Physiological responses and antioxidant properties of coriander plants (Coriandrum sativum L.) under different light intensities of red and blue lights

Physiological responses and antioxidant properties of coriander plants (Coriandrum sativum L.) under different light intensities of red and blue lights | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Physiological responses and antioxidant properties of coriander plants ( Coriandrum sativum L.) under different light intensities of red and blue lights Hsin-Hung Lin, Kuan-Hung Lin, Meei-Ju Yang, Hoang Chinh Nguyen, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1639519/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum L.) contains abundant of antioxidants and essential oils that can provide antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-oxidative activities in the pharmaceutical and health food production industry for providing health benefits. To improve the economic values of coriander, the relationships between optimal light treatments for maximizing both plant growth and the antioxidant and essential oil content of coriander leaves need to be determined. Results: Plants were exposed to five light-emitting diodes spectral color mixtures, high blue light intensity induced the levels of reducing power and chelating effect responses. The light treatments were then adjusted for the analysis of secondary metabolite compounds of coriander leaves. Among 30 identified compounds, the amounts of decamethyl-cyclopentasiloxane and dodecane were significantly reduced in the R80+G50+B50 condition, whereas dodecamethyl-cyclohexasiloxane level was significantly reduced in R50+G50+B80 condition. Conclusion: Our results provide a strategy to increase the economic efficiency of the coriander metabolites production that can be maximized by precise management of light treatment in controlled environments. Antioxidant capacity Coriander Essential oil Hydroponical culture LED Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Background Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum L.) is an aromatic and herbaceous annual crop in the family of Apiaceae. The fresh leaves and spice seeds of coriander are standard ingredients in many of the curry powders [ 1 ]. In addition, coriander plants are well-known for their medicinal, perfume, cosmetic, and secondary metabolic compounds, such as volatile components, flavonoids, linolenic acid, β-carotene, and phenolic compounds [ 2 ]. The essential oil and extracts from coriander plants provide promising antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant activities [ 3 ]. They are not only used to keep food from spoilage, but also treated as pharmaceutical uses, alternative medicine, and natural therapies treatments to help human against pathogen infections [ 4 ]. There is an increasing interest in natural food additives, which can function as natural antioxidants, in addition to seasoning the foods. Various environmental factors not only influence the accumulation of photosynthetic pigments and phytochemicals [ 5 ], but also mediate antioxidant capacities in plant leaves. Among them, the light environment is one of the most significant factors influencing changes in plant growth, secondary metabolite accumulation, and physiological occurring in plants as they are exposed to varying light quality and intensity [ 6 ]. Thus, the optimization of light treatment is the first urgent task in maximizing the economic output of plant production and quality. Lights, especially blue light (BL) and red light (RL), are important environmental signals for various organisms of plants because they regulate plant developmental and physiologic processes though photoreceptors [ 7 ], and play major roles in the action spectra for energy sources of photosynthetic CO 2 assimilation that can provide great impacts on plant growth [ 8 ]. Light-emitting diodes (LED) are semiconductor device which can emit light with various wavelengths, and perform better energy efficiency and lower cost than high-pressure sodium lamps. LED technology provides possible solutions for more sustainable greenhouse production not only it reduces carbon footprint of the individual light photon but plants are highly responsive to changes in light quality and intensity. The output light intensity and wavelengths from LED device can be selected to maximize the crop yield and the accumulation of antioxidants and overcome the stress conditions as well. Verma et al. (2018) indicated that the mixture of RL and BL (4:1) LED lights significantly increased the leaf number, root length, leaf width, stomata width, leaf area, and the fresh and dry weights of leaf and root of foxglove ( Digitalis purpurea ) compared to RL or BL alone, and fluorescent lamp treatments [ 9 ]. The quercetin 3-rutinoside (rutin) is a tomato natural flavonoid, and the applications of rutin can increase plant growth, photosynthesis, and fruit quality [ 10 ]. Groher et al. (2019) also reported that the concentrations of rutin in tomato leaves was increased by RL:BL (4:1) LED when grown in the greenhouses [ 11 ]. Loughrin and Kasperbauer (2001) revealed that the basil ( Ocimum basilicum ) leaf size, aroma, and the soluble phenolics and antioxidants concentrations were affected by light quality [ 12 ]. Taulavuori et al. (2018) showed that the production of basil phenolic acids was increased when plants were treated with extra BL which supplied with traditional high-pressure sodium lamps [ 13 ]. Bantis et al. (2016) also illustrated that the growth characteristics and total phenolic content of basil cultivars were affected by different LED light treatments [ 14 ]. Naznin et al. (2016) stated that the coriander ( Coriandrum sativum L.) plant could yield the highest biomass when exposed to RL:BL (10:1) LED, and could accumulate highest antioxidant activity when exposed to RL:BL (5:1) LED [ 15 ]. In addition, the growth of coriander plants was affected by interaction between root-zone temperature (RZT) and photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), and that the combination of RZT at 25°C and PPFD at 300 µmol m − 2 s − 1 gave the greatest plant growth, but total phenolic concentrations and the antioxidant capacity of the coriander plant were greatest under the combination of 300 µmol m − 2 s − 1 and 30°C compared to control [ 16 ]. Bian et al. (2018) reported that the spectra of green light (GL) could induce different responses of morphogenesis and photosynthesis in lettuce ( Lactuca sativa L.) [ 17 ]. The GL not only enhanced the photosynthetic capacity including increasing the efficiency of net photosynthetic rates, maximal photochemical efficiency, and electron transport for carbon fixation and chlorophylls (Chl) content, but also reduced the accumulation of malondialdehyde and H 2 O 2 contents though increasing the superoxide dismutase (SOD) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activities. Moreover, Lanoue et al. (2018) suggested that when designing lighting systems for optimizing leaf strength during plant production, the addition of GL LED to the traditionally used RL and BL LED should be considered and tested in environmentally controlled systems [ 18 ]. Recently, we illustrated that a RL:BL:GL LED ratio of 4:1:1 treatment resulted in many positive effects on the growth, development, and appearance of basil plants ( Ocimum basilicum ) compared to 2:1:1 or 1:1:1 treatment [ 6 ]. Light treatments significantly affected pigments and cultivars differently, in that purple and green basils displayed remarkably higher and lower pigment content under 2:1:1 and 1:1:1 treatment, respectively. In addition, we also reported that 40 PPFD of the BL caused greater accumulation of dry biomass and soluble sugars of the edible oyster mushrooms ( Lentinus sajor-caju ) than other BL intensities [ 19 ]. Moreover, we found that the soluble sugar and nitrate contents in the lettuce plants ( Lactuca sativa L.) grown under white broad-spectrum light (WL) supplied to an RL plus BL LED treatment were significantly higher and lower, respectively, compared to those under RL plus BL treatment. However, the Chl, carotenoids (Car), and soluble protein contents of lettuce leaves showed no significant differences among these treatments [ 5 ]. Although light spectra have been used for studying the productivity and antioxidant properties of these plants, different mixtures of RL and BL LED under various light intensities for growing coriander plants remain unknown. In this study, we chose different proportions of RL and BL irradiation and supplement it with GL under different light intensities to identify the optimal light quality conditions for growing coriander to maximize production and antioxidant accumulation. The hypothesis of this study was that physiological response and antioxidant capacity of corianders would differ under RL, BL and GL LED of various intensities. The ultimate goal of the research was to develop a year-round production system for fresh, highly nutritious, economically feasible coriander plants produced in close proximity to the final retail market. An optimal strategy for regulating light quality and intensity will help in designing growth chambers and greenhouse light environments to obtain maximum economic benefits for coriander growers. Results P lant growth and morphological performances Coriander RV-164 plant is a popular variety grown in Taiwan for consumption as fresh vegetables. To study the effects of light treatments of coriander plants were monitored by measurements of changes in the growth parameters (plant height, LA, and shoot FW), showing distinct growth responses to different light quality and light intensity treatments (Fig. 1). All plant height parameters of coriander grown under high RL and high BL lightings under 200 μmol m -2 s -1 PPFD had significantly smaller values (10.8 and 13.7 cm, respectively) than those under other light treatments (19.7~20.5 cm). Furthermore, LA values of all coriander plants were significantly larger when grown under control conditions (31.9 and 29.8 cm 2 ) compared to other treatments (16.0 ~ 24.3 cm 2 ). The shoot FW of all coriander plants was significantly lower in no RL and no BL lightings (18.9 and 16.5 g, respectively) than in other treatments (45.6 ~56.1 g), indicating that shoot FW in coriander was reduced in the absence of RL and BL treatments. Chl and phytochemical c ontent s of c oriander plant The Chl and phytochemical content of coriander plants cultured under mixtures of RL, BL and GL LED of various light intensities are shown in Figs. 2, 3, and 4. The leaf Chl a, b, and a+b contents in plants grown under control conditions were highest (Fig. 2), in comparison with other treatments. Chl a, b, and a+b values observed under control conditions were 12,378 (Fig. 2A), 3,885 (Fig. 2B), and 14,718 (Fig. 2C) μg g -1 DW, respectively. The same trend was also observed in the BL treatment group (Figs. 2D, E, and F). Significantly lower levels of all Chl contents in leaves were found when plants were grown under high light intensity compared to the control and low light intensity treatment. However, no significant differences were observed in all Chl contents among control, no RL (Figs. 2A, B, and C), and no BL (Figs. 2D, E, and F) of light spectra under low light intensity. Fig. 3 presents Car and Ant content of coriander plant leaf extracts. All phytochemical pigment contents in high PPFD treatment with high RL (Figs. 3A, B) and high BL (Figs. 3C, D) were significantly lower than in control and other light treatments, with the exception that no significant differences were observed in Ant contents between no BL by low PPFD (164.4 μmol g -1 DW) and high BL by high PPFD(150.1 μmol g -1 DW) treatments (Fig. 3D). Fig. 4 demonstrates that coriander plants under high PPFD with high RL or high BL contained significantly higher levels of Fla (Fig. 4C) and Pha (Figs. 4B, D) compared to controls and other treatments, whereas Fla levels under high PPFD with high R light were significantly lower than that under control and no R lights at low PPFD (Fig. 4A). Antioxidant properties of coriander plant Corianders are herbaceous plants providing nutraceutical products with antioxidant properties. The DPPH free radical scavenging assay was used to determine the antioxidant activity of plant extracts. Significantly higher DPPH scavenging effect was observed in those plants cultured under high RL (87.5%) and high BL (87.9%) at high PPFD than in plants receiving no RL (86.2%) and no BL (71.5%) at low PPFD (Figs. 5A, D). However, differences in the DPPH scavenging effect observed between the no RL treatment and the control (Fig. 5A) and between the control and the high BL treatment (Fig. 5D) were not significant. The levels of reducing power in coriander leaves were significantly higher in the controls than in the no RL and no BL treatments at low PPFD (Figs. 5B, E). In addition, the reduction power was about 2.73 times higher in plants under high BL at high PPFD than in the plants under no RL at low PPFD (Fig. 5E). Figure 5C shows that plants cultured under control conditions had significantly higher Fe 2+ chelating effect (73.9%) than plants cultured under other light treatments (44.7% and 55.6%), whereas plants cultured under control conditions had significant lower Fe 2+ chelating effect (42.2%) than those under high BL (58.6%) at high PPFD (Fig. 5F). Chemical composition of secondary metabolite accumulation in c oriander leaf A total of 30 compounds were detected by GC-MS. Only the compounds which appeared in each of the 5 freeze-dried replicated plant samples processed, and the average peak area (absorbance) of identified compound accumulation performed for 160 min are shown in Table 1. A total of 15 compounds were also identified that occurred in only one or two of the 5 plant samples, therefore, it is not possible to calculate the significant differences between light treatments for these compounds (Table S1). Notably, β-cyclocitral (RT 48.946 min) was not detected in the R20+G50+B50, R50+G50+B20 light intensity and control (Table S1). In Table 1, among those 15 identified compounds, a large effect of decamethyl-cyclopentasiloxane (DCP), dodecane (DO), and dodecamethyl-cyclohexasiloxane (DOCP) content in coriander leaves was observed under various light treatments. The total peak area of DCP, DO, and DOCP isolated was identified after 45.36, 47.913, and 58.193 min extraction times, respectively. The area of DCP was significantly ( p < 0.05) lower for plants receiving R80+G50+B50 light intensity (3,859,652) than for plants receiving R20+G50+B50 light intensity (7,043,653), whereas the area of DOCP was significantly ( p < 0.05) lower under R50+G50+B80 light intensity (2,548,619) than under R20+G50+B50 light intensity (4,576,790). Moreover, both DCP and DOCP decreased with increasing in R light and B light intensity, respectively. However, significantly ( p < 0.001) higher DO area was observed in the control (4,527,594) compared to other light treatments. The areas of the rest of the detected compounds in coriander leaves did not show any significant differences among treatments, suggesting that light treatments did not influence the amounts of these 12 identified compounds, although some of them ( ie ., decanal, (E)-2-decenal, nonane, and 1-decanol) showed high absorbance area (> 2 x 10 8 ) in most of light treatments. Discussion Yorio et al. (2001) reported that lettuce plants grown under RL supplemented with BL allowed the plants accumulate higher biomass than grown under RL alone [ 21 ]. The larger LA could increase the light interception, which contributed to the significant increase in biomass. Kim et al. (2004) demonstrated that BL:RL:GL (4:1:1) increased lettuce LA, which is a good parameter of higher photosynthetic surface area per unit investment in leaf tissue [ 22 ]. Although both RL and BL could promote stem elongation [ 23 ], Kong et al. (2012) revealed that BL was more effective than RL in suppressing shoot/leaf elongation in a range of plant species [ 24 ]. When grown arugula ( Brassica eruca ) and mustard ( Brassica juncea ) plants under continuous BL (24-h light/0-h dark; PPFD from 20 to 650 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ), the lightings could promote hypocotyl and petiole elongation compared to continuous RL [ 25 ]. Wang et al. (2016) also found that when the lettuce photosynthetic performance and growth by stimulating morphological and physiological responses were promoted when plants exposed to BL (200 µmol m -2 s -1 irradiance) [ 26 ]. Hernández and Kubota (2016) reported that plant height, hypocotyl length, and epicotyl length of cucumber ( Cucumis sativus ) seedlings were reduced when they were exposed to an increased BL, except for the controls (0% and 100% BL treatments) [ 27 ]. When the spectral light changes, the morphogenetic and photosynthetic responses are vary among different plant species. A feasibility of tailoring light spectra enables recent plant cultivation technologies and controls the plant growth, development, and nutritional quality. In our study, the growth and morphological features of control-treated coriander plants exhibited a tall appearance, large leaves, and shoot FW, indicating good plant growth under control conditions. Therefore, growth and development in the coriander plant are dependent on the spectral quality of light, and the addition of RL or BL under high (200 µmol m -2 s -1 ) and no (0 µmol m -2 s -1 ) light intensity may have further decreased plant growth and development due to high light conditions. Perhaps the control conditions achieved a balanced spectral environment for plants without any supplemention of RL or BL at high or low light intensity. Light treatments affected biomass accumulation in the shoot of the coriander plant, and shoot FW accumulation was about 2.5 ~ 3.4 times higher for coriander plants under control, high RL, and high BL at high PPFD treatments, than for plants under no RL and no BL treatments at low PPFD. Coriander shoot biomass was reduced under low-PPFD treatments (Figs. 1 C, F), suggesting that lowering PPFD might inhibit photosynthesis and carbohydrate production, thus reducing shoot biomass accumulation. Perhaps, plant height, LA, and shoot FW accumulation responses under different combinations of RL and BL lighting may vary among species of crops. Reductions in total coriander FW and LA suggest that light quality and intensity can alter growth, decrease mean weight, and lower market value. Plants raised under the control conditions appeared similar to high market value plants grown in greenhouses, whereas either extra RL or BL-treated plants under high or low light intensity can cause reductions in shoot fresh weight and/or plant size, lowering market value. Light is an important environmental signal, inducing biosynthesis of photosynthetic pigments and phytochemicals. In this study, the peak emissions of RL, BL, and GL LED closely coincide with the absorption peaks of Chl a and b, and reported wavelengths are at their respective maximum photosynthetic efficiency. Chl has high light absorption at 400 ~ 500 and 630 ~ 680 nm, and Car has high light absorption at 400 ~ 500. Both Chl and Car have low light absorption at 530 ~ 610 nm. Hoffmann et al. (2016) demonstrated that BL induces the synthesis of Chl and Car [ 28 ], although Chen et al. (2014) reported that Car levels were not responsive to light quality [ 20 ]. Tanaka et al. (1998) found that RL promoted Cymbidium leaf growth, but reduced Chl content. In the cucumber, a BL:RL ratio of 1:1 allows optimum leaf development, maximum photosynthesis, and Chl content [ 29 , 30 ]. However, a 1:1 BL:RL ratio did not result in optimal basil growth when compared to any combination of the BL, RL, and GL wavelengths [ 31 ]. In our study, Chl and phytochemical contents were reduced as RL or BL lighting was enhanced. It is possible that 200 µmol m − 2 s − 1 of RL or BL suppressed Chl, Car, and Ant synthesis in the coriander leaves. Perhaps, 200 µmol m − 2 s − 1 PPFD reached a certain minimal PPFD at 50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 , a level which is essential for the sufficient synthesis and activity of photosynthetic pigments and electron carriers. It would be interesting to test plant growth, Chl, and phytochemical contents under illumination by various monochromatic light spectra and combinations under a wide range of light intensities. This study provides deeper insight into the interception of light by photosynthetic and photo-protective phytochemicals as a function of light quality and intensity. This work enhances our understanding of plant biology, enabling the knowledge-driven selection of spectral lights for non-destructive Chl and phytochemical production in coriander plants. Johkan et al. (2010) reported that addition of BL in combination with RL induces the accumulation of antioxidative compounds in lettuce plants [ 32 ]. Moreover, Son and Oh (2013) found that the ratio of 47% BL + 53% RL LED under 171 ± 7 µmol m − 2 s − 1 was important for the morphology, growth, and antioxidative phenolic compounds in lettuce [ 33 ]. Wu et al. (2007) discovered that RL LED enhanced the accumulation of antioxidants in pea ( Pisum sativum L.) seedlings [ 34 ]. Similar results were reported by Bliznikas et al. (2012) and they revealed that supplemental RL increased antioxidant levels in parsley and dill plants [ 35 ]. De Souza et al. (2016) suggested that menthol mint ( Mentha arvensis L.) plants grown under 137 µmol m − 2 s − 1 PPFD had the lowest biomass, but produced an essential oil with high level of neomenthol, menthol, and methyl acetate, whereas plants under 543 µmol m − 2 s − 1 PPFD had a high biomass and essential oil content, but lower levels of menthol [ 36 ]. Ghasemzadeh et al. (2010) stated that total phenolic content of ginger leaves was the highest when plants were grown under 790 µmol m − 2 s − 1 [ 37 ]. Though light treatments were very different, there were some tendencies that enabled an assessment of the underlying mechanisms of the effects observed. For example, Fla, Pha, DPPH scavenging effect, and reducing power increased with increases in PPFD under high RL or BL; thus Fla and Pha contents may be responsible for the antioxidant activity in coriander plants. The intensity of RL or BL increased from 0, 50, to 200 µmol m − 2 s − 1 PPFD, and therefore any trend might be a response to RL or BL. Coriander plants had remarkably smaller plant height, LA, and Chl, Car, and Ant contents when treated with high RL or BL intensity. However, coriander plants grown under control conditions were taller, had larger leaves, and contained higher shoot FW, Chl, Car, and Ant contents. Different LED spectra are capable of triggering various morphological, phytochemical reactions, and antioxidant properties. Decreases in plant height and LA in coriander plants under higher RL or BL levels were the result of lowered Chl (Fig. 2 ), Car, and Ant contents (Fig. 3 ), but greater Fla and Pha levels (Figs. 4 B-D), DPPH scavenging, reducing power, and chelating effect (Figs. 5 A, B, D, E, and F) when these plants were subjected to high PPFD. These results suggest that stronger BL intensity might better penetrate the plant canopy than weaker BL intensity, rendering higher levels of Fla, Pha, DPPH scavenging effect, reducing power, and chelating effect. Coriander leaves appear to be sensitive to higher RL or BL intensity, which caused serious photoinhibition and photodamage, avoidance of excessive energy absorption in response to higher photosynthesis photochemical efficiencies, ultimately leading to lower plant height and LA in comparison to controls. However, the response of higher Fla, Pha, DPPH scavenging, reducing power, and chelating effect values was related to lower Chl and Ant contents of coriander plants under higher RL or BL intensity treatment. Protective mechanisms in coriander plants should prevent its leaves from excessive reduction in PSII acceptors. The assessment of Chl, Car, and Ant parameters under varying light quality and intensity is an important tool for understanding how to improve the photosynthetic productivity of plants. The application of light quality and intensity could beneficially influence growth, Chl, Car, and Ant contents in mature coriander plants, and properly selected RL plus BL LED could be used to produce antioxidant-rich spice culture. Controlling light quality and intensity is effective in optimizing the yield and quality of coriander plants. Currently, there is little information available on the effect of light treatments on the accumulation of flavor compounds in coriander. Variations of the essential oil constituents in C. sativum have been observed, depending on genetic and environmental factors as well as tissue part, ontogeny, and analytical methods [ 38 ]. Several studies have shown that the major identified volatile compounds in essential oil of coriander leaves were 2-dodecenal, decanal, E-2-decenal, linalool, tetradecenal, 2-decen-1-ol, dodecan-1-ol, undecenal, dodecane, E-2-tridecenal, trans-tetradec-2-enal, E-2-hexadecenal, cyclodecane, menthone, pentadecenal, and pinene [ 39 , 40 ]. Shahwar et al. (2012) identified 27 and 21 compounds from coriander leaves and seeds, respectively. Among them, there were only 10 compounds from coriander leaves identified in our study as shown in Table S2, and the rest of compounds of coriander leaves under the light treatments were unique in our study [ 41 ]. Shahwar et al. (2012) reported that decenal is one of the major volatile compounds identified in coriander leaves, and is an essential oil that produces the oily, sweet, or grassy odor of the plant [ 41 ]. Liu et al. (2012) also indicated that decenal had antioxidant activity and inhibitory of bactericidal effects on the microorganisms [ 42 ]. Sankhuan et al. (2022) statted that Artemisia annua plants grown under blue spectra at 445 nm had higher leaf fresh weight, increased amounts of artemisinin, and enhanced production of several terpenoids against the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum NF54, whereas red spectrum at 660 nm led to decreased production of bioactive compounds and decreasing anti-malarial activity [ 43 ]. In our study, decanal in leaves was found to have the highest compound area (554,848,800, RT 48.46 min), whereas area of decanal ranked 14th in their coriander leaves. However, high RL led to significantly diminished productions of decenal compared with other light treatments. The antioxidant activity and the inhibitory of bactericidal function of octanal have been reported by Liu et al. (2012) [ 42 ]. In our study, plants grown under low BL exhibited significantly decreases in the amounts of decenal, suggesting that coriander plants growth under high RL or low BL condition would decrease the bactericidal compounds. Interestingly, (E)-2-decenal was the second highest compound area (241,858,419, RT 52.34 min) identified in our study, but it was the highest compound area detected in their coriander leaves. Apparently, both decenal and (E)-2-decenal can be useful for the production of essential oil from coriander leaves. Naidu and Priyadarshi (2019) also revealed that the most common compounds identified by GC-MS in two popular varieties of Coriandrum sativum were decanal, 2-decenal, undecanal, dodecanal, E-2-dodecenal, E-2-tridecenal, tetradecanal, E-9-tetradecenal, 7-hexadecenal, and n-hexadecanoic acid. The cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is an enzyme responsible for formation of prostanoids, and pharmaceutical inhibition of COX-2 can provide relief from the symptoms of inflammation and pain [ 44 ]. Dodecane has been isolated from the essential oils of various plants including ginger ( Zingiber officinale ) with strong inhibitory effects on COX-2 enzyme activity [ 45 ]. Our results show that there has been a significant decrease in the amounts of dodecane, the levels of antioxidants, Chl, Car, Ant, and Fla, and the plant heights as well when the plants grown under high RL conditions, implying that antibacterial effectiveness and economic efficiency of the metabolites production may not be maximized by the management of light treatment under high RL conditions. In our study, among 15 identified compounds (Table 1 ), the highest compound of DCP, DO, and DOCP was detected in low RL, control, and low BL treatments, respectively, suggesting that coriander plants responding to light treatment with a low intensity of RL or BL exhibited an enhanced accumulation of both DCP and DOCP in cells. Since both DCP and DOCP metabolism in coriander leaves are more sensitive to light intensity than DO metabolism, the biosynthesis of DCP and DOCP in coriander leaves can be optimally activated by applying such light stimuli. Thus, an understanding of the effects of the light treatments upon the content of DCP, DO, and DCP compounds in coriander plants is an important aspect of the strategic implementation of their production and culinary and clinical applications. Differing responses in Chl, Car, Ant, antioxidants, and metabolite accumulations for optimizing plant growth and development in a controlled-climate setting are dependent upon various light quality and intensity culture systems, which may be used to satisfy commercial requirements for rapid, large-scale, and precise management of coriander plant production. Various growth-regulating strategies can be carefully chosen to produce the desired features of coriander for use as cooking materials, raw materials, or medicinal materials. Conclusions We investigated the effective light treatments for growing coriander plants, and found that various light quality and intensity combinations influenced the accumulations of Chl, Car, Ant, Fla, and Pha, and mediated antioxidative properties and secondary metabolites in coriander leaves. In agricultural production, yields and costs are the two most important criteria in efforts to optimize environmental factors. The control resulted in many positive effects on the growth, development, and appearance of coriander plants, and increases of Chl, Car, Ant contents, suggesting that control treatment (R50 + G50 + B50) with 50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 PPFD of RL, BL and GL is optimal for the coriander plants. In contrast, high BL (R50 + G50 + B200) with 200 µmol m − 2 s − 1 PPFD of BL induced Fla, Pha, DPPH scavenging effect, reducing power, and chelating effect responses. Furthermore, the accumulation of DCP and DOCP was detected in low RL (R20 + G50 + B50) and low BL (R50 + G50 + B20) with 20 µmol m − 2 s − 1 PPFD of RL and BL, respectively. These results can be useful in developing a new LED lighting apparatus optimized for coriander production in plant factories, and may also benefit fundamental research, providing a better understanding of the photosynthetic characteristics and commercial applications of food production. Materials And Methods Plant material and cultural practice The seeds of the coriander plant ( Coriandrum sativum , cv. RV-164) were purchased from Known-You seed company (Kaoshiung, Taiwan). The coriander seeds were germinated in hydroponic condition with rockwool cubes (2.5 cm × 2.5 cm × 3.0 cm) for 1 week in a 25°C growth chamber. The seedlings were illuminated with cool white fluorescent lamps (light intensity of 10 µmol m − 2 s − 1 PPFD) 12 h per day. When the plant height reached 1 cm, they were transferred into polystyrene foam cubes, mounted in Styrofoam plates (eight holes per plate) and placed in a container (105 cm × 60 cm × 9 cm). The aerated complete nutrient solution [ 6 ] was supplied continuously in a commercial hydroponic growth room (Nano-Bio Light Technology Co., LTD., New Taipei, Taiwan). The nutrient solution was renewed every week and adjusted to pH 6.5-7.0 and an electrical conductivity of 2–3 mS cm − 1 . All treatments were maintained throughout the experiment at a temperature of 25°C, a 12 h daily photoperiod, and 75% relative humidity in the growth chamber. Light treatments Light quality treatments for coriander seedling growth in the above mentioned hydroponic system consisted of five following commercially available mixtures of LED arrays designed by Hi-Point Technology (Kaoshiung, Taiwan): (1) GL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + BL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) as no RL treatment (short as G50 + B50), (2) RL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + GL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + BL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) as control treatment, (short as R50 + G50 + B50), (3) RL (200 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + GL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + BL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) as high RL treatment (short as R200 + G50 + B50), (4) RL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + GL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) as no BL treatment (short as R50 + G50), and (5) RL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + GL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + BL (200 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) as high BL treatment (short as R50 + G50 + B200). Each light quality was run in a growth room under the light intensity of 0, 50 (control), and 200 µmol m − 2 s − 1 PPFD which was measured daily above the plant canopy and maintained by adjusting the distance of the LED to the plant canopy. Spectral distributions of BL (with a peak at 460 nm), RL (at 625 nm), and GL (at 530 nm) were measured with a spectral radiometer (Hi-Point Technology, Kaoshiung, Taiwan) in the 300 ~ 800-nm range. The lamp’s luminous area was 120 × 60 cm, and the lamp contained BL, RL and GL LED with 30 pieces in each LED color, and the spectrum was recorded at the top of the coriander packs. All treatments were maintained at a constant 25°C with a 12/12-h light/dark photoperiod and were procured on January 2020. Plants were harvested 45 d after sowing. Shoot samples were freeze-dried in a vacuum freeze dryer (LabConco, Tokyo, Japan) and ground into a powder with a mortar and pestle before extraction and antioxidant analysis. Twenty coriander plants were randomly planted under each light source with a light intensity, and 5 plants from each light treatment were used for the following growth and physiological parameter measurements. Plant growth measurements Plant height (cm) was measured from the base of the plant to the top of the stem with a Vernier caliper. The shoot fresh weight (FW, g) was measured with an electronic balance. The leaf area (LA, cm 2 ) was measured by an LA meter (LI-3100, LI-COR, Lincoln, NE, USA). Determination of pigments, phyotochemicals, and antioxidant activities The concentrations of Chl and Car in coriander leaves were determined as described [ 20 ]. In Brief, leaf sample powder (0.01 g) was mixed with 80% acetone (5 mL) and incubated at 4°C overnight, and was centrifugation at 13,000 g for 5 min. The supernatants were transferred to a new tube, and then used to determine the Chl a and Chl b absorbance in acetone at 663.6 nm and 646.6 nm, respectively, using a spectrophotometer (Hitachi U-2000, Tokyo, Japan). Following equations were used to calculate the Chl a, Chl b, Chl a + b, and Car concentrations: Chl a concentration= (12.25 A 663.6 − 2.55 A 646.6 ) × volume of supernatant (mL) / sample weight (g) Chl b concentration = (20.31 A 646.6 − 4.91 A 663.6 ) × volume of supernatant (mL) / sample weight (g) Chl a + b concentration = (17.76 A 646.6 + 7.34 A 663.6 ) × volume of supernatant (mL) / sample weight (g) Car concentration = [(4.69 A 440.5 ) × volume of supernatant (mL) / sample weight (g)] – 0.267 (Chl a + b) The anthocyanin (Ant) concentrations of extracts were measured as described by Chen et al. (2014) [ 20 ]. The extraction buffer (99% methanol containing 1% HCl) was added to leaf sample powder and incubated at room temperature for 1 h. The mixture was then centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 5 min (4°C), and the supernatant was transferred to a new tube, followed by measuring absorbances at 530 nm and 657 nm on a spectrophotometer (Hitachi U-2000, Tokyo, Japan). Following equation was used to calculate the Ant concentration: Ant concentration (µmol·g -1 DW) = (A 530 − 0.33 × A 657 / 31.6) × volume of supernatant (mL) / sample weight (g). The total phenolic acid (Pha) concentrations of extracts were determined as described by Bantis et al. (2016) [ 14 ]. In short, gallic acid standard (Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA) and an aliquot of the acidic methanolic extract were diluted with acidified methanol solution containing 1% HCl. The sample extracts (100 µl) were mixed with 2% Na 2 CO 3 (2 mL) and allowed to equilibrate for 2 min before adding 50% Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, and measured the absorbance at 750 nm using the Varioskan Flash Multimode Reader (Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA). Total flavonoids (Fla) in extracts were determined by the method of Lin et al. (2021) [ 6 ]. One mL of methanol extract (0.5 mg·mL -1 ) was mixed with 1 mL aluminum chloride (2%). The mixture was mixed gently at room temperature for 15 min, and the absorbance at 540 nm was collected with a spectrophotometer (Hitachi U-2000, Tokyo, Japan). The free 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging ability was measured using protocols described by Huang et al. (2017) [ 19 ]. Briefly, the powder of lyophilized coriander leaf sample (0.01 g) was extracted with of 40% ethanol (5 mL) at room temperature, and then filtered with Whatman filter paper (No. 1). The remaining residue was re-extracted three times with 40% ethanol until the residue was colorless. An aliquot of the ethanolic extract (0.05 mL) with a serial dilution was added to a 0.4 mM DPPH solution (0.15 mL). The mixture was mixed and kept in dark for 90 min. The color of mixture was changed from purple (DPPH radical) to yellow (DPPH-H) after reduction, which can be quantified by a decrease in absorbance at 517 nm. Following equation was used to calculate the radical-scavenging activity of total free radicals: Scavenging activity (%) = [(absorbance of a blank DPPH solution - absorbance of a sample) / (absorbance of a blank DPPH solution)] × 100. The blank was conducted in the same manner, except that ethanol was used instead of a sample, and 40% ethanol was used as the blank. The scavenging effect was obtained by plotting the percentage of residual DPPH at steady state as a function of the antioxidant concentration. The reducing properties of a serial dilution of the extract were determined using protocols described by Huang et al. (2017) [ 19 ]. In brief, the ethanolic extract (0.05 mL) was mixed with 0.2 M sodium phosphate buffer pH = 6.6 (0.05 mL) and 1% potassium ferrocyanide (0.033 mL), and incubated at 50°C for 20 min. Then, 10% trichloroacetic acid (0.05 mL) was added to the mixture, and centrifuged at 1,500 g for 10 min. Supernatant (0.1 mL) was transferred to a new tube and added distilled-deionized water (0.1 mL) and 0.1% ferric chloride (0.02 mL). After 10 min, the absorbance at 700 nm was measured against a blank. Following equation was used to calculate the reduction capacity: Reduction capacity = sample of A700 - blank of A700. The ferrous iron-chelating ability was determined using protocols described by Huang et al. (2017) [ 19 ]. In short, the ethanolic extract (1 mL) was added to 80% methanol (3.7 mL) containing 100 µl of 2 mM FeCl 2 ‧4H 2 O, mixed for 30 s, and then added 5 mM ferrozine solution (200 µl). After 10 min at room temperature, the absorbance of the sample mixture was determined at 562 nm against a blank. Analysis of secondary metabolite compounds of coriander leaves This experiment was conducted in the same culture practice as described above in “Plant material and cultural practice”, and was procured on November 2020. However, light quality and intensity treatments were adjusted to lower than the above-mentioned light treatments (“Light treatments”) for improved coriander plant growth and development, because we observed that high RL and BL intensity treatments at 200 µmol m − 2 s − 1 and no RL and BL intensity treatments had adversely affect coriander growth and development. Thus, the light treatments in this experiment were following: (1) RL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + GL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + BL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) as control treatment (short as R50 + G50 + B50), (2) RL (20 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + GL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + BL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) as low RL treatment (short as R20 + G50 + B50), (3) RL (80 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + GL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + BL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) as high RL treatment (short as R80 + G50 + B50), (4) RL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + GL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + BL (20 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) as low BL treatment (short as R50 + G50 + B20), and (5) RL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + GL (50 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) + BL (80 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) as high BL treatment (short as R50 + G50 + B80). Plants were harvested 45 d after sowing. Five replicates of plants were randomly selected from each light treatment and used for the chemical composition of coriander leaves. Leaf samples were freeze-dried and ground into fine powder by mortar and pestle. The grounded leaf powder (0.1 g) was then transferred to a 10 mL glass vial, sealed, and heated to 60°C. The extraction of volatile compounds was performed by a commercial SPME (Solid Phase Micro-Extraction) device (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA), using fibers of 50/30 µm thickness, divinylbenzene/carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (DVB/CAR/PDMS). Before the SPME fiber was inserted into the vial, the sample was equilibrated for 15 min at the extraction temperature of 60°C. Prior to analysis, the SPME fiber was preconditioned in the injection port of the gas chromatograph at the 250°C. This temperature was the same as that set for the injection port of the gas chromatograph during desorption. Analyses were performed using Agilent 6890 / Agilent 5975B (Agilent, Paolo Alto, CA, USA) gas chromatography/mass spectrometric (GC-MS) analyses, fused HP-5MS column (30 m x 0.25 mm; 0.25 µm film thickness). Helium was used as carrier gas at a flow rate of 1 mL/min. The MS operating parameters consisted of an ionization voltage of 70 eV and an ion source temperature of 230°C. The column temperature was 35°C (5 min) to 180°C (10 min) at the rate of 1°C/min. Compound identification was accomplished by comparing the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) library data of the peaks with those reported in the literature. All extractions were performed for 160 min, and peak areas of identified compound accumulation were expressed in area (absorbance). All compounds were identified by comparison of their chromatographic parameters and mass spectra with authentic standards. Statistical Analysis The collected measurements including morphological and physiological parameters, antioxidant capacity, and chemical composition were analyzed by a completely randomized analysis of variance (ANOVA). The PC SAS ver. 9 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA) was used to analyzed the collected measurements here. The means were separated by the least significant difference (LSD) test at p ≤ 0.05 and the results were expressed as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate : Not applicable. Consent for publication : Not applicable. Availability of Data and Material (ADM) : The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and/or its supplementary materials. Competing interests : The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding : Not applicable. Authors' contributions : H.H. Lin and K.H. Lin wrote the paper. M.Y. Huang conceived and designed the experiments. M.J. Yang and H.C. Nguyen performed the experiment. H.J. Wang and H.X. Huang analyzed the data. All authors approved the final manuscript and agreed to the publication of this manuscript. Acknowledgment : This work was financially supported in part by the “Innovation and Development Center of Sustainable Agriculture” from the Featured Areas Research Center Program within the Higher Education Sprout Project by the Ministry of Education (MOE) of Taiwan and by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) in Taiwan [grant numbers MOST–108-2621-B-034 -002; MOST–110-2313-B-034-001]. Research involving plants: We confirm that all methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations by including a statement in the Methods section to this effect. Experimental research on plants, including the collection of plant material, complies with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation. Author details 1 Department of Horticulture and Biotechnology, Chinese Culture University, Taipei 11114, Taiwan. 2 Tea Research and Extension Station, Yangmei, Taoyuan City 326011, Taiwan. 3 School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3216, Australia. 4 Department of Applied Science of Living, Chinese Culture University, Taipei 11114, Taiwan. 5 Department of Life Sciences and Innovation and Development Center of Sustainable Agriculture, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 40227, Taiwan. References Sahib NG, Anwar F, Gilani AH, Hamid AA, Saari N, Alkharfy KM. Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum L.): A potential source of highvalue components for functional foods and nutraceuticals-A review. Phytotherapy Res. 2013; 27: 1439–1456. Priyadarshi S, Harohally NV, Roopavathi C, Naidu MM. Isolation, identification, structural elucidation and bioactivity of Heneicos-1-ene from Coriandrum sativum L. foliage. Sci Rep. 2018; 8:1–6. Mandal S, Mandal M. Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum L.) essential oil: Chemistry and biological activity. Asian Pacific J.Tropical Biomed. 2015; 5: 421–428. Bogavac M, Karaman M, Janjušević L, Sudji J, Radovanović B, Novaković Z, Simeunović J, Božin B. Alternative treatment of vaginal infections – in vitro antimicrobial and toxic effects of Coriandrum sativum L. and Thymus vulgaris L. essential oils. J Appl Microbiol. 2015; 119: 697–710. Lin KH, Huang MY, Huang W. D, Hsu MH, Yang ZW, Yang CM. The effects of red, blue, and white light-emitting diodes on the growth, development, and edible quality of hydroponically grown lettuce ( Lactuca sativa L. var. capitata ). Sci Horti. 2013; 150: 86–91. Lin KH, Huang MY, Hsu MH. Morphological and physiological response in green and purple basil plants ( Ocimum basilicum ) under different proportions of red, green, and blue LED lightings. Sci Hortic. 2021; 275: 109677. Casson SA, Hetherington AM. Phytochrome B is required for light-mediated systemic control of stomatal development. Current Biol. 2014; 24: 1216–1221. Kasajima SY, Inoue N, Mahmud R, Kato M. Developmental responses of wheat cv. Norin 61 to fluence rate of green light. Plant Production Sci. 2008; 11: 76–81. Verma SK, Gantait S, Jeong BR, Hwang SJ. Enhanced growth and cardenolides production in Digitalis purpurea under the influence of different LED exposures in the plant factory. Sci Rep. 2018; 8: 18009. Gornia PH, Limaa GR, Pereiraa LMO, Sperab KD, Lapazc AM, Pacheco AC. Increasing plant performance, fruit production and nutritional value of tomato through foliar applied rutin. Sci Horti. 2022; 294: 110755. Groher T, Röhlen-Schmittgen S, Fiebig A, Noga G, Hunsche M. Influence of supplementary LED lighting on physiological and biochemical parameters of tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L.) leaves. Sci Horti. 2019; 250: 154–158. Loughrin JH, Kasperbauer MJ. Light reflected from colored mulches affects aroma and phenol content of sweet basil ( Ocimum basilicum L.) leaves. J Agric Food Chem. 2001; 49: 1331–1335. Taulavuori K, Pyysalo A, Taulavuori E, Julkunen-Tiitto R. Responses of phenolic acid and flavonoid synthesis to blue and blue-violet light depends on plant species. Enviro Experi Bot. 2018; 150: 183–187. Bantis F, Theoharis O, Kalliopi R. Artificial LED lighting enhances growth characteristics and total phenolic content of Ocimum basilicum , but variably affects transplant success. Sci Horti. 2016; 198: 277–283. Naznin MT, Lefsrud M, Gravel V, Hao X. Different ratios of red and blue LED light effects on coriander productivity and antioxidant properties. Acta Horti. 2016; 1134: 223–230. Nguyen DT, Lu N., Kagawa N, Takagaki M. Optimization of photosynthetic photon flux density and root-zone temperature for enhancing secondary metabolite accumulation and production of coriander in plant factory. Agron. 2019; 9: 224. Bian Z, Yang Q, Li T, Cheng R, Barnett Y, Lu C. Study of the beneficial effects of green light on lettuce grown under short-term continuous red and blue light‐emitting diodes. Physiol Plant. 2018; 164: 226–240. Lanoue J, Leonardos ED, Grodzinski B. Effects of light quality and intensity on diurnal patterns and rates of photo-assimilate translocation and transpiration in tomato leaves. Front Plant Sci. 2018; 9: 756. Huang MY, Lin K. H, Lu CC, Chen LR, Hsiung TC, Chang WT. The intensity of blue light-emitting diodes influences the antioxidant properties and sugar content of oyster mushrooms ( Lentinus sajor-caju ). Sci Horti. 2017; 218: 8–13. Chen CC, Huang MY, Lin KH, Wong SL, Huang WD, Yang CM. Effects of light quality on the growth, development and metabolism of rice seedlings ( Oryza sativa L.). Research J Biotech. 2014; 9: 15–24. Yorio NC, Goins GD, Kagie HR, Wheeler RM, Sager JC. Improving spinach, radish, and lettuce growth under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with blue light supplementation. HortSci. 2001; 36: 380–383. Kim HH, Goins GD, Wheeler RM, Sager JC. Green-light supplementation for enhanced lettuce growth under red-and blue-light-emitting diodes. HortSci. 2004; 39: 1617–1622. Huché-Thélier L, Crespel L, Le Gourrierec J, Morel P, Sakr S, Leduc N. Light signaling and plant responses to blue and UV radiations—Perspectives for applications in horticulture. Enviro Experi Bot. 2016; 121: 22–38. Kong Y, Wang S, Chen J, Chen Q, Yao Y. Effect of supplemental lighting with red and blue light on the characters of container-growing seedlings of muskmelon. Acta Horti. 2012; 944:141–146. Johnson RE., Kong Y., Zheng Y. Elongation growth mediated by blue light varies with light intensities and plant species: A comparison with red light in arugula and mustard seedlings. Environ Experi Bot. 2020; 169: 103898. Wang J, Lu W, Tong Y, Yang Q. Leaf morphology, photosynthetic performance, chlorophyll fluorescence, stomatal development of lettuce ( Lactuca sativa L.) exposed to different ratios of red light to blue light. Front. Plant Sci. 2016; 7: 250. Hernández R, Kubota C. Physiological responses of cucumber seedlings under different blue and red photon flux ratios using LEDs. Envir Experi Bot. 2016; 121: 66–74. Hoffmann AM, Noga, G, Hunsche, M. High blue light improves acclimation and photosynthetic recovery of pepper plants exposed to UV stress. Enviro Experi Bot. 2015; 109: 254–263. Tanaka M, Takamura T, Watanabe H, Endo M, Yanagi T, Okamoto K. In vitro growth of Cymbidium plantlets cultured under superbright red and blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs). J Hortic Sci Biotech. 1998; 73: 39–44. Hogewoning SW, Trouwborst G, Maljaars H, Poorter H, van Ieperen W, Harbinson J. Blue light dose–responses of leaf photosynthesis, morphology, and chemical composition of Cucumis sativus grown under different combinations of red and blue light. J Experi Bot. 2010; 61: 3107–3117. Carvalho SD, Schwieterman ML, Abrahan CE, Colquhoun TA, Folta KM. Light quality dependent changes in morphology, antioxidant capacity, and volatile production in sweet basil ( Ocimum basilicum ). Front Plant Sci. 2016; 7: 1328. Johkan M, Shoji K, Goto F., Hashida S, Yoshihara T. Blue light-emitting diode light irradiation of seedlings improves seedling quality and growth after transplanting in red leaf lettuce. HortSci. 2010; 45: 1809–1814. Son KH, Oh MM. Leaf shape, growth, and antioxidant phenolic compounds of two lettuce cultivars grown under various combinations of blue and red light-emitting diodes. HortSci. 2013; 48: 988–995. Wu MC, Hou CY, Jiang CM, Wang YT, Wang CY, Chen HH, Chang HM. A novel approach of LED light radiation improves the antioxidant activity of pea seedlings. Food Chem. 2007; 101: 1753–1758. Bliznikas Z, Zukauskas A, Samuolien G, Viršil A, Brazaityt A, Jankauskien EJ. Effect of supplement arypre-harvest LED lighting on the antioxidant and nutritional properties of green vegetables. Acta Horti. 2012; 939: 85–91. De Souza MA, Santos LA, Brito DM, Rocha JF, Castro RN, Fernandes MS, de Souza SR. Influence of light intensity on glandular trichome density, gene expression and essential oil of menthol mint ( Mentha arvensis L.). J. Essential oil Res. 2016; 28: 138–145. Ghasemzadeh A, Jaafar HZ, Rahmat A, Wahab PM, Halim MA. Effect of different light intensities on total phenolics and flavonoids synthesis and anti-oxidant activities in young ginger varieties ( Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Int J Mol Sci. 2010; 11: 3885–3897. Mohamed MA, Ibrahim ME, Wahba HE. Flavoring compounds of essential oil isolated from agriculture waste of coriander ( Coriandrum sativum ) plant. J Mater Envir Sci. 2018; 9: 77–82. Freires IDA, Murata RM, Furletti VF, Sartoratto A, Alencar SMD, Figueira GM, de Oliveira Rodrigues JA, Duarte MCT, Rosalen PL. Coriandrum sativum L.(coriander) essential oil: antifungal activity and mode of action on Candida spp., and molecular targets affected in human whole-genome expression. PLoS One. 2014; 9: e99086. Foudah AI, Alqarni MH, Alam A, Salkini MA, Ahmed EOI, Yusufoglu HS. Evaluation of the composition and in vitro antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities of Cilantro ( Coriandrum sativum L. leaves) cultivated in Saudi Arabia (Al-Kharj). Saudi J Biolo Sci. 2021; 28:3461–3468. Shahwar MK, El-Ghorab AH, Anjum FM, Butt MS, Hussain S, Nadeem M. Characterization of coriander ( Coriandrum sativum L.) seeds and leaves: volatile and non volatile extracts. International J. Food Prop. 2012; 15:736–747. Liu K, Chen Q, Liu Y, Zhou X, Wang X. Isolation and Biological Activities of Decanal, Linalool, Valencene, and Octanal from Sweet Orange Oil. J Food Sci. 2012; 77: C1156-C1161. Sankhuan D, Niramolyanun G, Kangwanrangsan N, Nakano M, Supaibulwatana K. Variation in terpenoids in leaves of Artemisia annua grown under different LED spectra resulting in diverse antimalarial activities against Plasmodium falciparum . BMC Plant Biol. 2022; 22:128. Naidu MM, Priyadarshi S. A comparative study on nutritional, fatty acids, carotenoids, aroma and antioxidative characteristics of Microcarpum DC and Vulgare alef varieties of coriander foliage. Indian J. Tradit Knowl. 2019; 18:458–467. Tjendraputra E, Tran VH, Liu-Brennan D, Roufogalis BD, Duke CC. Effect of ginger constituents and synthetic analogues on cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme in intact cells. Bioorg Chem. 2001; 29: 156–163. Tables Table 1 The chemical composition of coriander leaf essential oil extracted from freeze-dried samples of 5 plants under different light treatments. All extractions were performed for 160 min, and peak areas of identified compound accumulations expressed as Area (Absorbance) Area (Abs) Area (Abs) RT (min) CAS number Compound low RL R20+G50+B50 control R50+G50+B50 high RL R80+G50+B50 low BL R50+G50+B20 control R50+G50+B50 high BL R50+G50+B80 2.94 000590-86-3 3-methyl-butanal 417712 496656 505004 322524 577978 490458 3.08 000096-17-3 2-methyl-butanal 513256 669757 606179 435397 811413 643676 14.24 000111-84-2 Nonane 13201407 24372208 28796604 13646800 11595571 17827410 24.90 000124-18-5 Decane 1914397 1696357 1398373 1470761 1101351 1193068 25.22 000124-13-0 Octanal 2679644 4545190 4455556 2639035 4507081 5272454 29.67 000122-78-1 Benzeneacetaldehyde 897454 598363 351012 7694030 2385308 31388120 34.09 000104-87-0 4-methyl-benzaldehyde 1002629 3081117 2321899 3993350 4696020 2772442 38.13 000124-19-6 Nonanal 2497759 4965938 3639839 3655781 4839487 6523909 45.36 000541-02-6 Decamethyl-cyclopentasiloxane * 7043653 a 5504069 ab 3859652 b 3432715 2529117 2488720 47.91 000112-40-3 Dodecane *** 2700456 b 4527594 a 3129102 b 3429945 3119206 3762966 48.46 000112-31-2 Decanal 478986623 554848800 396256751 382586783 549477916 467091436 52.34 003913-81-3 (E)-2-decenal 352945843 241858419 256274335 357654900 547888267 398323613 53.10 000112-30-1 1-decanol 41660112 22193927 33896351 43184261 19217630 18883137 55.64 000112-44-7 Undecanal 9055346 7657087 7329900 8459531 10682134 9770325 58.19 000540-97-6 Dodecamethyl-cyclohexasiloxane* 7020292 5678161 5198305 4576790 a 3454011 ab 2548619 b Compounds are listed in order of their elution from a HP-5MS column; RT (retention time in min): on a HP-5MS column. Means (n = 5) followed by the same superscripts in a row of same red light treatments (left part of the table, R20, R50, and R80) or blue light treatments (right part of the table, B20, B50, and B80) indicate significant differences (* p < 0.05 or *** p < 0.001) among control (R50+G50+B50) and light treatments. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Supplementary.doc Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-1639519","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":106605862,"identity":"13de1088-df38-4658-8880-584d2d6dc1a4","order_by":0,"name":"Hsin-Hung Lin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chinese Culture University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hsin-Hung","middleName":"","lastName":"Lin","suffix":""},{"id":106605863,"identity":"6c526b1e-5a5a-4424-93c1-a733587bb400","order_by":1,"name":"Kuan-Hung Lin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chinese Culture University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kuan-Hung","middleName":"","lastName":"Lin","suffix":""},{"id":106605864,"identity":"6604c36b-75c7-43e2-baba-b45cd5ac997c","order_by":2,"name":"Meei-Ju Yang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tea Research and Extension Station","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Meei-Ju","middleName":"","lastName":"Yang","suffix":""},{"id":106605865,"identity":"f13e1cd3-2c90-4dfe-bf75-085c5536e8e7","order_by":3,"name":"Hoang Chinh Nguyen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Deakin University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hoang","middleName":"Chinh","lastName":"Nguyen","suffix":""},{"id":106605866,"identity":"873f43d2-de73-417f-aeeb-e44a0dcdc64a","order_by":4,"name":"Huei-Ju Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chinese Culture University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Huei-Ju","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":106605867,"identity":"9e917135-9f10-4249-848b-e8b15e21c7ac","order_by":5,"name":"Han-Xuang Huang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chinese Culture University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Han-Xuang","middleName":"","lastName":"Huang","suffix":""},{"id":106605868,"identity":"6033d371-bc5d-4058-9ba2-41e3c88ed000","order_by":6,"name":"Meng-Yuan Huang","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAuUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAwYGxgcfGBgSQBwJYrUwG85AaDEgSgubMA9JWszFzpgx2+6wyzM4wHzwNg/Dn8QGQlosZ+eYPc49k1xscIAt2ZqHwYCwFoPbOebGuW0HEjcc4DGTBmrJJUaLmbQlWAv/NxK0MEJsYSNWS1qxYW9bcuLMw2zGlnMMjOuJ0JK88cHPNrvEvuPND2+8qZAzJqQDCDigUcEMNoEIDQwM7A+IUjYKRsEoGAUjGAAAzRE7jqcTAo4AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"National Chung Hsing University","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Meng-Yuan","middleName":"","lastName":"Huang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2022-05-09 20:14:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1639519/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1639519/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":21678824,"identity":"bfe1362b-29d3-4387-a53e-74db28ee01bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-05-19 17:51:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1722168,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of LED light quality (RL, GL, and BL) and intensity (0, 50, and 200 µmol m\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e-1 \u003c/sup\u003ephotosynthetic photon flux density) treatments on plant height (panels A, D), leaf area (panels B, E), and shoot fresh weight (panels C, F) of coriander plants at 45 days after sowing. There are five light quality treatments consisting of red light (RL), green light (GL), and blue light (BL) LED with different mixtures. The light treatments associated with the plant growth measurements presented from left to right were no RL (G50+B50), control (R50+G50+B50), high RL (R200+G50+B50), no BL (R50+G50), control (R50+G50+B50), and high BL (R50+G50+B200) treatments, respectively. Treatments were arranged in a completely randomized design with 3 replicates, and 10 plants from each light quality and intensity treatment were used for the plant growth measurements. Vertical bars indicate the standard deviation. The values followed by a different letter show statistically significant differences at \u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e0.05 (n = 10)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1639519/v1/e6781fc41bf900e9607a8ec2.jpeg"},{"id":21679428,"identity":"0030142b-bcdf-47ad-a623-fe6e33c2d8dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-05-19 17:56:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2076313,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of LED light quality (RL, GL, and BL) and intensity (0, 50, and 200 µmol m\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e-1 \u003c/sup\u003ephotosynthetic photon flux density) treatments on chlorophyll a (panels A, D), chlorophyll b (panels B, E), and chlorophyll a+b (panels C, F) of coriander plants at 45 days after sowing. There are five light quality treatments consisting of red light (RL), green light (GL), and blue light (BL) LED with different mixtures. The light treatments associated with the plant chlorophyll measurements presented from left to right were no RL (G50+B50), control (R50+G50+B50), high RL (R200+G50+B50), no BL (R50+G50), control (R50+G50+B50), and high BL (R50+G50+B200) treatments, respectively. Treatments were arranged in a completely randomized design with 3 replicates, and 10 plants from each light quality and intensity treatment were used for the plant chlorophyll measurements. Vertical bars indicate the standard deviation. The values followed by a different letter show statistically significant differences at \u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e0.05 (n = 10)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1639519/v1/c26260ffc65a7d52da9a4e50.jpeg"},{"id":21678825,"identity":"30fea67d-8373-4a96-bd68-93e83a50ba36","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-05-19 17:51:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1664410,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of LED light quality (RL, GL, and BL) and intensity (0, 50, and 200 µmol m\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e-1 \u003c/sup\u003ephotosynthetic photon flux density) treatments on carotenoid (panels A, C), and anthocyanin (panels B, D) of coriander plants at 45 days after sowing. There are five light quality treatments consisting of red light (RL), green light (GL), and blue light (BL) LED with different mixtures. The light treatments associated with the plant phytochemical measurements presented from left to right were no RL (G50+B50), control (R50+G50+B50), high RL (R200+G50+B50), no BL (R50+G50), control (R50+G50+B50), and high BL (R50+G50+B200) treatments, respectively. Treatments were arranged in a completely randomized design with 3 replicates, and 10 plants from each light quality and intensity treatment were used for the plant phytochemical measurements. Vertical bars indicate the standard deviation. The values followed by a different letter show statistically significant differences at \u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e0.05 (n = 10)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1639519/v1/adf31369c691686921f88163.jpeg"},{"id":21678829,"identity":"c1daf2b3-7609-404e-8ce1-6a1841c3444d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-05-19 17:51:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1668132,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of LED light quality (RL, GL, and BL) and intensity (0, 50, and 200 µmol m\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e-1 \u003c/sup\u003ephotosynthetic photon flux density) treatments on flavonoid (panels A, C), and phenolic acid (panels B, D) of coriander plants at 45 days after sowing. There are five light quality treatments consisting of red light (RL), green light (GL), and blue light (BL) LED with different mixtures. Light treatments associated with the antioxidant measurements presented from left to right were no RL (G50+B50), control (R50+G50+B50), high RL (R200+G50+B50), no BL (R50+G50), control (R50+G50+B50), and high BL (R50+G50+B200) treatments, respectively. Treatments were arranged in a completely randomized design with 3 replicates, and 10 plants from each light quality and intensity treatment were used for the plant antioxidant measurements. Vertical bars indicate the standard deviation. The values followed by a different letter show statistically significant differences at \u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e0.05 (n = 10)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1639519/v1/361c5419a903ae34e15c20ea.jpeg"},{"id":21678827,"identity":"1db6155c-644e-4012-9eb2-e661ea9b83e1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-05-19 17:51:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1897740,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of LED light quality (RL, GL, and BL) and intensity (0, 50, and 200 µmol m\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e-1 \u003c/sup\u003ephotosynthetic photon flux density) treatments on DPPH scavenging effect (panels A, D), reducing power (panels B, E), and Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003echelating effect (panels C, F) of coriander plants at 45 days after sowing. There are five light quality treatments consisting of red light (RL), green light (GL), and blue light (BL) LED with different mixtures. The light treatments associated with the plant antioxidant capacity measurements presented from left to right were no RL (G50+B50), control (R50+G50+B50), high RL (R200+G50+B50), no BL (R50+G50), control (R50+G50+B50), and high BL (R50+G50+B200) treatments, respectively. Treatments were arranged in a completely randomized design with 3 replicates, and 10 plants from each light quality and intensity treatment were used for the plant antioxidant capacity measurements. Vertical bars indicate the standard deviation. The values followed by a different letter show statistically significant differences at \u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e0.05 (n = 10)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1639519/v1/8fa4b5a74bcf4160f36c1a0d.jpeg"},{"id":22850843,"identity":"48835f7c-a6c4-4d3c-89b3-78d36ee04c59","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-06-20 14:59:38","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":635301,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1639519/v1/89dfe403-4641-4e1f-8825-a4f62fc919ea.pdf"},{"id":21679429,"identity":"585028b6-d26e-4798-8885-f2b95c43c3c9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-05-19 17:56:53","extension":"doc","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":111616,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementary.doc","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1639519/v1/580e316919d9168b834019ce.doc"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003ePhysiological responses and antioxidant properties of coriander plants (\u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum \u003c/em\u003eL.) under different light intensities of red and blue lights\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eCoriander (\u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e L.) is an aromatic and herbaceous annual crop in the family of Apiaceae. The fresh leaves and spice seeds of coriander are standard ingredients in many of the curry powders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, coriander plants are well-known for their medicinal, perfume, cosmetic, and secondary metabolic compounds, such as volatile components, flavonoids, linolenic acid, β-carotene, and phenolic compounds [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The essential oil and extracts from coriander plants provide promising antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant activities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. They are not only used to keep food from spoilage, but also treated as pharmaceutical uses, alternative medicine, and natural therapies treatments to help human against pathogen infections [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. There is an increasing interest in natural food additives, which can function as natural antioxidants, in addition to seasoning the foods. Various environmental factors not only influence the accumulation of photosynthetic pigments and phytochemicals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e], but also mediate antioxidant capacities in plant leaves. Among them, the light environment is one of the most significant factors influencing changes in plant growth, secondary metabolite accumulation, and physiological occurring in plants as they are exposed to varying light quality and intensity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, the optimization of light treatment is the first urgent task in maximizing the economic output of plant production and quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLights, especially blue light (BL) and red light (RL), are important environmental signals for various organisms of plants because they regulate plant developmental and physiologic processes though photoreceptors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], and play major roles in the action spectra for energy sources of photosynthetic CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e assimilation that can provide great impacts on plant growth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Light-emitting diodes (LED) are semiconductor device which can emit light with various wavelengths, and perform better energy efficiency and lower cost than high-pressure sodium lamps. LED technology provides possible solutions for more sustainable greenhouse production not only it reduces carbon footprint of the individual light photon but plants are highly responsive to changes in light quality and intensity. The output light intensity and wavelengths from LED device can be selected to maximize the crop yield and the accumulation of antioxidants and overcome the stress conditions as well. Verma et al. (2018) indicated that the mixture of RL and BL (4:1) LED lights significantly increased the leaf number, root length, leaf width, stomata width, leaf area, and the fresh and dry weights of leaf and root of foxglove (\u003cem\u003eDigitalis purpurea\u003c/em\u003e) compared to RL or BL alone, and fluorescent lamp treatments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. The quercetin 3-rutinoside (rutin) is a tomato natural flavonoid, and the applications of rutin can increase plant growth, photosynthesis, and fruit quality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Groher et al. (2019) also reported that the concentrations of rutin in tomato leaves was increased by RL:BL (4:1) LED when grown in the greenhouses [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Loughrin and Kasperbauer (2001) revealed that the basil (\u003cem\u003eOcimum basilicum\u003c/em\u003e) leaf size, aroma, and the soluble phenolics and antioxidants concentrations were affected by light quality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Taulavuori et al. (2018) showed that the production of basil phenolic acids was increased when plants were treated with extra BL which supplied with traditional high-pressure sodium lamps [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Bantis et al. (2016) also illustrated that the growth characteristics and total phenolic content of basil cultivars were affected by different LED light treatments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Naznin et al. (2016) stated that the coriander (\u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e L.) plant could yield the highest biomass when exposed to RL:BL (10:1) LED, and could accumulate highest antioxidant activity when exposed to RL:BL (5:1) LED [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, the growth of coriander plants was affected by interaction between root-zone temperature (RZT) and photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), and that the combination of RZT at 25\u0026deg;C and PPFD at 300 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e gave the greatest plant growth, but total phenolic concentrations and the antioxidant capacity of the coriander plant were greatest under the combination of 300 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 30\u0026deg;C compared to control [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Bian et al. (2018) reported that the spectra of green light (GL) could induce different responses of morphogenesis and photosynthesis in lettuce (\u003cem\u003eLactuca sativa\u003c/em\u003e L.) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. The GL not only enhanced the photosynthetic capacity including increasing the efficiency of net photosynthetic rates, maximal photochemical efficiency, and electron transport for carbon fixation and chlorophylls (Chl) content, but also reduced the accumulation of malondialdehyde and H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e contents though increasing the superoxide dismutase (SOD) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activities. Moreover, Lanoue et al. (2018) suggested that when designing lighting systems for optimizing leaf strength during plant production, the addition of GL LED to the traditionally used RL and BL LED should be considered and tested in environmentally controlled systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecently, we illustrated that a RL:BL:GL LED ratio of 4:1:1 treatment resulted in many positive effects on the growth, development, and appearance of basil plants (\u003cem\u003eOcimum basilicum\u003c/em\u003e) compared to 2:1:1 or 1:1:1 treatment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Light treatments significantly affected pigments and cultivars differently, in that purple and green basils displayed remarkably higher and lower pigment content under 2:1:1 and 1:1:1 treatment, respectively. In addition, we also reported that 40 PPFD of the BL caused greater accumulation of dry biomass and soluble sugars of the edible oyster mushrooms (\u003cem\u003eLentinus sajor-caju\u003c/em\u003e) than other BL intensities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, we found that the soluble sugar and nitrate contents in the lettuce plants (\u003cem\u003eLactuca sativa\u003c/em\u003e L.) grown under white broad-spectrum light (WL) supplied to an RL plus BL LED treatment were significantly higher and lower, respectively, compared to those under RL plus BL treatment. However, the Chl, carotenoids (Car), and soluble protein contents of lettuce leaves showed no significant differences among these treatments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Although light spectra have been used for studying the productivity and antioxidant properties of these plants, different mixtures of RL and BL LED under various light intensities for growing coriander plants remain unknown. In this study, we chose different proportions of RL and BL irradiation and supplement it with GL under different light intensities to identify the optimal light quality conditions for growing coriander to maximize production and antioxidant accumulation. The hypothesis of this study was that physiological response and antioxidant capacity of corianders would differ under RL, BL and GL LED of various intensities. The ultimate goal of the research was to develop a year-round production system for fresh, highly nutritious, economically feasible coriander plants produced in close proximity to the final retail market. An optimal strategy for regulating light quality and intensity will help in designing growth chambers and greenhouse light environments to obtain maximum economic benefits for coriander growers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003elant\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;growth and\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emorphological performances\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCoriander\u0026nbsp;RV-164\u0026nbsp;plant\u0026nbsp;is a\u0026nbsp;popular variety\u0026nbsp;grown in Taiwan\u0026nbsp;for consumption\u0026nbsp;as\u0026nbsp;fresh vegetables.\u0026nbsp;To study the effects of light treatments of coriander plants were monitored by measurements of changes in the growth parameters (plant height, LA, and shoot FW),\u0026nbsp;showing distinct growth responses to different light quality and light intensity treatments (Fig. 1). All\u0026nbsp;plant height parameters of coriander\u0026nbsp;grown under high RL and high BL lightings under 200\u0026nbsp;\u0026mu;mol m\u003csup\u003e-2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003ePPFD had\u0026nbsp;significantly smaller values (10.8 and 13.7 cm, respectively) than those under\u0026nbsp;other light treatments (19.7~20.5 cm). Furthermore, LA values of all\u0026nbsp;coriander plants\u0026nbsp;were significantly larger when grown under control conditions (31.9 and 29.8 cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) compared to other treatments (16.0 ~ 24.3 cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e). The shoot FW\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;all\u0026nbsp;coriander plants\u0026nbsp;was significantly\u0026nbsp;lower in\u0026nbsp;no RL and no BL lightings\u0026nbsp;(18.9 and 16.5 g, respectively)\u0026nbsp;than in other treatments (45.6 ~56.1 g), indicating that shoot\u0026nbsp;FW\u0026nbsp;in coriander was reduced in the absence of RL and BL\u0026nbsp;treatments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChl and phytochemical\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eontent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003es\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eof\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eoriander\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;plant\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Chl and phytochemical content of coriander plants cultured under mixtures of RL, BL and GL LED of various light intensities are shown in Figs. 2, 3, and 4. The leaf Chl a, b, and a+b contents in plants grown under control conditions were highest (Fig. 2), in comparison with other treatments. Chl a, b, and a+b values observed under control conditions were 12,378 (Fig. 2A), 3,885 (Fig. 2B), and 14,718 (Fig. 2C)\u0026nbsp;\u0026mu;g g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e DW, respectively.\u0026nbsp;The same trend was also observed in the BL treatment group (Figs. 2D, E, and F). Significantly lower\u0026nbsp;levels of\u0026nbsp;all Chl contents\u0026nbsp;in\u0026nbsp;leaves\u0026nbsp;were found when plants\u0026nbsp;were\u0026nbsp;grown under high light intensity compared to the control and low light intensity treatment.\u0026nbsp;However, no significant differences were observed in all Chl contents among control, no RL (Figs. 2A, B, and C), and no BL (Figs. 2D, E, and F) of light spectra\u0026nbsp;under low light intensity.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;3\u0026nbsp;presents Car\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;Ant content of\u0026nbsp;coriander\u0026nbsp;plant\u0026nbsp;leaf extracts.\u0026nbsp;All phytochemical\u0026nbsp;pigment\u0026nbsp;contents\u0026nbsp;in\u0026nbsp;high PPFD treatment\u0026nbsp;with high RL (Figs. 3A, B) and high BL (Figs. 3C, D)\u0026nbsp;were significantly\u0026nbsp;lower than in\u0026nbsp;control and other light treatments, with the exception that\u0026nbsp;no significant differences were observed in Ant contents between\u0026nbsp;no BL by low PPFD (164.4\u0026nbsp;\u0026mu;mol g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e DW) and high BL by high PPFD(150.1\u0026nbsp;\u0026mu;mol g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e DW) treatments\u0026nbsp;(Fig. 3D).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFig. 4 demonstrates that coriander\u0026nbsp;plants under high PPFD with high RL or high BL\u0026nbsp;contained significantly\u0026nbsp;higher\u0026nbsp;levels of Fla\u0026nbsp;(Fig. 4C)\u0026nbsp;and Pha (Figs. 4B, D) compared\u0026nbsp;to controls and other treatments, whereas\u0026nbsp;Fla\u0026nbsp;levels\u0026nbsp;under high PPFD\u0026nbsp;with\u0026nbsp;high R light were\u0026nbsp;significantly lower\u0026nbsp;than that under control and\u0026nbsp;no R\u0026nbsp;lights at low PPFD (Fig. 4A).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAntioxidant\u0026nbsp;properties\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;coriander\u0026nbsp;plant\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorianders are\u0026nbsp;herbaceous plants\u0026nbsp;providing nutraceutical products\u0026nbsp;with antioxidant properties.\u0026nbsp;The DPPH\u0026nbsp;free radical scavenging\u0026nbsp;assay was used to determine the antioxidant activity of plant extracts. Significantly higher DPPH scavenging effect was observed in those plants cultured under high RL (87.5%) and high BL (87.9%) at high PPFD than in plants receiving\u0026nbsp;no RL\u0026nbsp;(86.2%) and\u0026nbsp;no BL\u0026nbsp;(71.5%) at low PPFD (Figs. 5A, D).\u0026nbsp;However, differences in the\u0026nbsp;DPPH scavenging effect\u0026nbsp;observed between the no RL\u0026nbsp;treatment and the control (Fig. 5A) and between the control and the high BL treatment (Fig. 5D) were not significant.\u0026nbsp;The\u0026nbsp;levels of\u0026nbsp;reducing power\u0026nbsp;in\u0026nbsp;coriander\u0026nbsp;leaves\u0026nbsp;were significantly higher in the\u0026nbsp;controls than in the\u0026nbsp;no RL\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;no BL\u0026nbsp;treatments\u0026nbsp;at low PPFD\u0026nbsp;(Figs.\u0026nbsp;5B, E).\u0026nbsp;In addition, the reduction power was about 2.73 times higher in plants under high BL at high PPFD than in the plants under\u0026nbsp;no RL\u0026nbsp;at low PPFD\u0026nbsp;(Fig.\u0026nbsp;5E). Figure 5C shows that plants cultured under control conditions had significantly higher\u0026nbsp;Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e chelating effect (73.9%) than plants cultured under other light treatments (44.7% and 55.6%), whereas plants cultured under control conditions had significant lower\u0026nbsp;Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e chelating effect (42.2%) than those under high BL (58.6%) at high PPFD (Fig. 5F).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChemical composition of\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003esecondary metabolite accumulation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ein\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eoriander\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eleaf\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 30 compounds were detected by GC-MS. Only the compounds\u0026nbsp;which appeared\u0026nbsp;in each of the 5\u0026nbsp;freeze-dried\u0026nbsp;replicated\u0026nbsp;plant\u0026nbsp;samples\u0026nbsp;processed,\u0026nbsp;and the average peak area (absorbance) of identified compound\u0026nbsp;accumulation performed for 160 min are shown in Table 1. A total of 15 compounds were also identified that occurred in\u0026nbsp;only one or two of the\u0026nbsp;5 plant samples, therefore, it is not possible to calculate the significant differences between light treatments for these compounds (Table S1). Notably,\u0026nbsp;\u0026beta;-cyclocitral (RT 48.946 min) was not detected in the R20+G50+B50, R50+G50+B20 light intensity and control\u0026nbsp;(Table S1). In Table 1,\u0026nbsp;among those 15 identified compounds, a large effect of decamethyl-cyclopentasiloxane (DCP), dodecane (DO), and dodecamethyl-cyclohexasiloxane (DOCP) content in coriander leaves was observed under various light treatments. The total peak area of DCP, DO, and DOCP isolated was identified after 45.36, 47.913, and 58.193 min extraction times, respectively. The area of DCP was significantly (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05) lower for plants receiving R80+G50+B50 light intensity (3,859,652) than for plants receiving R20+G50+B50 light intensity (7,043,653), whereas the area of DOCP was significantly (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05) lower under R50+G50+B80 light intensity (2,548,619) than under R20+G50+B50 light intensity (4,576,790). Moreover, both DCP and DOCP decreased with increasing in R light and B light intensity, respectively. However, significantly (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.001) higher DO area was observed in the control (4,527,594) compared to other light treatments. The areas of the rest of the detected compounds in\u0026nbsp;coriander\u0026nbsp;leaves did not show any significant differences among treatments, suggesting that light treatments did not influence the amounts of these 12 identified compounds, although some of them (\u003cem\u003eie\u003c/em\u003e., decanal, (E)-2-decenal, nonane, and 1-decanol) showed high absorbance area (\u0026gt; 2 x 10\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e) in most of light treatments.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eYorio et al. (2001) reported that lettuce plants grown under RL supplemented with BL allowed the plants accumulate higher biomass than grown under RL alone [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. The larger LA could increase the light interception, which contributed to the significant increase in biomass. Kim et al. (2004) demonstrated that BL:RL:GL (4:1:1) increased lettuce LA, which is a good parameter of higher photosynthetic surface area per unit investment in leaf tissue [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Although both RL and BL could promote stem elongation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], Kong et al. (2012) revealed that BL was more effective than RL in suppressing shoot/leaf elongation in a range of plant species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. When grown arugula (\u003cem\u003eBrassica eruca\u003c/em\u003e) and mustard (\u003cem\u003eBrassica juncea\u003c/em\u003e) plants under continuous BL (24-h light/0-h dark; PPFD from 20 to 650 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e), the lightings could promote hypocotyl and petiole elongation compared to continuous RL [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Wang et al. (2016) also found that when the lettuce photosynthetic performance and growth by stimulating morphological and physiological responses were promoted when plants exposed to BL (200 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e irradiance) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Hern\u0026aacute;ndez and Kubota (2016) reported that plant height, hypocotyl length, and epicotyl length of cucumber (\u003cem\u003eCucumis sativus\u003c/em\u003e) seedlings were reduced when they were exposed to an increased BL, except for the controls (0% and 100% BL treatments) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. When the spectral light changes, the morphogenetic and photosynthetic responses are vary among different plant species. A feasibility of tailoring light spectra enables recent plant cultivation technologies and controls the plant growth, development, and nutritional quality. In our study, the growth and morphological features of control-treated coriander plants exhibited a tall appearance, large leaves, and shoot FW, indicating good plant growth under control conditions. Therefore, growth and development in the coriander plant are dependent on the spectral quality of light, and the addition of RL or BL under high (200 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) and no (0 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) light intensity may have further decreased plant growth and development due to high light conditions. Perhaps the control conditions achieved a balanced spectral environment for plants without any supplemention of RL or BL at high or low light intensity. Light treatments affected biomass accumulation in the shoot of the coriander plant, and shoot FW accumulation was about 2.5\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;3.4 times higher for coriander plants under control, high RL, and high BL at high PPFD treatments, than for plants under no RL and no BL treatments at low PPFD. Coriander shoot biomass was reduced under low-PPFD treatments (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eC, F), suggesting that lowering PPFD might inhibit photosynthesis and carbohydrate production, thus reducing shoot biomass accumulation. Perhaps, plant height, LA, and shoot FW accumulation responses under different combinations of RL and BL lighting may vary among species of crops. Reductions in total coriander FW and LA suggest that light quality and intensity can alter growth, decrease mean weight, and lower market value. Plants raised under the control conditions appeared similar to high market value plants grown in greenhouses, whereas either extra RL or BL-treated plants under high or low light intensity can cause reductions in shoot fresh weight and/or plant size, lowering market value.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLight is an important environmental signal, inducing biosynthesis of photosynthetic pigments and phytochemicals. In this study, the peak emissions of RL, BL, and GL LED closely coincide with the absorption peaks of Chl a and b, and reported wavelengths are at their respective maximum photosynthetic efficiency. Chl has high light absorption at 400\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;500 and 630\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;680 nm, and Car has high light absorption at 400\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;500. Both Chl and Car have low light absorption at 530\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;610 nm. Hoffmann et al. (2016) demonstrated that BL induces the synthesis of Chl and Car [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], although Chen et al. (2014) reported that Car levels were not responsive to light quality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Tanaka et al. (1998) found that RL promoted \u003cem\u003eCymbidium\u003c/em\u003e leaf growth, but reduced Chl content. In the cucumber, a BL:RL ratio of 1:1 allows optimum leaf development, maximum photosynthesis, and Chl content [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. However, a 1:1 BL:RL ratio did not result in optimal basil growth when compared to any combination of the BL, RL, and GL wavelengths [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. In our study, Chl and phytochemical contents were reduced as RL or BL lighting was enhanced. It is possible that 200 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of RL or BL suppressed Chl, Car, and Ant synthesis in the coriander leaves. Perhaps, 200 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e PPFD reached a certain minimal PPFD at 50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, a level which is essential for the sufficient synthesis and activity of photosynthetic pigments and electron carriers. It would be interesting to test plant growth, Chl, and phytochemical contents under illumination by various monochromatic light spectra and combinations under a wide range of light intensities. This study provides deeper insight into the interception of light by photosynthetic and photo-protective phytochemicals as a function of light quality and intensity. This work enhances our understanding of plant biology, enabling the knowledge-driven selection of spectral lights for non-destructive Chl and phytochemical production in coriander plants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJohkan et al. (2010) reported that addition of BL in combination with RL induces the accumulation of antioxidative compounds in lettuce plants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, Son and Oh (2013) found that the ratio of 47% BL\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;53% RL LED under 171\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e was important for the morphology, growth, and antioxidative phenolic compounds in lettuce [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Wu et al. (2007) discovered that RL LED enhanced the accumulation of antioxidants in pea (\u003cem\u003ePisum sativum\u003c/em\u003e L.) seedlings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Similar results were reported by Bliznikas et al. (2012) and they revealed that supplemental RL increased antioxidant levels in parsley and dill plants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. De Souza et al. (2016) suggested that menthol mint (\u003cem\u003eMentha arvensis\u003c/em\u003e L.) plants grown under 137 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e PPFD had the lowest biomass, but produced an essential oil with high level of neomenthol, menthol, and methyl acetate, whereas plants under 543 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e PPFD had a high biomass and essential oil content, but lower levels of menthol [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Ghasemzadeh et al. (2010) stated that total phenolic content of ginger leaves was the highest when plants were grown under 790 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Though light treatments were very different, there were some tendencies that enabled an assessment of the underlying mechanisms of the effects observed. For example, Fla, Pha, DPPH scavenging effect, and reducing power increased with increases in PPFD under high RL or BL; thus Fla and Pha contents may be responsible for the antioxidant activity in coriander plants. The intensity of RL or BL increased from 0, 50, to 200 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e PPFD, and therefore any trend might be a response to RL or BL. Coriander plants had remarkably smaller plant height, LA, and Chl, Car, and Ant contents when treated with high RL or BL intensity. However, coriander plants grown under control conditions were taller, had larger leaves, and contained higher shoot FW, Chl, Car, and Ant contents. Different LED spectra are capable of triggering various morphological, phytochemical reactions, and antioxidant properties. Decreases in plant height and LA in coriander plants under higher RL or BL levels were the result of lowered Chl (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), Car, and Ant contents (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), but greater Fla and Pha levels (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eB-D), DPPH scavenging, reducing power, and chelating effect (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA, B, D, E, and F) when these plants were subjected to high PPFD. These results suggest that stronger BL intensity might better penetrate the plant canopy than weaker BL intensity, rendering higher levels of Fla, Pha, DPPH scavenging effect, reducing power, and chelating effect. Coriander leaves appear to be sensitive to higher RL or BL intensity, which caused serious photoinhibition and photodamage, avoidance of excessive energy absorption in response to higher photosynthesis photochemical efficiencies, ultimately leading to lower plant height and LA in comparison to controls. However, the response of higher Fla, Pha, DPPH scavenging, reducing power, and chelating effect values was related to lower Chl and Ant contents of coriander plants under higher RL or BL intensity treatment. Protective mechanisms in coriander plants should prevent its leaves from excessive reduction in PSII acceptors. The assessment of Chl, Car, and Ant parameters under varying light quality and intensity is an important tool for understanding how to improve the photosynthetic productivity of plants. The application of light quality and intensity could beneficially influence growth, Chl, Car, and Ant contents in mature coriander plants, and properly selected RL plus BL LED could be used to produce antioxidant-rich spice culture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eControlling light quality and intensity is effective in optimizing the yield and quality of coriander plants. Currently, there is little information available on the effect of light treatments on the accumulation of flavor compounds in coriander. Variations of the essential oil constituents in \u003cem\u003eC. sativum\u003c/em\u003e have been observed, depending on genetic and environmental factors as well as tissue part, ontogeny, and analytical methods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Several studies have shown that the major identified volatile compounds in essential oil of coriander leaves were 2-dodecenal, decanal, E-2-decenal, linalool, tetradecenal, 2-decen-1-ol, dodecan-1-ol, undecenal, dodecane, E-2-tridecenal, trans-tetradec-2-enal, E-2-hexadecenal, cyclodecane, menthone, pentadecenal, and pinene [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Shahwar et al. (2012) identified 27 and 21 compounds from coriander leaves and seeds, respectively. Among them, there were only 10 compounds from coriander leaves identified in our study as shown in Table S2, and the rest of compounds of coriander leaves under the light treatments were unique in our study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. Shahwar et al. (2012) reported that decenal is one of the major volatile compounds identified in coriander leaves, and is an essential oil that produces the oily, sweet, or grassy odor of the plant [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. Liu et al. (2012) also indicated that decenal had antioxidant activity and inhibitory of bactericidal effects on the microorganisms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Sankhuan et al. (2022) statted that \u003cem\u003eArtemisia annua\u003c/em\u003e plants grown under blue spectra at 445 nm had higher leaf fresh weight, increased amounts of artemisinin, and enhanced production of several terpenoids against the malarial parasite \u003cem\u003ePlasmodium falciparum\u003c/em\u003e NF54, whereas red spectrum at 660 nm led to decreased production of bioactive compounds and decreasing anti-malarial activity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. In our study, decanal in leaves was found to have the highest compound area (554,848,800, RT 48.46 min), whereas area of decanal ranked 14th in their coriander leaves. However, high RL led to significantly diminished productions of decenal compared with other light treatments. The antioxidant activity and the inhibitory of bactericidal function of octanal have been reported by Liu et al. (2012) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. In our study, plants grown under low BL exhibited significantly decreases in the amounts of decenal, suggesting that coriander plants growth under high RL or low BL condition would decrease the bactericidal compounds. Interestingly, (E)-2-decenal was the second highest compound area (241,858,419, RT 52.34 min) identified in our study, but it was the highest compound area detected in their coriander leaves. Apparently, both decenal and (E)-2-decenal can be useful for the production of essential oil from coriander leaves. Naidu and Priyadarshi (2019) also revealed that the most common compounds identified by GC-MS in two popular varieties of \u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e were decanal, 2-decenal, undecanal, dodecanal, E-2-dodecenal, E-2-tridecenal, tetradecanal, E-9-tetradecenal, 7-hexadecenal, and n-hexadecanoic acid. The cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is an enzyme responsible for formation of prostanoids, and pharmaceutical inhibition of COX-2 can provide relief from the symptoms of inflammation and pain [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. Dodecane has been isolated from the essential oils of various plants including ginger (\u003cem\u003eZingiber officinale\u003c/em\u003e) with strong inhibitory effects on COX-2 enzyme activity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. Our results show that there has been a significant decrease in the amounts of dodecane, the levels of antioxidants, Chl, Car, Ant, and Fla, and the plant heights as well when the plants grown under high RL conditions, implying that antibacterial effectiveness and economic efficiency of the metabolites production may not be maximized by the management of light treatment under high RL conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn our study, among 15 identified compounds (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), the highest compound of DCP, DO, and DOCP was detected in low RL, control, and low BL treatments, respectively, suggesting that coriander plants responding to light treatment with a low intensity of RL or BL exhibited an enhanced accumulation of both DCP and DOCP in cells. Since both DCP and DOCP metabolism in coriander leaves are more sensitive to light intensity than DO metabolism, the biosynthesis of DCP and DOCP in coriander leaves can be optimally activated by applying such light stimuli. Thus, an understanding of the effects of the light treatments upon the content of DCP, DO, and DCP compounds in coriander plants is an important aspect of the strategic implementation of their production and culinary and clinical applications. Differing responses in Chl, Car, Ant, antioxidants, and metabolite accumulations for optimizing plant growth and development in a controlled-climate setting are dependent upon various light quality and intensity culture systems, which may be used to satisfy commercial requirements for rapid, large-scale, and precise management of coriander plant production. Various growth-regulating strategies can be carefully chosen to produce the desired features of coriander for use as cooking materials, raw materials, or medicinal materials.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe investigated the effective light treatments for growing coriander plants, and found that various light quality and intensity combinations influenced the accumulations of Chl, Car, Ant, Fla, and Pha, and mediated antioxidative properties and secondary metabolites in coriander leaves. In agricultural production, yields and costs are the two most important criteria in efforts to optimize environmental factors. The control resulted in many positive effects on the growth, development, and appearance of coriander plants, and increases of Chl, Car, Ant contents, suggesting that control treatment (R50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B50) with 50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e PPFD of RL, BL and GL is optimal for the coriander plants. In contrast, high BL (R50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B200) with 200 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e PPFD of BL induced Fla, Pha, DPPH scavenging effect, reducing power, and chelating effect responses. Furthermore, the accumulation of DCP and DOCP was detected in low RL (R20\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B50) and low BL (R50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B20) with 20 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e PPFD of RL and BL, respectively. These results can be useful in developing a new LED lighting apparatus optimized for coriander production in plant factories, and may also benefit fundamental research, providing a better understanding of the photosynthetic characteristics and commercial applications of food production.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials And Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePlant material and cultural practice\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe seeds of the coriander plant (\u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e, cv. RV-164) were purchased from Known-You seed company (Kaoshiung, Taiwan). The coriander seeds were germinated in hydroponic condition with rockwool cubes (2.5 cm \u0026times; 2.5 cm \u0026times; 3.0 cm) for 1 week in a 25\u0026deg;C growth chamber. The seedlings were illuminated with cool white fluorescent lamps (light intensity of 10 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e PPFD) 12 h per day. When the plant height reached 1 cm, they were transferred into polystyrene foam cubes, mounted in Styrofoam plates (eight holes per plate) and placed in a container (105 cm \u0026times; 60 cm \u0026times; 9 cm). The aerated complete nutrient solution [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e] was supplied continuously in a commercial hydroponic growth room (Nano-Bio Light Technology Co., LTD., New Taipei, Taiwan). The nutrient solution was renewed every week and adjusted to pH 6.5-7.0 and an electrical conductivity of 2\u0026ndash;3 mS cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. All treatments were maintained throughout the experiment at a temperature of 25\u0026deg;C, a 12 h daily photoperiod, and 75% relative humidity in the growth chamber.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLight treatments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLight quality treatments for coriander seedling growth in the above mentioned hydroponic system consisted of five following commercially available mixtures of LED arrays designed by Hi-Point Technology (Kaoshiung, Taiwan):\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1) GL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;BL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) as no RL treatment (short as G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B50),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2) RL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;GL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;BL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) as control treatment, (short as R50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B50),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3) RL (200 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;GL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;BL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) as high RL treatment (short as R200\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B50),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(4) RL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;GL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) as no BL treatment (short as R50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50), and\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(5) RL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003es\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;GL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;BL (200 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) as high BL treatment (short as R50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B200).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach light quality was run in a growth room under the light intensity of 0, 50 (control), and 200 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e PPFD which was measured daily above the plant canopy and maintained by adjusting the distance of the LED to the plant canopy. Spectral distributions of BL (with a peak at 460 nm), RL (at 625 nm), and GL (at 530 nm) were measured with a spectral radiometer (Hi-Point Technology, Kaoshiung, Taiwan) in the 300\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;800-nm range. The lamp\u0026rsquo;s luminous area was 120 \u0026times; 60 cm, and the lamp contained BL, RL and GL LED with 30 pieces in each LED color, and the spectrum was recorded at the top of the coriander packs. All treatments were maintained at a constant 25\u0026deg;C with a 12/12-h light/dark photoperiod and were procured on January 2020. Plants were harvested 45 d after sowing. Shoot samples were freeze-dried in a vacuum freeze dryer (LabConco, Tokyo, Japan) and ground into a powder with a mortar and pestle before extraction and antioxidant analysis. Twenty coriander plants were randomly planted under each light source with a light intensity, and 5 plants from each light treatment were used for the following growth and physiological parameter measurements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePlant growth measurements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant height (cm) was measured from the base of the plant to the top of the stem with a Vernier caliper. The shoot fresh weight (FW, g) was measured with an electronic balance. The leaf area (LA, cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) was measured by an LA meter (LI-3100, LI-COR, Lincoln, NE, USA).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDetermination of pigments, phyotochemicals, and antioxidant activities\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe concentrations of Chl and Car in coriander leaves were determined as described [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. In Brief, leaf sample powder (0.01 g) was mixed with 80% acetone (5 mL) and incubated at 4\u0026deg;C overnight, and was centrifugation at 13,000 \u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e for 5 min. The supernatants were transferred to a new tube, and then used to determine the Chl a and Chl b absorbance in acetone at 663.6 nm and 646.6 nm, respectively, using a spectrophotometer (Hitachi U-2000, Tokyo, Japan). Following equations were used to calculate the Chl a, Chl b, Chl a\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;b, and Car concentrations:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChl a concentration= (12.25 A\u003csub\u003e663.6\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.55 A\u003csub\u003e646.6\u003c/sub\u003e) \u0026times; volume of supernatant (mL) / sample weight (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChl b concentration = (20.31 A\u003csub\u003e646.6\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4.91 A\u003csub\u003e663.6\u003c/sub\u003e) \u0026times; volume of supernatant (mL) / sample weight (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChl a\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;b concentration = (17.76 A\u003csub\u003e646.6\u003c/sub\u003e + 7.34 A\u003csub\u003e663.6\u003c/sub\u003e) \u0026times; volume of supernatant (mL) / sample weight (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCar concentration = [(4.69 A\u003csub\u003e440.5\u003c/sub\u003e) \u0026times; volume of supernatant (mL) / sample weight (g)] \u0026ndash; 0.267 (Chl a\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;b)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe anthocyanin (Ant) concentrations of extracts were measured as described by Chen et al. (2014) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The extraction buffer (99% methanol containing 1% HCl) was added to leaf sample powder and incubated at room temperature for 1 h. The mixture was then centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 5 min (4\u0026deg;C), and the supernatant was transferred to a new tube, followed by measuring absorbances at 530 nm and 657 nm on a spectrophotometer (Hitachi U-2000, Tokyo, Japan). Following equation was used to calculate the Ant concentration: Ant concentration (\u0026micro;mol\u0026middot;g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e DW) = (A\u003csub\u003e530\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.33 \u0026times; A\u003csub\u003e657\u003c/sub\u003e / 31.6) \u0026times; volume of supernatant (mL) / sample weight (g).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe total phenolic acid (Pha) concentrations of extracts were determined as described by Bantis et al. (2016) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. In short, gallic acid standard (Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA) and an aliquot of the acidic methanolic extract were diluted with acidified methanol solution containing 1% HCl. The sample extracts (100 \u0026micro;l) were mixed with 2% Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (2 mL) and allowed to equilibrate for 2 min before adding 50% Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, and measured the absorbance at 750 nm using the Varioskan Flash Multimode Reader (Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal flavonoids (Fla) in extracts were determined by the method of Lin et al. (2021) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. One mL of methanol extract (0.5 mg\u0026middot;mL\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) was mixed with 1 mL aluminum chloride (2%). The mixture was mixed gently at room temperature for 15 min, and the absorbance at 540 nm was collected with a spectrophotometer (Hitachi U-2000, Tokyo, Japan).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe free 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging ability was measured using protocols described by Huang et al. (2017) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Briefly, the powder of lyophilized coriander leaf sample (0.01 g) was extracted with of 40% ethanol (5 mL) at room temperature, and then filtered with Whatman filter paper (No. 1). The remaining residue was re-extracted three times with 40% ethanol until the residue was colorless. An aliquot of the ethanolic extract (0.05 mL) with a serial dilution was added to a 0.4 mM DPPH solution (0.15 mL). The mixture was mixed and kept in dark for 90 min. The color of mixture was changed from purple (DPPH radical) to yellow (DPPH-H) after reduction, which can be quantified by a decrease in absorbance at 517 nm. Following equation was used to calculate the radical-scavenging activity of total free radicals: Scavenging activity (%) = [(absorbance of a blank DPPH solution - absorbance of a sample) / (absorbance of a blank DPPH solution)] \u0026times; 100. The blank was conducted in the same manner, except that ethanol was used instead of a sample, and 40% ethanol was used as the blank. The scavenging effect was obtained by plotting the percentage of residual DPPH at steady state as a function of the antioxidant concentration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe reducing properties of a serial dilution of the extract were determined using protocols described by Huang et al. (2017) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. In brief, the ethanolic extract (0.05 mL) was mixed with 0.2 M sodium phosphate buffer pH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.6 (0.05 mL) and 1% potassium ferrocyanide (0.033 mL), and incubated at 50\u0026deg;C for 20 min. Then, 10% trichloroacetic acid (0.05 mL) was added to the mixture, and centrifuged at 1,500 \u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e for 10 min. Supernatant (0.1 mL) was transferred to a new tube and added distilled-deionized water (0.1 mL) and 0.1% ferric chloride (0.02 mL). After 10 min, the absorbance at 700 nm was measured against a blank. Following equation was used to calculate the reduction capacity:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReduction capacity\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;sample of A700 - blank of A700.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ferrous iron-chelating ability was determined using protocols described by Huang et al. (2017) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. In short, the ethanolic extract (1 mL) was added to 80% methanol (3.7 mL) containing 100 \u0026micro;l of 2 mM FeCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e‧4H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO, mixed for 30 s, and then added 5 mM ferrozine solution (200 \u0026micro;l). After 10 min at room temperature, the absorbance of the sample mixture was determined at 562 nm against a blank.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAnalysis of secondary metabolite compounds of coriander leaves\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis experiment was conducted in the same culture practice as described above in \u0026ldquo;Plant material and cultural practice\u0026rdquo;, and was procured on November 2020. However, light quality and intensity treatments were adjusted to lower than the above-mentioned light treatments (\u0026ldquo;Light treatments\u0026rdquo;) for improved coriander plant growth and development, because we observed that high RL and BL intensity treatments at 200 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and no RL and BL intensity treatments had adversely affect coriander growth and development. Thus, the light treatments in this experiment were following:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1) RL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;GL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;BL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) as control treatment (short as R50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B50),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2) RL (20 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;GL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;BL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) as low RL treatment (short as R20\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B50),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3) RL (80 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;GL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;BL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) as high RL treatment (short as R80\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B50),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(4) RL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;GL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;BL (20 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) as low BL treatment (short as R50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B20), and\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(5) RL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;GL (50 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;BL (80 \u0026micro;mol m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) as high BL treatment (short as R50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B80).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlants were harvested 45 d after sowing. Five replicates of plants were randomly selected from each light treatment and used for the chemical composition of coriander leaves.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeaf samples were freeze-dried and ground into fine powder by mortar and pestle. The grounded leaf powder (0.1 g) was then transferred to a 10 mL glass vial, sealed, and heated to 60\u0026deg;C. The extraction of volatile compounds was performed by a commercial SPME (Solid Phase Micro-Extraction) device (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA), using fibers of 50/30 \u0026micro;m thickness, divinylbenzene/carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (DVB/CAR/PDMS). Before the SPME fiber was inserted into the vial, the sample was equilibrated for 15 min at the extraction temperature of 60\u0026deg;C. Prior to analysis, the SPME fiber was preconditioned in the injection port of the gas chromatograph at the 250\u0026deg;C. This temperature was the same as that set for the injection port of the gas chromatograph during desorption. Analyses were performed using Agilent 6890 / Agilent 5975B (Agilent, Paolo Alto, CA, USA) gas chromatography/mass spectrometric (GC-MS) analyses, fused HP-5MS column (30 m x 0.25 mm; 0.25 \u0026micro;m film thickness). Helium was used as carrier gas at a flow rate of 1 mL/min. The MS operating parameters consisted of an ionization voltage of 70 eV and an ion source temperature of 230\u0026deg;C. The column temperature was 35\u0026deg;C (5 min) to 180\u0026deg;C (10 min) at the rate of 1\u0026deg;C/min. Compound identification was accomplished by comparing the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) library data of the peaks with those reported in the literature. All extractions were performed for 160 min, and peak areas of identified compound accumulation were expressed in area (absorbance). All compounds were identified by comparison of their chromatographic parameters and mass spectra with authentic standards.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe collected measurements including morphological and physiological parameters, antioxidant capacity, and chemical composition were analyzed by a completely randomized analysis of variance (ANOVA). The PC SAS ver. 9 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA) was used to analyzed the collected measurements here. The means were separated by the least significant difference (LSD) test at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05 and the results were expressed as the mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation (SD).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of Data and Material (ADM)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and/or its supplementary materials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eH.H. Lin and\u0026nbsp;K.H. Lin wrote the paper.\u0026nbsp;M.Y. Huang conceived and designed the experiments. M.J.\u0026nbsp;Yang and H.C.\u0026nbsp;Nguyen performed the experiment.\u0026nbsp;H.J.\u0026nbsp;Wang and\u0026nbsp;H.X.\u0026nbsp;Huang analyzed the data. All authors approved the final manuscript\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;agreed to the publication of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgment\u003c/strong\u003e: This work was financially supported in part by the \u0026ldquo;Innovation and Development Center of Sustainable Agriculture\u0026rdquo; from the Featured Areas Research Center Program within the Higher Education Sprout Project by the Ministry of Education (MOE) of Taiwan and by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) in Taiwan [grant numbers MOST\u0026ndash;108-2621-B-034 -002; MOST\u0026ndash;110-2313-B-034-001].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch involving plants: We confirm that all methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations by including a statement in the Methods section to this effect. Experimental research on plants, including the collection of plant material, complies with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor details\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eDepartment of Horticulture and Biotechnology, Chinese Culture University, Taipei 11114, Taiwan.\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e Tea Research and Extension Station, Yangmei, Taoyuan City 326011, Taiwan.\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3216, Australia.\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e Department of Applied Science of Living, Chinese Culture University, Taipei 11114, Taiwan.\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e Department of Life Sciences and Innovation and Development Center of Sustainable Agriculture, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 40227, Taiwan.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSahib NG, Anwar F, Gilani AH, Hamid AA, Saari N, Alkharfy KM. Coriander (\u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e L.): A potential source of highvalue components for functional foods and nutraceuticals-A review. Phytotherapy Res. 2013; 27: 1439\u0026ndash;1456.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePriyadarshi S, Harohally NV, Roopavathi C, Naidu MM. Isolation, identification, structural elucidation and bioactivity of Heneicos-1-ene from \u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e L. foliage. Sci Rep. 2018; 8:1\u0026ndash;6.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMandal S, Mandal M. Coriander (\u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e L.) essential oil: Chemistry and biological activity. Asian Pacific J.Tropical Biomed. 2015; 5: 421\u0026ndash;428.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBogavac M, Karaman M, Janjušević L, Sudji J, Radovanović B, Novaković Z, Simeunović J, Božin B. Alternative treatment of vaginal infections \u0026ndash; in vitro antimicrobial and toxic effects of Coriandrum sativum L. and Thymus vulgaris L. essential oils. J Appl Microbiol. 2015; 119: 697\u0026ndash;710.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLin KH, Huang MY, Huang W. D, Hsu MH, Yang ZW, Yang CM. The effects of red, blue, and white light-emitting diodes on the growth, development, and edible quality of hydroponically grown lettuce (\u003cem\u003eLactuca sativa\u003c/em\u003e L. \u003cem\u003evar. capitata\u003c/em\u003e). Sci Horti. 2013; 150: 86\u0026ndash;91.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLin KH, Huang MY, Hsu MH. Morphological and physiological response in green and purple basil plants (\u003cem\u003eOcimum basilicum\u003c/em\u003e) under different proportions of red, green, and blue LED lightings. Sci Hortic. 2021; 275: 109677.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCasson SA, Hetherington AM. Phytochrome B is required for light-mediated systemic control of stomatal development. Current Biol. 2014; 24: 1216\u0026ndash;1221.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKasajima SY, Inoue N, Mahmud R, Kato M. Developmental responses of wheat cv. Norin 61 to fluence rate of green light. Plant Production Sci. 2008; 11: 76\u0026ndash;81.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVerma SK, Gantait S, Jeong BR, Hwang SJ. Enhanced growth and cardenolides production in \u003cem\u003eDigitalis purpurea\u003c/em\u003e under the influence of different LED exposures in the plant factory. Sci Rep. 2018; 8: 18009.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGornia PH, Limaa GR, Pereiraa LMO, Sperab KD, Lapazc AM, Pacheco AC. Increasing plant performance, fruit production and nutritional value of tomato through foliar applied rutin. Sci Horti. 2022; 294: 110755.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGroher T, R\u0026ouml;hlen-Schmittgen S, Fiebig A, Noga G, Hunsche M. Influence of supplementary LED lighting on physiological and biochemical parameters of tomato (\u003cem\u003eSolanum lycopersicum\u003c/em\u003e L.) leaves. Sci Horti. 2019; 250: 154\u0026ndash;158.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLoughrin JH, Kasperbauer MJ. Light reflected from colored mulches affects aroma and phenol content of sweet basil (\u003cem\u003eOcimum basilicum\u003c/em\u003e L.) leaves. J Agric Food Chem. 2001; 49: 1331\u0026ndash;1335.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTaulavuori K, Pyysalo A, Taulavuori E, Julkunen-Tiitto R. Responses of phenolic acid and flavonoid synthesis to blue and blue-violet light depends on plant species. Enviro Experi Bot. 2018; 150: 183\u0026ndash;187.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBantis F, Theoharis O, Kalliopi R. Artificial LED lighting enhances growth characteristics and total phenolic content of \u003cem\u003eOcimum basilicum\u003c/em\u003e, but variably affects transplant success. Sci Horti. 2016; 198: 277\u0026ndash;283.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNaznin MT, Lefsrud M, Gravel V, Hao X. Different ratios of red and blue LED light effects on coriander productivity and antioxidant properties. Acta Horti. 2016; 1134: 223\u0026ndash;230.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNguyen DT, Lu N., Kagawa N, Takagaki M. Optimization of photosynthetic photon flux density and root-zone temperature for enhancing secondary metabolite accumulation and production of coriander in plant factory. Agron. 2019; 9: 224.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBian Z, Yang Q, Li T, Cheng R, Barnett Y, Lu C. Study of the beneficial effects of green light on lettuce grown under short-term continuous red and blue light‐emitting diodes. Physiol Plant. 2018; 164: 226\u0026ndash;240.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLanoue J, Leonardos ED, Grodzinski B. Effects of light quality and intensity on diurnal patterns and rates of photo-assimilate translocation and transpiration in tomato leaves. Front Plant Sci. 2018; 9: 756.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHuang MY, Lin K. H, Lu CC, Chen LR, Hsiung TC, Chang WT. The intensity of blue light-emitting diodes influences the antioxidant properties and sugar content of oyster mushrooms (\u003cem\u003eLentinus sajor-caju\u003c/em\u003e). Sci Horti. 2017; 218: 8\u0026ndash;13.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChen CC, Huang MY, Lin KH, Wong SL, Huang WD, Yang CM. Effects of light quality on the growth, development and metabolism of rice seedlings (\u003cem\u003eOryza sativa\u003c/em\u003e L.). Research J Biotech. 2014; 9: 15\u0026ndash;24.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYorio NC, Goins GD, Kagie HR, Wheeler RM, Sager JC. Improving spinach, radish, and lettuce growth under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with blue light supplementation. HortSci. 2001; 36: 380\u0026ndash;383.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKim HH, Goins GD, Wheeler RM, Sager JC. Green-light supplementation for enhanced lettuce growth under red-and blue-light-emitting diodes. HortSci. 2004; 39: 1617\u0026ndash;1622.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHuch\u0026eacute;-Th\u0026eacute;lier L, Crespel L, Le Gourrierec J, Morel P, Sakr S, Leduc N. Light signaling and plant responses to blue and UV radiations\u0026mdash;Perspectives for applications in horticulture. Enviro Experi Bot. 2016; 121: 22\u0026ndash;38.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKong Y, Wang S, Chen J, Chen Q, Yao Y. Effect of supplemental lighting with red and blue light on the characters of container-growing seedlings of muskmelon. Acta Horti. 2012; 944:141\u0026ndash;146.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJohnson RE., Kong Y., Zheng Y. Elongation growth mediated by blue light varies with light intensities and plant species: A comparison with red light in arugula and mustard seedlings. Environ Experi Bot. 2020; 169: 103898.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang J, Lu W, Tong Y, Yang Q. Leaf morphology, photosynthetic performance, chlorophyll fluorescence, stomatal development of lettuce (\u003cem\u003eLactuca sativa\u003c/em\u003e L.) exposed to different ratios of red light to blue light. Front. Plant Sci. 2016; 7: 250.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHern\u0026aacute;ndez R, Kubota C. Physiological responses of cucumber seedlings under different blue and red photon flux ratios using LEDs. Envir Experi Bot. 2016; 121: 66\u0026ndash;74.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHoffmann AM, Noga, G, Hunsche, M. High blue light improves acclimation and photosynthetic recovery of pepper plants exposed to UV stress. Enviro Experi Bot. 2015; 109: 254\u0026ndash;263.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTanaka M, Takamura T, Watanabe H, Endo M, Yanagi T, Okamoto K. \u003cem\u003eIn vitro\u003c/em\u003e growth of \u003cem\u003eCymbidium\u003c/em\u003e plantlets cultured under superbright red and blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs). J Hortic Sci Biotech. 1998; 73: 39\u0026ndash;44.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHogewoning SW, Trouwborst G, Maljaars H, Poorter H, van Ieperen W, Harbinson J. Blue light dose\u0026ndash;responses of leaf photosynthesis, morphology, and chemical composition of \u003cem\u003eCucumis sativus\u003c/em\u003e grown under different combinations of red and blue light. J Experi Bot. 2010; 61: 3107\u0026ndash;3117.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCarvalho SD, Schwieterman ML, Abrahan CE, Colquhoun TA, Folta KM. Light quality dependent changes in morphology, antioxidant capacity, and volatile production in sweet basil (\u003cem\u003eOcimum basilicum\u003c/em\u003e). Front Plant Sci. 2016; 7: 1328.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJohkan M, Shoji K, Goto F., Hashida S, Yoshihara T. Blue light-emitting diode light irradiation of seedlings improves seedling quality and growth after transplanting in red leaf lettuce. HortSci. 2010; 45: 1809\u0026ndash;1814.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSon KH, Oh MM. Leaf shape, growth, and antioxidant phenolic compounds of two lettuce cultivars grown under various combinations of blue and red light-emitting diodes. HortSci. 2013; 48: 988\u0026ndash;995.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWu MC, Hou CY, Jiang CM, Wang YT, Wang CY, Chen HH, Chang HM. A novel approach of LED light radiation improves the antioxidant activity of pea seedlings. Food Chem. 2007; 101: 1753\u0026ndash;1758.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBliznikas Z, Zukauskas A, Samuolien G, Viršil A, Brazaityt A, Jankauskien EJ. Effect of supplement arypre-harvest LED lighting on the antioxidant and nutritional properties of green vegetables. Acta Horti. 2012; 939: 85\u0026ndash;91.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDe Souza MA, Santos LA, Brito DM, Rocha JF, Castro RN, Fernandes MS, de Souza SR. Influence of light intensity on glandular trichome density, gene expression and essential oil of menthol mint (\u003cem\u003eMentha arvensis\u003c/em\u003e L.). J. Essential oil Res. 2016; 28: 138\u0026ndash;145.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGhasemzadeh A, Jaafar HZ, Rahmat A, Wahab PM, Halim MA. Effect of different light intensities on total phenolics and flavonoids synthesis and anti-oxidant activities in young ginger varieties (\u003cem\u003eZingiber officinale\u003c/em\u003e Roscoe). Int J Mol Sci. 2010; 11: 3885\u0026ndash;3897.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMohamed MA, Ibrahim ME, Wahba HE. Flavoring compounds of essential oil isolated from agriculture waste of coriander (\u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e) plant. J Mater Envir Sci. 2018; 9: 77\u0026ndash;82.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFreires IDA, Murata RM, Furletti VF, Sartoratto A, Alencar SMD, Figueira GM, de Oliveira Rodrigues JA, Duarte MCT, Rosalen PL. \u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e L.(coriander) essential oil: antifungal activity and mode of action on \u003cem\u003eCandida\u003c/em\u003e spp., and molecular targets affected in human whole-genome expression. PLoS One. 2014; 9: e99086.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFoudah AI, Alqarni MH, Alam A, Salkini MA, Ahmed EOI, Yusufoglu HS. Evaluation of the composition and in vitro antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities of Cilantro (\u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e L. leaves) cultivated in Saudi Arabia (Al-Kharj). Saudi J Biolo Sci. 2021; 28:3461\u0026ndash;3468.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShahwar MK, El-Ghorab AH, Anjum FM, Butt MS, Hussain S, Nadeem M. Characterization of coriander (\u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e L.) seeds and leaves: volatile and non volatile extracts. International J. Food Prop. 2012; 15:736\u0026ndash;747.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu K, Chen Q, Liu Y, Zhou X, Wang X. Isolation and Biological Activities of Decanal, Linalool, Valencene, and Octanal from Sweet Orange Oil. J Food Sci. 2012; 77: C1156-C1161.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSankhuan D, Niramolyanun G, Kangwanrangsan N, Nakano M, Supaibulwatana K. Variation in terpenoids in leaves of \u003cem\u003eArtemisia annua\u003c/em\u003e grown under different LED spectra resulting in diverse antimalarial activities against \u003cem\u003ePlasmodium falciparum\u003c/em\u003e. BMC Plant Biol. 2022; 22:128.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNaidu MM, Priyadarshi S. A comparative study on nutritional, fatty acids, carotenoids, aroma and antioxidative characteristics of Microcarpum DC and Vulgare alef varieties of coriander foliage. Indian J. Tradit Knowl. 2019; 18:458\u0026ndash;467.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTjendraputra E, Tran VH, Liu-Brennan D, Roufogalis BD, Duke CC. Effect of ginger constituents and synthetic analogues on cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme in intact cells. Bioorg Chem. 2001; 29: 156\u0026ndash;163.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1 \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe chemical composition of coriander leaf essential oil extracted from freeze-dried samples of 5 plants under different light treatments. All extractions were performed for 160 min, and peak areas of identified compound accumulations expressed as Area (Absorbance)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.2454361054766734%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.924949290060852%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.066937119675455%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.7443%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"6.592292089249493%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 17.3135%;\" width=\"27.789046653144016%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArea (Abs)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1.525%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"9.432048681541582%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 22.7051%;\" width=\"23.225152129817445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArea (Abs)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1.2708%;\" width=\"0.5070993914807302%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRT (min)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCAS number\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompound\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003elow RL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR20+G50+B50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econtrol R50+G50+B50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehigh RL \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;R80+G50+B50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003elow BL R50+G50+B20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econtrol R50+G50+B50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehigh BL R50+G50+B80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000590-86-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3-methyl-butanal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e417712\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e496656\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e505004\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e322524\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e577978\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e490458\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000096-17-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2-methyl-butanal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e513256\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e669757\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e606179\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e435397\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e811413\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e643676\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000111-84-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNonane\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13201407\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24372208\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28796604\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13646800\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11595571\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17827410\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000124-18-5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDecane\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1914397\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1696357\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1398373\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1470761\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1101351\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1193068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000124-13-0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOctanal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2679644\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4545190\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4455556\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2639035\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4507081\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5272454\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000122-78-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBenzeneacetaldehyde\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e897454\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e598363\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e351012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7694030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2385308\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31388120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000104-87-0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4-methyl-benzaldehyde\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1002629\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3081117\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2321899\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3993350\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4696020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2772442\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000124-19-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNonanal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2497759\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4965938\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3639839\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3655781\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4839487\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6523909\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000541-02-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDecamethyl-cyclopentasiloxane\u0026nbsp;*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7043653\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;a\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5504069\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;ab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3859652 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3432715\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2529117\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2488720\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000112-40-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDodecane\u0026nbsp;***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2700456 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4527594\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;a\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3129102\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3429945\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3119206\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3762966\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000112-31-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDecanal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e478986623\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e554848800\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e396256751\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e382586783\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e549477916\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e467091436\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e003913-81-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(E)-2-decenal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e352945843\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e241858419\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e256274335\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e357654900\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e547888267\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e398323613\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000112-30-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1-decanol\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41660112\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22193927\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33896351\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43184261\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19217630\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18883137\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000112-44-7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUndecanal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9055346\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7657087\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7329900\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8459531\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10682134\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9770325\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3.1347%;\" width=\"3.248730964467005%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 4.6596%;\" width=\"8.934010152284264%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e000540-97-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11.8609%;\" width=\"19.086294416243653%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDodecamethyl-cyclohexasiloxane*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.97969543147208%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7020292\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5678161\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.8109%;\" width=\"10.558375634517766%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5198305\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"12.182741116751268%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4576790 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"9.543147208121827%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3454011 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8.472%;\" width=\"11.16751269035533%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2548619 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompounds are listed in order of their elution from a HP-5MS column; RT (retention time in min): on a HP-5MS column.\u0026nbsp;Means\u0026nbsp;(n = 5)\u0026nbsp;followed by the\u0026nbsp;same\u0026nbsp;superscripts\u0026nbsp;in a row of same red light treatments (left part of the table, R20, R50, and R80) or blue light treatments (right part of the table, B20, B50, and B80) indicate significant differences (*\u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05 or ***\u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.001) among control (R50+G50+B50) and light treatments.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Antioxidant capacity, Coriander, Essential oil, Hydroponical culture, LED","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1639519/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1639519/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground: \u003c/strong\u003eCoriander (\u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e L.) contains abundant of antioxidants and essential oils that can provide antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-oxidative activities in the pharmaceutical and health food production industry for providing health benefits. To improve the economic values of coriander, the relationships between optimal light treatments for maximizing both plant growth and the antioxidant and essential oil content of coriander leaves need to be determined.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults: \u003c/strong\u003ePlants were exposed to five light-emitting diodes spectral color mixtures, high blue light intensity induced the levels of reducing power and chelating effect responses. The light treatments were then adjusted for the analysis of secondary metabolite compounds of coriander leaves. Among 30 identified compounds, the amounts of decamethyl-cyclopentasiloxane and dodecane were significantly reduced in the R80+G50+B50 condition, whereas dodecamethyl-cyclohexasiloxane level was significantly reduced in R50+G50+B80 condition. \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion: \u003c/strong\u003eOur results provide a strategy to increase the economic efficiency of the coriander metabolites production that can be maximized by precise management of light treatment in controlled environments.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Physiological responses and antioxidant properties of coriander plants (Coriandrum sativum L.) under different light intensities of red and blue lights","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-05-19 17:51:51","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1639519/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"79a655db-69cc-4464-82b8-6c2ce745bb1f","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 19th, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2022-06-20T14:59:28+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2022-05-19 17:51:51","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-1639519","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-1639519","identity":"rs-1639519","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"FbvkV6FR0MCFSLy54lSbu","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}