Satellite Based Assessment of Intertidal Vegetation Dynamics in Continental Portugal with Sentinel-2 Data

Vegetated intertidal ecosystems, such as seagrass meadows, salt marshes, and macroalgal beds, are vital for biodiversity, coastal protection, and climate regulation; however, they remain highly vulnerable to anthropogenic and climate-induced stressors. This study aims to assess interannual changes in intertidal vegetation cover along the Portuguese mainland coast from 2015 to 2024 using Sentinel-2 satellite imagery calibrated with high-resolution multispectral UAV data, to determine the most accurate index for map-ping intertidal vegetation. Among the 16 indices tested, the Atmospherically Resilient Vegetation Index (ARVI) showed the highest predictive performance. An ARVI threshold value of 0.19 was established to delineate vegetated areas. Applying this threshold to time-series data revealed considerable spatial and temporal variability in vegetation cover, with estuarine systems such as the Ria de Aveiro and the Ria Formosa showing the great-est extents and fluctuations. At the national level, vegetation cover reflects both regional environmental dynamics and data acquisition limitations. Despite limitations related to satellite image resolution and single-site validation, the results demonstrate the feasibility and utility of combining UAV data and satellite indices for long-term, large-scale monitoring of intertidal vegetation.