim, Ali, Nasser, & Medicine, 2025). Self-medication is highly prevalent among both medical and non-medical students. Headache was reported by 96% of students, cold by 58.3%, and flu by 53%(Alshogran et al., 2018 ). Another report showed that self-medication was higher among female students(Alzoubi et al., 2023 ). The primary reasons for self-medication were mild illness, previous experience, old prescriptions, and easy availability in pharmacy shops. About one-third of students reported side effects such as nausea, diarrhea, and dizziness, which highlights the health risks of unsupervised medication use. The significant association between field of study and self-medication (p < 0.05) reflects that medical students may have higher exposure to pharmacies and medications, during study which may increase both their knowledge and risk-taking behavior regarding medicine use. CONCLUSION Self-medication is highly prevalent among university students. Medical students practice self-medication more than non-medical students, possibly due to their basic health knowledge about medicines. The main reasons for this practice were illnesses such as headache and fever. A major concern highlighted by the study is the use of antibiotics without a prescription, which can lead to antibiotic resistance, a significant public health problem. Overall, the study concluded that self-medication is a widespread issue that can lead to serious health risks. Therefore, education and awareness programs are necessary. LIMITATIONS The study was conducted on a limited sample of 100 students. Data were collected through self-reported questionnaires, which may lead to bias. There may be minor errors in data analysis. The study did not assess family influence, socioeconomic status, or cultural habits, which can affect self-medication behavior. Being a cross-sectional study, it cannot establish cause and effect, only associations. The study also could not provide information about the exact dosage or duration of medicines used. RECOMMENDATIONS Arrange awareness sessions for students about the safe use of medicines, especially antibiotics, and emphasize their dangers. Educate students to consult doctors or pharmacists before taking any medicine, even for minor illnesses. Enforce strict rules in pharmacies so that antibiotics are given only with a prescription. Include the topic of self-medication in the university curriculum, especially for medical students. References Abbas, E., Gul, R., Hussain, A. J. P. o. t. P. A. o. S. B. L., & Sciences, E. (2024). Prevalence of Self-Medication and Assessment of its Consequences on Health among Female University Students in Islamabad, Pakistan. 61 (4), 387-398. Alomaim, L. H. M., Alnefaie, A. F., Alowaymir, N. A., Alahedb, N. A. S., Alomair, H. O. A., Alanazi, R. S. M., . . . Albrahim, T. J. C. (2023). Prevalence of self-medication among female university students during examinations: a cross-sectional study in Saudi Arabia. 15 (4). Alshogran, O. Y., Alzoubi, K. H., Khabour, O. F., Farah, S. J. R. m., & policy, h. (2018). Patterns of self-medication among medical and nonmedical University students in Jordan. 169-176. Alzoubi, A., Nasor, E. M., Suliman, E. M., AlQaderi, N., AbbasTanira, S. H., Abdi, S. A. H., . . . adherence. (2023). A comparative piloting of determinants of self-medication among university students in the MENA Region; UAE and Jordan as an example. 699-709. Asghar, T., Fatima, Q., Shahid, B., Sahar, I., Asif, H., Saeed, R. J. P. J. o. M., & Review, C. (2025). Self-Medication Among Medical and Non-Medical Students: A Cross-Sectional Study at Superior University. 4 (3), 513-526. Behzadifar, M., Behzadifar, M., Aryankhesal, A., Ravaghi, H., Baradaran, H. R., Sajadi, H. S., . . . Bragazzi, N. L. J. E. M. H. J. (2020). Prevalence of self-medication in university students: systematic review and meta-analysis. 26 (7), 846-857. Jabeen, S. (2020). Prevalence of self-medication practices and associated factors among public university students in Gilgit Northern, Pakistan. Jasim, U. T., Ali, F., Nasser, A. J. I. J. o. H. S., & Medicine. (2025). A Cross-Sectional Study on the Use of Analgesic Medications among Pregnant Women Attending Primary Health Care Centers in Basra City–Iraq. 2 (1). Limaye, D., Saeed, F., Ahmad, M., Pitani, R. S., Fortwengel, G. J. I. J. o. C. M., & Health, P. (2017). Self-medication practices among university students from Karachi, Pakistan. 2017 (4 (9)), 3076-3081. Murahwa, R. (2020). Self-medication practices among medical and non-medical university students: The prevalence, knowledge and attitudes. University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (South Africa), Mushtaq, M., Gul, S., & Naz, F. J. P. J. o. P. S. (2017). The practice of self-medication among Pakistani university students. 30 (4). Rahimisadegh, R., Sharifi, N., Jahromi, V. K., Zahedi, R., Rostayee, Z., Asadi, R. J. B. P., & Toxicology. (2022). Self-medication practices and their characteristics among Iranian university students. 23 (1), 60. Salma, A. A.-A., Hassan, M. A.-M. a., Faten, A. A.-S. J. M., & Journal, H. S. E. (2025). Self-medication practices amongst University students: a cross-sectional study. 9 (3), 97-105. Sánchez-Sánchez, E., Fernández-Cerezo, F. L., Díaz-Jimenez, J., Rosety-Rodriguez, M., Díaz, A. J., Ordonez, F. J., . . . health, p. (2021). Consumption of over-the-counter drugs: prevalence and type of drugs. 18 (11), 5530. Shah, S. J., Ahmad, H., Rehan, R. B., Najeeb, S., Mumtaz, M., Jilani, M. H., . . . Toxicology. (2014). Self-medication with antibiotics among non-medical university students of Karachi: a cross-sectional study. 15 (1), 74. Soller, R. W., Chan, P. V., & Shaheen, C. J. S. (2011). OTC considerations for expanding access to nonprescription medicines: a critical synthesis of questions from the Food and Drug Administration to its advisory committees on Rx-to-OTC switch. 2 (5), 117-138. Thiruchelvam, K., Uwajima, E., Selan, S. M. G., James, S. E., Lai, Y. X., Lee, E. L., & Kow, C. S. J. D. P. H. (2025). Prevalence of over-the-counter medication use in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 22 (1), 278. Zeru, N., Fetene, D., Geberu, D. M., Melesse, A. W., Atnafu, A. J. P. p., & adherence. (2020). Self-medication practice and associated factors among University of Gondar College of Medicine and Health Sciences Students: a cross-sectional study. 1779-1790. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files Annexes.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":34737,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGRAPH 1: COMMON CONDITIONS:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"GR1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8518807/v1/83a684be156f74d15a5b7092.png"},{"id":99723028,"identity":"29dcf171-6987-4ac9-b2de-d2a9344da81f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-07 15:52:05","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":29876,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGRAPH 2: TYPES OF MEDICINES USED:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"GR2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8518807/v1/aa98b63022abe2cfa762843c.png"},{"id":99797455,"identity":"b33fc4ee-9a37-47a3-ac84-d8e66fdea7fb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 13:45:51","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":50416,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGRAPH 3: FIELD OF STUDY VS SELF MEDICATION:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"GR3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8518807/v1/178adeeb609cfca158ada37c.png"},{"id":99805046,"identity":"5cc1171f-dfec-4698-b85b-126de7feaa31","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 14:15:38","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1023339,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8518807/v1/fb029a9b-7c95-4864-ad3e-bc59206203ce.pdf"},{"id":99723024,"identity":"75f2a921-f450-4e3e-830f-591d7ddadff6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-07 15:52:05","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":18890,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Annexes.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8518807/v1/074abd4af208039f3cf7126a.docx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003ePatterns of Self-medication Practices Among Medical and Non-medical University Students in Islamabad: A Cross-sectional Study\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"CHAPTER 01","content":"\n\u003ch3\u003e1.0 INTRODUCTION:\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-medication is a practice in which individuals use medicines to treat self-diagnosed conditions without consulting a qualified healthcare professional. Nowadays, self-medication is common among different age groups, particularly undergraduate university students. Factors such as time constraints, easy availability of medicines, and reliance on online health information contribute to this practice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the World Health Organization, self-care refers to the ability of individuals, families, and communities to maintain health and prevent illness, either independently or with the support of healthcare providers. Among university students the practice of self-medication is often influenced by information shared on social media as well as advertisements from pharmaceutical companies(Murahwa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). A previous study reported that the prevalence of self-medication with antibiotics was 39%. The main reasons for self-medication included time limitations (39%) and the use of old prescriptions (35%). Pharmacy shops were identified as the most common source of medicines, accounting for 75% of cases(Limaye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than half of university students practice self-medication. Factors such as gender, income, year of study, and field of study were found to influence this behavior. Another major reason for self-medication, reported by 71.1% of students, was the perception that their illness was not serious(Zeru et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Self-medication is a serious health-related problem that can increase the resistance of pathogens. Globally, antibiotic resistance has become a major risk to normal body functions, particularly in developing countries. One of the main reasons for this issue is the easy availability of antibiotics in the market, leading to their use without proper prescription(Mushtaq, Gul, \u0026amp; Naz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Medical students may practice self-medication due to partial medical knowledge, while non-medical students often rely on peer groups, advice from the internet, and pharmaceutical company advertisements. Although self-medication can be beneficial in saving time and cost, improper use may result in adverse drug reactions, antibiotic resistance, and delayed accurate diagnosis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver-the-counter (OTC) medications are drugs that can be purchased without a medical prescription, such as paracetamol and antihistamines(Soller, Chan, \u0026amp; Shaheen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The prevalence of self-medication is reported to be as high as 90% in developing countries(S\u0026aacute;nchez-S\u0026aacute;nchez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The prevalence of self-medication is similar among medical and non-medical students; however, medical students are more likely to use antibiotics for infections, whereas non-medical students commonly use painkillers or home remedies(Alshogran, Alzoubi, Khabour, Farah, \u0026amp; policy, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Islamabad, few studies have compared self-medication practices between medical and non-medical university students. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess and compare self-medication practices among these two groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1 AIM OF STUDY:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to investigate and compare the prevalence, patterns, and determinants of self-medication among medical and non-medical university students in Islamabad. And which type of medicine most use in self-medication. Additionally, the study aims to identify the motivations behind common medication use and explore the potential risks associated with these practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo determine the prevalence of self-medication among medical and non-medical university students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify the most common reasons for self-medication in both groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo explore which types of medicines are mostly used by medical and non-medical university students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo assess the potential risks associated with self-medication.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo examine the sources of information and advice use by students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo provide recommendations for awareness campaign and policy interventions or educational strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe significance of the study is to highlight self-medication practices among medical and non-medical university students, which can increase antibiotic resistance, cause adverse drug reactions, and contribute to delayed accurate diagnosis. The results of this study will help healthcare educators, drug policymakers, parents, and university authorities to develop strategies and raise awareness about the potential risks of self-medication. Self-medication is a growing global problem, especially the misuse of antibiotics, which can lead to antibiotic resistance. Limited studies exist on self-medication practices in Pakistan, particularly in Islamabad, and comparisons between medical and non-medical university students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo determine the prevalence of self-medication among medical and non-medical university students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify the most common reasons for the use of self-medication in both groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo explore which types of medicines are most commonly used and to examine the potential risks associated with self-medication.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.5 PROBLEM STATEMENT:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-medication is a major problem worldwide, especially in developing countries, with its prevalence significantly increasing among undergraduate university students. University students represent a vulnerable group due to easy access to pharmacy shops, academic pressure, and reliance on peers or online health information. Medical students, during internships (clinical rotations), may feel more confident in diagnosing and treating themselves, which can lead to inappropriate or excessive use of medicines. On the other hand, non-medical students often lack adequate knowledge about drug safety and adverse reactions, increasing the risk of misuse. There is limited research in Islamabad comparing self-medication practices between medical and non-medical students. Understanding these issues can help inform policies to promote safe medication practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e1.6 KEY WORDS\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-medication, University students, Medical students, Non-medical students, Analgesics, Antibiotics, Minor illnesses, Prevalence, Side effects, Over-the-counter medicines (OTC), Awareness programs, Public health risk, Cross-sectional study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"CHAPTER 02","content":"\u003ch3\u003e2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW:\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelf-medication has been reported among university students worldwide, with a high prevalence of medicine use without professional consultation. A systematic review and meta-analysis found that the overall prevalence of self-medication was 70.1% globally, with medical students at 97.2% and non-medical students at 44.7%(Behzadifar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Another study from Karachi found that 39% of non-medical university students practiced self-medication with antibiotics, but they were unaware of antibiotic resistance(Shah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Similar research in Karachi documented that 66% of students practiced self-medication, with lack of time and old prescriptions being the main reasons. Pharmacies were also identified as the primary source for obtaining drugs without consulting a healthcare professional(Limaye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Local data from Islamabad show that prevalence rates vary, but self-medication remains a significant issue among female university students, with painkillers, antibiotics, and multivitamins being the most commonly used medicines(Abbas, Gul, Hussain, \u0026amp; Sciences, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Analgesics and antibiotics were frequently used. Another study from northern Pakistan found that 83.0% of university students practiced self-medication, with common reasons including saving time, saving money, and easy access to medicines(Jabeen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). A recent cross-sectional study compared self-medication among a large sample of 699 students from medical and non-medical backgrounds. It reported that 64.9% of students practiced self-medication, mainly for headache and pain(Asghar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). An international study from Iran assessed the self-medication habits among healthcare and non-healthcare university students, reporting a prevalence of 44.8% with medicines used without a prescription(Rahimisadegh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Another international cross-sectional study conducted in Jordan reported a 62.9% prevalence of self-medication among 800 university students, highlighting it as a major public health issue(Salma, Hassan, Faten, \u0026amp; Journal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e "},{"header":"CHAPTER 03","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e3.1 Hypothesis\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eNull Hypothesis (Ho)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere is no significant association between the field of study and self-medication practice among the university students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAlternative Hypothesis (Ha)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere is significant association between the field of study and self-medication practice among the university students, with medical student more likely practice self-medication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 STUDY DESIGN:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study is descriptive Cross-sectional study aimed at assessment of prevalence and patterns of self-medication among medical and non-medical university students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 STUDY SITTING:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted at selected universities in Islamabad, including the Khyber Medical University (KMU) Institute of Health Sciences, Islamabad for medical students, and COMSATS University, Islamabad for non-medical students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 STUDY DURATION:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe time period of this study is \u003cb\u003eone months\u003c/b\u003e, which includes data collection, data entry, and analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5 STUDY POPULATION:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study population consists of undergraduate students from Khyber Medical University, Institute of Health Sciences, Islamabad, and COMSATS University, Islamabad.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e3.6 ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eInclusion Criteria\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge greater than 20 years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eUndergraduate students currently enrolled in the selected universities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents who are willing to participate and provide informed consent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents present on campus during the data collection period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eExclusion Criteria\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents who use medication long-term for chronic illnesses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents who are not willing to participate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents who are absent during the data collection period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubmits incomplete questionnaires.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.7 SAMPLE SIZE:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe sample size of this study is a total of 100 students. 78 is medical students and 22 non-medical students, based on previous prevalence studies, it was expected that 70% of medical students and 30% of nonmedical students would use self-medication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.8 SAMPLING STYLE/TECHNIQUE:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to field of study (medical \u0026amp; non medial participation) is random sampling technique were applied on this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.9 DATA COLLECTION TOOLS/ QUESTIONNAIRE:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA self-administered structured questionnaire was used as the primary data collection tool. The questionnaire was designed to assess the prevalence, patterns, reasons, and potential risks of self-medication among undergraduate students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDemographic Information (Categorical and Continuous Data)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (continuous data)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender (categorical: male/female)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear of study (categorical: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eField of study (categorical: medical/non-medical)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidence (categorical: hostel, home, other)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eKnowledge and Attitudes Toward Self-Medication (Categorical Data)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAwareness of self-medication practices (Yes/No)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eKnowledge about drug safety and antibiotic resistance (Yes/No/Unsure)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitude toward self-medication (scale: strongly agree to strongly disagree)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePatterns and Types of Medicines Used (Categorical Data)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency of self-medication (categorical: daily, weekly, occasionally, rarely)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTypes of medicines used (categorical: analgesics, antibiotics, multivitamins, antihistamines, others)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSource of medicines (categorical: pharmacy, old prescription, online, peers)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eReasons for Self-Medication and Potential Risks (Categorical Data)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMotivations for self-medication (categorical: saving time, saving money, convenience, peer influence, others).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAwareness of potential risks (categorical: adverse drug reactions, delayed diagnosis, antibiotic resistance, none).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.10 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewas obtained, and permission was taken from the administration and relevant department heads. Students were informed about the objectives of the study and their voluntary participation. Written or online informed consent was obtained before distributing the questionnaire. Completed questionnaires and online responses were collected and securely stored for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.11 DATA ANALYSIS:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were entered and analyzed using SPSS version 25. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, mean, and standard deviation were calculated.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChi square test will use to compare self-medication practices between medical and non-medical students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eP values \u0026lt; 0.05 will be considered statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.12 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewas obtained from all participants before data collection. Participation in the study was voluntary, and the participants were informed about the purpose of the study. All data were collected from willing participants and were kept strictly confidential. The information obtained was used only for research purposes and was not shared with any unauthorized person.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003efor the study was obtained from the relevant Institutional Review Board (IRB).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CHAPTER 04","content":"\u003ch2\u003e4.1 RESULTS:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of one hundred university students participated in the study. The prevalence of self-medication was found to be 62%. Self-medication practices were significantly higher among medical students compared to non-medical students, and this difference was statistically significant (p \u0026lt; 0.05). The most common reasons for self-medication were headache and fever. Approximately one-third of the participants reported experiencing side effects related to self-medication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrefer not to say\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField of Study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedical\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-Medical\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith Family\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHostel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePREVALENCE OF SELF MEDICATION:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-Medication Practice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eInterpretation\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMore than half of student report use self-medication during the last six months. 62% of students reported self-medicating, while 38% did not. This highlights the common practice of self-medication among university students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFIELD OF STUDY VS SELF-MEDICATION (COMPARISON)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes (n) \u0026amp; %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo (n) \u0026amp; %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedical\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52, (67%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26, (33%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-medical\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10, (45%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12, (55%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSTATISTICAL TEST\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eI can use \u003cb\u003eChi square Test\u003c/b\u003e because this test use for association of variable\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ² ≈ 4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value \u0026lt; 0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegree of freedom df = n-1 my calculated vale is 4.1 its means there is Statistically significant association between field of study and Self-medication practice. I can reject Null Hypothesis (No) in the favour of Alternative Hypothesis (Ha).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFREQUENCY OF SELF-MEDICATION:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRarely\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSometimes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery Often\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost students self-medicate sometimes (45%), followed by rarely (30%), often (18%), and very often (7%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCOMMON REASON FOR SELF-MEDICATION:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReason\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMild illness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious Experience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOld prescription\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEasy availability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime Limitation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCost saving\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMild illness (55%) and previous experience (48%) were the top reasons for self-medication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eGRAPH 1: COMMON CONDITIONS\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eGRAPH 2: TYPES OF MEDICINES USED\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Large amount of Antibiotic use without prescription.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSIDE EFFECT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSide Effects\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eReported effects: Nausea, Vomiting, Diarrhea, Allergy, Dizziness, Stomach upset\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eGRAPH 3: FIELD OF STUDY VS SELF MEDICATION\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedical Students 67% Practiced self-medication more than non-medical students is 45%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChi square confirmed the significant association (p \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study showed that self-medication is a common behaviour among university students, with a prevalence rate of 62%. The results also showed that medical students had a higher practice of self-medication (67%) compared to non-medical students (45%). Previous studies have also shown that health-related knowledge may increase confidence in self-medication.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-medication with analgesics and over-the-counter drugs is more common in diverse populations, especially among university students and pregnant women. Female university students often use OTC painkillers, including NSAIDs, during stressful periods such as exams(Alomaim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). A systematic review of over-the-counter drug use in pregnancy showed that over one-third of pregnant women reported using these medications(Thiruchelvam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Fever and headache were the most frequently reported conditions. Alarmingly, 42% of students used antibiotics without a prescription, which indicates a risk of antibiotic resistance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother study also reported frequently use of analgesics among pregnant women in Basra, Iraq(Jasim, Ali, Nasser, \u0026amp; Medicine, 2025). Self-medication is highly prevalent among both medical and non-medical students. Headache was reported by 96% of students, cold by 58.3%, and flu by 53%(Alshogran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Another report showed that self-medication was higher among female students(Alzoubi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary reasons for self-medication were mild illness, previous experience, old prescriptions, and easy availability in pharmacy shops. About one-third of students reported side effects such as nausea, diarrhea, and dizziness, which highlights the health risks of unsupervised medication use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe significant association between field of study and self-medication (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) reflects that medical students may have higher exposure to pharmacies and medications, during study which may increase both their knowledge and risk-taking behavior regarding medicine use.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eSelf-medication is highly prevalent among university students. Medical students practice self-medication more than non-medical students, possibly due to their basic health knowledge about medicines. The main reasons for this practice were illnesses such as headache and fever. A major concern highlighted by the study is the use of antibiotics without a prescription, which can lead to antibiotic resistance, a significant public health problem. Overall, the study concluded that self-medication is a widespread issue that can lead to serious health risks. Therefore, education and awareness programs are necessary.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"LIMITATIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted on a limited sample of 100 students. Data were collected through self-reported questionnaires, which may lead to bias. There may be minor errors in data analysis. The study did not assess family influence, socioeconomic status, or cultural habits, which can affect self-medication behavior. Being a cross-sectional study, it cannot establish cause and effect, only associations. The study also could not provide information about the exact dosage or duration of medicines used.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RECOMMENDATIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eArrange awareness sessions for students about the safe use of medicines, especially antibiotics, and emphasize their dangers. Educate students to consult doctors or pharmacists before taking any medicine, even for minor illnesses. Enforce strict rules in pharmacies so that antibiotics are given only with a prescription. Include the topic of self-medication in the university curriculum, especially for medical students.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbbas, E., Gul, R., Hussain, A. J. P. o. t. P. A. o. S. B. L., \u0026amp; Sciences, E. (2024). Prevalence of Self-Medication and Assessment of its Consequences on Health among Female University Students in Islamabad, Pakistan.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;61\u003c/em\u003e(4), 387-398.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlomaim, L. H. M., Alnefaie, A. F., Alowaymir, N. A., Alahedb, N. A. S., Alomair, H. O. A., Alanazi, R. S. M., . . . Albrahim, T. J. C. (2023). Prevalence of self-medication among female university students during examinations: a cross-sectional study in Saudi Arabia.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;15\u003c/em\u003e(4).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlshogran, O. Y., Alzoubi, K. H., Khabour, O. F., Farah, S. J. R. m., \u0026amp; policy, h. (2018). Patterns of self-medication among medical and nonmedical University students in Jordan. 169-176.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlzoubi, A., Nasor, E. M., Suliman, E. M., AlQaderi, N., AbbasTanira, S. H., Abdi, S. A. H., . . . adherence. (2023). A comparative piloting of determinants of self-medication among university students in the MENA Region; UAE and Jordan as an example. 699-709.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAsghar, T., Fatima, Q., Shahid, B., Sahar, I., Asif, H., Saeed, R. J. P. J. o. M., \u0026amp; Review, C. (2025). Self-Medication Among Medical and Non-Medical Students: A Cross-Sectional Study at Superior University.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;4\u003c/em\u003e(3), 513-526.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBehzadifar, M., Behzadifar, M., Aryankhesal, A., Ravaghi, H., Baradaran, H. R., Sajadi, H. S., . . . Bragazzi, N. L. J. E. M. H. J. (2020). Prevalence of self-medication in university students: systematic review and meta-analysis.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;26\u003c/em\u003e(7), 846-857.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eJabeen, S. (2020). Prevalence of self-medication practices and associated factors among public university students in Gilgit Northern, Pakistan.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eJasim, U. T., Ali, F., Nasser, A. J. I. J. o. H. S., \u0026amp; Medicine. (2025). A Cross-Sectional Study on the Use of Analgesic Medications among Pregnant Women Attending Primary Health Care Centers in Basra City–Iraq.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/em\u003e(1).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLimaye, D., Saeed, F., Ahmad, M., Pitani, R. S., Fortwengel, G. J. I. J. o. C. M., \u0026amp; Health, P. (2017). Self-medication practices among university students from Karachi, Pakistan.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;2017\u003c/em\u003e(4 (9)), 3076-3081.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMurahwa, R. (2020). \u003cem\u003eSelf-medication practices among medical and non-medical university students: The prevalence, knowledge and attitudes.\u003c/em\u003e University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (South Africa),\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMushtaq, M., Gul, S., \u0026amp; Naz, F. J. P. J. o. P. S. (2017). 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Prevalence of over-the-counter medication use in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;22\u003c/em\u003e(1), 278.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZeru, N., Fetene, D., Geberu, D. M., Melesse, A. W., Atnafu, A. J. P. p., \u0026amp; adherence. (2020). Self-medication practice and associated factors among University of Gondar College of Medicine and Health Sciences Students: a cross-sectional study. 1779-1790.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Khyber Medical University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Self-medication, University students, Medical students, Non-medical students, Analgesics, Antibiotics, Minor illnesses, Prevalence, Side effects, Over-the-counter medicines (OTC), Awareness programs, Public health risk, Cross-sectional study.","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8518807/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8518807/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBACKGROUND:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelf-medication is a common practice among university students, mainly among medical students, for minor illnesses and without consultation with healthcare professionals. Self-medication especially the use of antibiotics can lead to public health risks such as antibiotics resistance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMETHODOLOGY:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis was a cross-sectional study conducted among 100 university students using a self-reported questionnaire. The study collected information on self-medication for minor illnesses. Data were analyzed for frequency, percentage, and the association between field of study and self-medication practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRESULTS:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe prevalence of self-medication was 62% with 67% among medical students and 45% among non-medical students. Headache was reported by 96% of students. Analgesics and antibiotics were the most commonly used medicines with 42% of students using antibiotics without a prescription. The main reasons for self-medication were previous experience, old prescriptions, and easy access from pharmacies. About one-third of students reported side effects. A statistically significant association was found between field of study and self-medication (p \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCONCLUSION:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelf-medication is highly widespread among university students especially medical students. This behavior plays serious health risks, particularly due to unsupervised use of antibiotics. Education, awareness campaigns, and strict regulations on over-the-counter medicines are recommended to reduce the unprofessional use of self-medication practices.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Patterns of Self-medication Practices Among Medical and Non-medical University Students in Islamabad: A Cross-sectional Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-07 15:52:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8518807/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":1}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"dd7c81fa-1ba5-4adb-a3bf-c0d3b60bc202","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 7th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":60753641,"name":"Nursing"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-07T15:52:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-07 15:52:00","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8518807","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8518807","identity":"rs-8518807","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}