A Multilevel Analysis of Urban Green Infrastructure Planning Gaps for Climate Resilience in Córdoba Argentina

A Multilevel Analysis of Urban Green Infrastructure Planning Gaps for Climate Resilience in Córdoba Argentina | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article A Multilevel Analysis of Urban Green Infrastructure Planning Gaps for Climate Resilience in Córdoba Argentina Pablo Goldner, Juan Ariel Insaurralde, María Victoria Marinelli This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8031630/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In the current climate emergency, enhancing resilience and developing sustainable urban models represents an ongoing challenge, based on a solid theoretical framework to support various management and planning strategies for the territorial organization of cities. The global environmental agenda systematized in international treaties and agreements provides a comprehensive framework for the development of urban resilience policies across multiple levels of government. This article integrates three analytical axes: (1) the conceptualization of Urban green infrastructure (UGI) and Urban ecosystem services (UES) from an ecosystem-based solutions approach, and their interconnection with urban resilience planning processes; (2) the analysis of how the theoretical frameworks of the global environmental agenda are incorporated across different levels of government (national, provincial, and municipal), examining their application in urban planning public policies and their alignment with the climate agenda and the concepts of UGI and UES; (3) the comparison between the normative analysis and the perspectives and conceptual constructions of the actors involved in the process of regulation management and enforcement, as well as in the production of knowledge and professional practice. This study employs a multilevel case study approach, examining national environmental regulations in Argentina, and subnational policy frameworks in Córdoba Province. It is concluded that,at the subnational level, regulations are outdated and unharmonized in comparison to global theoretical frameworks. Moreover, public policy managers lack technical skills and there is absence of ecological criteria for participation in the planning and design processes of UGI. Urban Green Infrastructure Urban Ecosystem Services Climate Change Urban Resilience Ecosystem-based Adaptation Environmental Regulations Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction On the global agenda, climate change is one of the most complex environmental challenges facing humanity today (Camilloni, 2018 ). Greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere have significant effects on the climate (Bárcena et al., 2020 ; World Meteorological Organization [WMO], 2021), driving changes that, on a global scale, impact the health of the population, cause droughts, heat waves, floods and biodiversity loss among other effects (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2021 ). Cities play a crucial role, as they concentrate the largest volume of emissions, demand for materials and energy, and the largest concentrations of people - it is estimated that in Argentina, more than 90% of the population lives in cities (National Institute of Statistics and Censuses [INDEC], 2010). Processes such as land-use change, urban expansion and pressure on natural resources (Delgado Ramos et al., 2012 ) lead to landscape fragmentation and degradation of natural ecosystems, which aggravate the loss of connectivity of the natural system by increasing the atomization and isolation of the Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI) inserted in the urban matrix. The UGI, composed of all spaces containing vegetation or natural elements, forms a complex system of interconnected components whose behavior cannot be explained by individual variables or linear relationships. Instead, it must be understood at a systemic level based on the functions that emerge from the system as a whole (Menconi et al., 2021a ; Menconi et al., 2021b ). As a consequence of urban sprawl, there is a loss of biodiversity, along with the conversion of horticultural farmland to urbanized areas and the introduction of invasive exotic species. This process decreases the availability of Urban Ecosystem Services (UES), broadly defined as the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, such as climate regulation or cultural services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [MEA], 2005). UES depends on the IGU maintaining ecological characteristics capable of sustaining biophysical processes. Urban sprawl that lacks ecological planning criteria diminishes the UES that cities require. The multidimensional nature of the climate crisis and the uncertainty about the magnitude and frequency of events affecting cities make it necessary to design urban resilience policies. This involves rethinking how a complex system (Zeng et al., 2022 ) can maintain or restore desired functions after a disturbance, while transforming systems to improve adaptive capacity (Meerow et al., 2016 ). Resilience requires increasing adaptive capacity and managing the risks faced by populations and the environment, as well as understanding the relationship between the effects of climate change and vulnerability in an uncertain context. In this sense, the Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) approach - defined as the integration of biodiversity management policies with socioeconomic and development policies (Scarano, 2017 ) - provides a framework to analyze UGI and UES, concepts institutionalized in international policy frameworks, and to align with national and subnational urban resilience policies. Public policy documents produced by the state, such as regulations, planning documents and others, are essential to organize and drive public administration (Wu et al., 2023 ). However, these documents often lack a coherent and up-to-date knowledge framework (Measham et al., 2011 ) and adequate attention to IGU, often because local or resource-constrained governments lack planning capacity, technical expertise and human resources (Litt et al., 2022 ). In addition, there are difficulties in effectively implementing established policy frameworks (Zorrilla-Miras et al., 2021 ) and insufficient integration of geographic planning and governance processes under the principles of connectivity, multifunctionality and social inclusion (Eshetu et al., 2021 ). In this article, we investigate the presence of the concepts in the regulatory frameworks at different levels of government. In order to do that, we took as a case study the national regulations of Argentina, the provincial and municipal regulations of the city of Cordoba, referred to the management of the UGI. Furthermore, we examined the perception of government agents in charge of public policies and of professionals and scientists on the concepts and guidelines for UGI management and their knowledge of the regulatory frameworks. 2. Methodology The methodological process involved a triangulation of the literature review of the concepts discussed in the study, the analysis of regulations at different governmental levels and the analysis of the discourse of social actors through interviews and questionnaires (Fig. 1 ). Figure 1 : Methodological synthesis: a methodological triangulation is presented across steps a-b-c, guided by constant feedback. The normative analysis required a theoretical foundation of the concepts for selecting the relevant norms, which was necessary for selecting key actors and designing the thematic axes of the interviews and questionnaires. The analysis of the different discourses of the actors interviewed and surveyed, combined with previously obtained partial results, enabled a multilevel approach involving multiple participants. Personal elaboration. 2.1 Theoretical review of the concepts of UGI and UES and the EbA approach A bibliographic search and compilation was conducted on scientific articles and technical documents using Google Scholar. The following keywords were employed: “Green Infrastructure”; “Urban Green Infrastructure”; “Ecosystem Service”; and “Urban Ecosystem Service.” A critical appraisal of the literature was performed to generate a synthetic conceptual framework regarding UGI and UES, capable of adaptation to the specific contexts of public policy design in the face of climate change. Furthermore, the Ecosystem-based Adaptation approach was examined as a strategy for urban resilience. This conceptual review informed the refined selection of regulations for subsequent analysis and served as input for the development of interview protocols. 2.2 Normative Analysis The documentary method was applied to guide the search for current regulations at the national, provincial, and municipal levels for the city of Córdoba. The aim was to identify laws related to climate change, biodiversity, urban planning and spatial planning. At the national level, the investigation concentrated on baseline environmental legislation, establishing constitutional minimum standards, and legislation ratifying international agreements and treaties. For identifying local regulations (provincial and municipal ordinances), the search employed the keywords "land use" and "public green spaces" within the respective legal digest. Additionally, searches were conducted within relevant executive agencies - specifically environmental ministries and secretariats of local governments - for public policy planning documents, using the same set of keywords. Once the documents were selected, we applied hermeneutics and conducted a critical content analysis of legal instruments and policy documents to assess their coherence with and inclusion of green urban infrastructure framework within the international policy agenda, while examining their implementation across national, provincial, and municipal regulations. 2.3 Key Informant Interviews: academics and professionals, government officials This study received ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee of the National University of Córdoba, which sets the protocols and ethical principles for research in the social sciences and humanities. All research methods, including interview modalities and data safeguarding procedures, were approved before the commencement of the research. The interviews focused on technical-operational aspects of governance praxis, as well as conceptualizations and theoretical frameworks related to urban green infrastructure (UGI) and urban ecosystem services (UES). Both research strands examine the potential linkages between the knowledge systems and practical approaches employed in public green space planning/intervention, and urban resilience policies addressing climate change. In selecting participants, we distinguished two groups: government officials, representing multiple jurisdictional levels with executive authority; and professionals and academics engaged in scientific research, advisory services, and on-the-ground interventions. We conducted an interview with a senior official from the Ministry of Environment and Circular Economy of Córdoba province. This key informant plays a pivotal role in coordinating environmental policies related to ecological restoration processes, including technical support for urban natural space development At the municipal level, we interviewed a senior official from the Secretariat of Sustainable Environment and Circular Economy, whose department oversees urban tree management and implementation of street tree planting programs, as well as park and plaza greening initiatives. The selected professionals and academics represented a national, multidisciplinary cohort with expertise in green infrastructure, urban planning, spatial planning, ecosystem services, urban ecology, and biodiversity. We conducted interviews with twelve (12) researchers and practitioners specializing in biology, architecture, environmental assessment and management, geography, landscape planning and design, agronomy, and social work. Participants were based in Mar del Plata, Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires (Autonomous City), Córdoba, Comodoro Rivadavia, and Tucumán. Among the professionals interviewed, three Córdoba-based participants were engaged through in-person interviews, while the remaining nine completed open-ended questionnaires administered online. This mixed approach enabled national coverage. The sample size was determined by data saturation, as no new information emerged after the eighth interview (Guest et al., 2006 ). The primary data collection method employed was semi-structured interviewing, which was utilized across all participant groups. This approach was selected for its flexibility, allowing researchers to adapt questions to each interviewee while maintaining methodological rigor. The technique created space for respondents to elaborate, while enabling follow-up questions and clarifications to probe deeper into topics of interest (Diaz Bravo et al., 2013). Customized interview instruments were designed for each participant group (see supplementary material 1). For public officials, questions were structured around their jurisdictional authority, management competencies, and relevant regulatory frameworks. For professionals and researchers, questions drew from established theoretical concepts in the literature and applied professional practice. All in-person interviews were audio-recorded for subsequent transcription and analysis. The analysis and interpretation of interview data employed hermeneutic discourse analysis. This approach was guided by established analytical frameworks that structured the inquiry for both participant groups, enabling systematic qualitative interpretation. The synthesis framework comprised eight core dimensions: Green Infrastructure (GI) Conceptualization; Ecosystem Services-GI Interrelations; Biodiversity in Urban Environments; Ecosystem Service Enhancement Tools; GI Planning Variables; Indicator Integration Methods; GI Implementation Barriers; Resilience Planning Considerations. 3. Results 3.1 Conceptual Framework: Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI), Urban Ecosystem Services (UES), and Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) Green Infrastructure (GI) is widely defined in the literature as an interconnected network of natural and semi-natural elements that preserves ecosystem integrity while delivering essential ecosystem services (Childers et al., 2019 ; Romero-Duque et al., 2020 ; Calaza, 2021 ; Grabowski et al., 2022 ). This comprehensive system encompasses a wide range of components, including natural parks and urban reserves, watercourses and riparian corridors, urban forests and greenways, hybrid engineered-natural systems (e.g., green roofs, living walls, permeable pavements). GI is the biophysical basis for cities renaturation, interconnecting a web of life, and deploying their multifunctionality through urban planning and management.. (Giobellina et al., 2020 ). Its multifunctionality manifests through multiple beneficial effects, such as biodiversity conservation, urban heat island (UHI) mitigation, air quality improvement, stormwater regulation and flood control, carbon sequestration, public health enhancement (physical and psychological), and improved environmental governance frameworks (Calaza, 2021 ). Gómez-Baggethun and Barton ( 2012 ) define Urban Ecosystem Services (UES) as the benefits provided by urban ecosystems, supported by ecological properties such as biodiversity and biophysical processes (Quétier et al., 2007 ; Alberti, 2010 ). GI plays a pivotal role in delivering UES, while (EbA) provides a strategic approach that integrates both mitigation (emissions reduction) and adaptation (vulnerability reduction) through biodiversity restoration and the enhancement of UES (González et al., 2024 ; UNEP, 2023). The implementation of EbA strategies requires careful consideration of ecological factors (e.g., habitat naturalness), social interests, and governance frameworks, thereby promoting multidimensional planning for resilient cities (United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP], 2023). 3.2 Multilevel Policy Analysis of Climate Change, Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI), and Urban Ecosystem Services (UES) 3.2.1 International Frameworks: Key Agreements and Milestones in Global Environmental Governance Three pivotal milestones in the international environmental agenda have established fundamental guidelines for Argentina's environmental public policies, where UGI has emerged as a central strategic approach. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (United Nations [UN], 1992), ratified through National Law N° 24.375/94, establishes a direct connection between biodiversity conservation and both human well-being and climate stability. This foundational international treaty recognizes biological diversity as the essential basis for sustainable development, community welfare, and public health. It explicitly articulates the critical interdependence between: (i) water security, (ii) sustainable food production systems, and (iii) climate regulation capacities – all of which fundamentally depend on properly conserved natural ecosystems. Another milestone was the Paris Agreement (UN, 2015a), ratified through National Law N° 27.270/16), which aims to limit global warming to 1.5°C through integrated mitigation and adaptation strategies. The agreement specifically establishes ecological restoration as a fundamental pillar and promotes measures to enhance the resilience of socio-ecological systems against climate extreme events. Finally, within the framework of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 2030) (UN, 2015b) - particularly SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land) - serve to integrate and reinforce these preceding international agreements. While the CBD and Paris Agreement constitute legally binding frameworks, the SDGs operate as complementary soft-law instruments. Collectively, these policy frameworks recognize UGI as essential for maintaining biodiversity, sustaining ecosystem service and promoting ecosystem-based adaptation. 3.2.2 National Framework Law for the Implementation of International Climate Agreements National Law N° 27.520 on Minimum Standards for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation serves as Argentina's regulatory framework for implementing its international climate commitments. This legislation establishes mechanisms to reduce vulnerability in both human populations and natural systems facing adverse climate impacts, with particular emphasis on urban areas, where green infrastructure plays a strategic role. To operationalize these objectives, Argentina developed the National Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Plan (NCCAyMP) (Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development [MAyDS], 2022), which incorporates climate policies into territorial planning, prioritizing two key actions in the urban field The first is integrated climate risk management to enhance settlement resilience against extreme weather events, and the second is sustainable spatial planning implementing nature-based solutions promoting green and blue infrastructure projects through the restoration of green spaces and urban design guidelines from an EbA approach.The NCCAyMP not only aligns national policy with the global agenda but also equips provincial and municipal governments with a theoretical-methodological framework and practical tools for public space transformation. It positions green infrastructure as a central pillar of both territorial planning and urban resilience strategies. Thus, the plan serves as both a regulatory and practical framework for institutional capacity building. It establishes a polycentric, multi-scalar governance system for designing, managing, and implementing local climate policies through an integrated, cross-cutting approach that engages all social stakeholders. 3.2.3 Local Legislation: Provincial and Municipal Jurisdictional Frameworks Laws N°9.841 and N°10.004 – integral components of the Master Road Plan for the Metropolitan Area – regulate territorial planning in Córdoba’s metropolitan region. These statutes formally classify parks, grasslands, and protected natural areas as "Recreational Green Spaces", a designation functionally analogous to UGI within the planning framework. The legislation additionally establishes an "Agricultural Production Zone" category, which may be classified within UGI frameworks due to its multifunctional landscape benefits. Both categories are classified as non-developable land under current regulations. However, these laws (enacted 2010–2011) fail to incorporate contemporary climate governance frameworks (Paris Agreement’s and SDG 2030) maintaining a restrictive approach that prioritizes real estate expansion over the ecological planning of the territory. In the city of Córdoba, only 9.56% of the territory is categorized as green, natural or risk areas (IDECOR, 2025), the latter being limited to the banks of the Suquía River, while ignoring other urban hydrological and geomorphological risks that have been little explored. The Green Lungs Program led by the Provincial Government (Ministerio de Ambiente y Economía Circular, n.d.) and targeting local municipalities, promotes ecological restoration through afforestation strategies aligned with SDG 13 and 15. The program's voluntary adoption and fragmented application by municipalities, without a comprehensive UGI strategy of provincial scope, makes the program's impact less robust. At the municipal level, ordinances such as N° 8.060/1985 (Land Subdivision Regulations) mandate a 10% green space allocation in new developments, while Ordinance N° 8.133/1985 (Land Use Zoning) establishes zoning classifications without fully integrating UES criteria or providing clear definitions of UGI. This regulation identifies UGI as including natural reserves, metropolitan-scale parks, horticultural areas, and natural resource utilization zones. However, it effectively obscures UGI by embedding it within other land-use categories, particularly residential zones. It is worth noting the conceptual mismatch between the zoning categories and land use types, and the global frameworks along with the SEU and IVU categories. Despite the update of the land use map in 2021 through Ordinance N° 13.131 (Territorial Planning Plan for the Intermediate and Peripheral Area of the City of Córdoba), the criteria for industrial use and real estate development remain outdated in their theoretical basis. In contrast to Provincial Law N° 9.841, there is no evident initiative to reduce socio-environmental vulnerability or increase resilience. Ordinance N° 9.962/1998, "Criteria for the Architectural, Urban, and Environmental Design of Public Green Spaces," introduces conceptual advances by classifying green spaces according to environmental functions (e.g., thermal regulation) and requiring a minimum of "effective green space 1 [1] ." However, its application remains limited due to a lack of monitoring. The ordinance establishes green space (GS) typologies and a functional classification system. However, no city GS classification map exists, nor were any indicators, monitoring tools, or compliance mechanisms identified to verify whether each GS meets the required "effective green space" percentage. Furthermore, there are no documents available confirming the existence of integrated management plans for parks exceeding 5 hectares. More recent regulations like Ordinance N° 12.370/2014 (Green Corridor Network) aim to ecologically connect the city's green spaces with natural and semi-natural systems in the peri-urban area through green infrastructure, urban tree canopy, and green walls. This strengthens ecological connectivity while providing environmental services to mitigate the urban heat island effect. Although the ordinance provides for surveying and mapping tools, to date no such instruments have been identified. Ordinance N°12.472/2015 on Urban Public Tree Planting regulates street trees and green space vegetation, including a zoning-based forestry plan that specifies suitable native species. While this represents a technical-operational approach, it lacks comprehensive tree planting planning aligned with the city's environmental needs. Finally, Ordinance N°12.548/2016 (updated in 2024) on Green Roofs and Walls partially aligns urban planning with climate objectives by introducing building code modifications aimed at energy efficiency and urban heat island mitigation. However, it lacks a systemic vision integrating the UGI as a core component of urban resilience. Córdoba’s regulatory framework reveals absence of coordination. These policies function as isolated instruments for managing urban ecosystem interventions, lacking clear articulation across government scales or alignment with contemporary priorities. Outdated approaches fail to address the climate emergency, systematically relegating green infrastructure to a secondary role behind real estate development. In Table 1 (Supplementary Material 2) presents a synthesis of the results, disclosing the relationship between each regulation and the analytical axes of Climate Change, UGI and UES. This material organically reveals the normative scaffolding. 3.3 Results from Interviews with Academics and Professionals, and Government Officials These findings emerge from both interview analysis and interpretation through the previously compiled and systematized conceptual framework. For each thematic area, we present a perspective that synthesizes and contrasts the discourse of government officials with that of professionals regarding the issues examined. These synthesis themes are: (1) Definition of urban green infrastructure and its key characteristics; (2) Urban ecosystem services and their relationship to UGI; (3) Role of biodiversity in urban environments; (4) Strategies to Enhance Urban Ecosystem Services; (5) Tools, Variables and Indicators for UGI Planning; (6) Threats Facing UGI. A summary of the results presented in this section is provided in Table 2 (Supplementary Material 2). 3.3.1 Definition of urban green infrastructure and its key characteristics Government officials: Officials formulated their definition of UGI by identifying a set of descriptive characteristics, while conceptually linking the UGI concept to that of 'green spaces' a term specific to the provincial and municipal regulatory frameworks. According to these actors, public green spaces are designated for social use and provide ecosystem services, including mitigation of the urban heat island effect and improvements to physical and mental health. These spaces, together with street trees (or the urban forest), constitute the city’s green infrastructure. They acknowledge that connectivity between these elements is essential for maintaining ecological functionality and forming corridors for flora and fauna conservation. In terms of management aspects embedded in this conceptualization, green spaces are planned and administered by municipal governments and serve to offset and regulate real estate development. They attribute a compensatory purpose to UGI, manifested through the reservation of parcels as public green spaces when land use changes to urbanization. This approach aims to preserve environmental functions and enhance urban cohesion. Notably, there is explicit recognition of the State's role as both planner and administrator of UGI - positioned as a capable, competent, and responsible agent for implementing public policy through regulatory instruments. Academics and professionals: Among the expert group, there is consensus that UGI constitutes a territorially planned network of open spaces, natural or semi-natural, and constructed, containing existing or potential vegetation, whether naturally occurring or intentionally planted. These spaces form an integral part of the broader landscape and serve as a physicochemical support system for ecological processes. This strategically designed system of nodes and linkages, adapted to the urban fabric, sustains 'human and more-than-human life [2] ' (Interviewee 2, personal communication, 2024). The UGI (Urban Green Infrastructure) is multifunctional. It must meet safety and habitability conditions for people, preserve its cultural components (emphasizing activities that promote the conservation and care of natural and common spaces), and maintain natural elements, which are key for landscape connectivity. Additionally, the system is multi-scalar and serves as a structuring framework for land uses along an urban-rural gradient, where conditions for the sustainable development of the territory must be articulated. The planning of the UGI should be formalized in a regulatory instrument. The construction of the concept by this group of stakeholders encompasses the diversity of elements that make up a definition of UGI from different perspectives. It is important to highlight that in the discourse of professionals, the dimensions observed in the literature emerge—specifically, a definition integrating both the ecological perspective and the planning perspective, tailored to the local conditions of the community and the environment. Additionally, it contributes to the discussion on from what standpoint territorial planning should be approached, raising the question of how far and in what ways to intervene in non-human life systems. 3.3.2 Urban ecosystem services and their relationship to Urban Green Infrastructure Government officials: Officials defined the concept of UES by outlining certain characteristics and functions. They identified the roles of UGI (Urban Green Infrastructure) as including urban temperature regulation, along with functions tied to social, cultural, and psychophysical health uses. They also mentioned ES related to biodiversity, pollutant control, or windbreaks. Even though respondents listed UES in their answers, they did not develop their understanding based on the biophysical processes or the interactions between the elements that support their production. In other words, they failed to recognize that UES strictly depend on the interactions between the components of UGI. The lack of qualified technical staff may pose an obstacle to properly planning and managing UGI. Academics and professionals: They present different definitions of UES aligned with academic theoretical frameworks. For instance, they reference the Nature's Contributions to People (NCP) framework - specifically contributions from ecological structure or function - or concepts proposed by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Within these frameworks, they exemplify various UES categorized under traditional classifications, recognizing regulatory UES (thermal regulation, flood control) and cultural UES (mental health benefits, aesthetic values, education, social gathering spaces), among others. However, from these frameworks, they generate a redefinition of UES linked to social interaction and sense of identity. They speak of healthy habitability conceived as the conditions of well-being for both people and biodiversity. Analysis of the responses revealed two underlying trends in the provided definitions. The first positions humans as beneficiaries or recipients of contributions from the biophysical system to human quality of life, often associating these with quantifiable dimensions that could plausibly be assigned a monetary value. The second trend emphasizes human dependence on ecological interactions as the foundation for habitable conditions, introducing a perspective that views the components and interactions within GI as common goods. This latter approach is crucial for public policy planning aimed at reducing both social and ecosystem vulnerability. 3.3.3 Role of biodiversity in urban environments Government officials: Regarding the role of biodiversity, two different responses were obtained. From the municipal executive, there is an association with the ecological concept of species abundance. It is under this interpretation that the actions being carried out consist of reforestation and species enrichment. As an example, it was explained how rehabilitation and reforestation efforts in public spaces in high-income areas of the city improved the landscape quality and increased the use of public space. From the provincial executive, biodiversity is associated with identity values, where native species take on relevance. It is assigned a cultural role that underpins processes of social and community development. The official's perspective operates on a broad territorial scale, without taking a position on particular cases. It is noted that there is no recognition of the role of biodiversity as essential for supporting ecosystem services as a whole, beyond its cultural value. This disconnect is also evident in the regulations outlining the functions that green spaces should fulfill. Understanding the processes and basic conditions of naturalness is fundamental for managing and implementing the public policy outlined in current regulations. Academics and professionals: This group recognizes the role of biodiversity in supporting ecosystem services that mitigate and address environmental challenges. Within biodiversity, they argue that vegetation is the key element and highlight the need to promote functional diversity and varied life forms in vegetation, which helps enhance diverse habitats for other species. For this to happen, professionals assert that it is necessary to allow biodiversity to thrive and to coexist with it, a goal that can be achieved through clear policy guidelines and management strategies. Without explicitly stating it, the professionals point to deficiencies in UGI management as one of the obstacles preventing existing biodiversity from reaching its full potential in terms of cultural ecosystem services, thermal regulation, or hydrological control. 3.3.4 Strategies to Enhance Urban Ecosystem Services Government officials: Regarding potential strategies to enhance the UES provided by UGI, the relevant municipal department focuses primarily on tree planting and sanitary maintenance of the urban tree canopy. The creation of biological corridors is mentioned as a possible strategy, but no concrete actions, plans, or public policies are observed to promote UGI connectivity at an urban or metropolitan scale. At the provincial level, the strategy reiterates the concept of ecological restoration, emphasizing the recovery and incorporation of native trees as a key approach. The responses obtained are consistent with the management approaches or UES that officials prioritize, which focus almost exclusively on tree cover. However, they fail to recognize that UGI should support greater biodiversity and create complex structures capable of replicating intricate biophysical processes. Academics and professionals: The professionals argue that enhancing the capacity of UGI to provide UES requires careful planning of its design and public policy management mechanisms. In this planning process, citizen participation, co-creation with local communities, and interdisciplinary collaboration are considered crucial. Equally important are access to information and education, which provide the foundation for developing proposals and monitoring methods, a fundamental stage for guiding and assessing the impact of implemented actions. Furthermore, they propose the framework of Nature-Based Solutions, which involves respecting natural rhythms and cycles, along with promoting ecological corridors and landscape design that enhances connectivity and ecological interaction. This approach also includes vegetation management guidelines and the avoidance of agrotoxins. 3.3.5 Tools, Variables and Indicators for UGI Planning Government officials: It becomes evident that the tools being employed are closely tied to routine management practices, which do not necessarily reflect the integration of variables and indicators used for planning and monitoring purposes. At the municipal level, the focus remains on a limited set of dasometric and sanitary variables specific to urban tree management, rather than comprehensive UGI planning. At the provincial level, there is recognition of the need to monitor the progress of restoration efforts, focusing on measuring variables related to soil conditions, wildlife presence in restored areas, and the development of introduced vegetation. However, technical deficiencies persist regarding how to establish and implement an environmental baseline and monitoring system. The lack of concrete elements hinders the development of public policies aligned with national regulatory frameworks. Academics and professionals: The professionals propose tools for integrating variables and indicators, capable of incorporating them into complex, multidimensional, and multi-scale analyses. The use of spatial data infrastructures as information sources, geographic information systems (GIS), or models like InVEST (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs), among others, proves highly effective for analyzing diverse variables related to biodiversity, climate, social factors and economic factors. These tools enable comprehensive assessment of urban landscape complexity. They argue that the selection of variables and tools for UGI planning must be approached through an interdisciplinary lens, guided by a fundamental question: How can we effectively interconnect UGI systems? 3.3.6 Threats Facing UGI Government officials: Officials identified private real estate developers as the primary drivers and planners of new green spaces. While the development sector complies with Ordinance N° 8.060 regarding land allocation for public green spaces, we observe weak enforcement and monitoring of Ordinance N° 9.962 - a deficiency that threatens the mandated ecological functions of Green Infrastructure (GI). At the provincial level, authorities highlight another critical challenge: their inability to generate essential data for effective GI planning and management, despite this being their institutional responsibility. Academics and professionals: The primary threat identified by professionals is real estate developers or urban sprawl driven by property development lobbies, compounded by inadequate urban planning and deficiencies in land-use regulations. This advancement contributes to: the anthropization of fragile, high-ecological-value environments; soil sealing; poor vegetation and hydrological system management practices; and increasing pollution, among other impacts. Experts emphasize the absence of citizen participation mechanisms and access to information as critical deficiencies that must be addressed for effective UGI planning. 4. Conclusions The study results demonstrate that Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI) emerges as a key component for strengthening cities' socio-environmental resilience through urban development planning based on ecological criteria. However, a significant gap was identified between international theoretical frameworks and national regulatory frameworks that guide urbanization processes and their effective implementation at subnational and local levels. The analysis of regulatory frameworks and the discourse of government and professional stakeholders reveals that provincial and municipal regulations tend to align with broader national laws but lack an integrative perspective. These regulations show weak coordination across jurisdictional levels and address the issue in a fragmented manner, failing to fully incorporate contemporary environmental governance approaches or the principles of EbA. Likewise, institutional and technical limitations were identified in the agencies responsible for planning and managing UGI. Interviews with officials revealed gaps in specialized training, difficulties in accessing and producing territorial information, and a lack of regulatory guidelines to steer the implementation of public policies from an ecosystem perspective. These weaknesses result in ineffective planning and the perpetuation of practices that undermine urban sustainability goals. On the other hand, the literature review and interviews with professionals and scientists indicated the existence of sufficient technical capacity to implement EbA-based planning tools. However, the identified obstacles relate to institutional weaknesses, such as a lack of specialized human resources, inadequate political practices, the absence of citizen participation mechanisms, and the low priority given to urban resilience and climate change adaptation in the political agenda. In particular, it was found that the urban development model driven by real estate expansion poses a critical threat to the connectivity of the UGI and the fulfillment of its ecosystem functions, especially in contexts where land-use regulations favor urbanization without considering sustainability criteria. In this context, it is concluded that the planning and management of the UGI must be institutionalized as a structural, cross-cutting, and sustainable public policy, anchored in trans-scalar governance (Dellmuth & Gustafsson, 2023 ). This policy must engage actors from the public, private, scientific, and civil society sectors, while ensuring effective mechanisms for citizen participation, transparency, and access to information in planning processes. Overcoming fragmented approaches and implementing EbA requires advancing toward an urban commons framework, one that ensures equitable access to ecosystem services, socio-economic improvement strategies, and community-based development planning, particularly for and with the most vulnerable social sectors. Finally, the methodology employed enabled a cross-cutting and comprehensive analysis of concepts, regulations, public officials' management practices, and scientific-professional knowledge related to UGI planning and governance. This approach revealed gaps and shortcomings in public policy design and implementation, while also proposing potential guidelines to enhance climate change adaptation planning processes. Declarations Data availability The data supporting the results of this study are available, but restrictions apply to the availability of the data as they are derived from interviews with participants. Information may be requested from the corresponding author (Pablo Goldner) with reasonable justification. Acknowledgements We sincerely thank all participants who generously gave their time for the interviews. This study could not have been conducted without their involvement. We also acknowledge the support on the part of the public national system of science and technology. Funding The authors declare that they have received no funds, grants, or other support during the preparation of this manuscript. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Author information Authors and Affiliations Institute of Advanced Space Studies "Mario Gulich" – National Commission on Space Activities (CONAE) Córdoba, Argentina Pablo Goldner & María Victoria Marinelli Institute of Biological and Technological Research (IIBYT) – National Research Council Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), Córdoba, Argentina Pablo Goldner & Juan Ariel Insaurralde Contributions All authors conceptualized the study. Goldner: Conceptualization, data collection, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing—original draft & editing. Insaurralde: Methodology, writing review, supervision. Marinelli: Writing review, supervision. Corresponding author Correspondence to Pablo Goldner Clinical trial number: not applicable . Ethics declaration The authors submitted the study protocol to the National University of Córdoba before beginning the research, followed Argentina’s National Law No. 25,326 on Personal Data Protection, and adhered to the Ethical Principles for Social Sciences and Humanities established by the Research Ethics Committee of the National University of Córdoba. The National University of Córdoba confirmed that no formal approval was needed. Consent to Publish declaration The participant has consented to the submission of the case report to the journal. Consent to Participate declaration Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Competing interests The authors declare no conflicts of interest with the content of this article. Additional information Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. References Camilloni I. (2018). 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Recuperado el 18/2/2025 de: https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=s2007-50572013000300009&script=sci_arttext Childers DL, Bois P, Hartnett HE, McPhearson T, Metson GS, Sanchez CA. Urban Ecological Infrastructure: An inclusive concept for the non-built urban environment. Elem Sci Anth. 2019;7(1):46. https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.385 . Romero-duque LP, Trilleras JM, Castellarini F, Quijas S. Science of the Total Environment Ecosystem services in urban ecological infrastructure of Latin America and the Caribbean: How do they contribute to urban planning ? Sci Total Environ. 2020;728:138780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138780 . Calaza P. La infraestructura verde (urbana) como estrategia frente al cambio climático. Cuad de Ordenación Del Territorio. 2021;2(February):60. Grabowski ZJ, McPhearson T, Matsler AM, Groffman P, Pickett ST. (2022) What is green infrastructure? A study of definitions in US city planning. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment ISSN – 1540 – 929. 20(3): 152–160 https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2445 Giobellina B, Medina S, Pomazan S, Sánchez Gavier C. (2020). Infraestructuras verdes: desde el territorio a la cubierta habitable. http://hdl.handle.net/11086/15166 Gómez-Baggethun E, Barton DN. Classifying and valuing ecosystem services for urban planning. Ecol Econ. 2012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.08.019 . Quétier F, Tapella E, Conti G, Cáceres DM, Díaz S. (2007). Servicios ecosistémicos y actores sociales. Aspectos conceptuales y metodológicos para un estudio interdisciplinario. Gaceta Ecológica de México. 84–85(July 2007), 17–27. citeulike-article-id:13995798. Alberti M. Maintaining ecological integrity and sustaining ecosystem function in urban areas. Curr Opin Environ Sustain. 2010;2(3):178–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2010.07.002 . González L, Granda V, Muñoz L, Torres S, Aguirre Z. Bosques Latitud Cero. 2024;14(1):123–36. https://doi.org/10.54753/blc. v14i1.2088 . Contexto e implicaciones de la restauración ecológica y de paisajes. United Nations Environment Programme. (2023). Nature-based solutions for climate-resilient cities: Perspectives and experiences from Latin America. Panama. https://doi.org/10.59117/20.500.11822/44437 United Nations. (1992). Convention on Biological Diversity (1760 U.N.T.S. 79). https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf/ United Nations. (2015). Paris Agreement (FCCC/CP/2015/L.9/Rev.1). https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1). https://undocs.org/A/RES/70/1 Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development of the Argentine Republic. (2022). National Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Plan. https://www.argentina.gob.ar/ambiente/cambio-climatico/plan-nacional Córdoba Spatial Data Infrastructure IDECOR. (2025). Government of Córdoba Province. https://mapascordoba.gob.ar/viewer/mapa/43 Dellmuth L, Gustafsson MT. Legitimacy in the trans-scalar governance of climate adaptation. npj Clim Action. 2023;2:2. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44168-023-00036-7 . Footnotes Ordinance 9962 defines "Effective Green Space" as: "the combination of plant species of varying size, structure, and foliar/root architecture capable of performing permanent or semi-permanent assimilatory, productive, and bio-digestion functions. The interviewee adopts a biocentric paradigm. From this perspective, 'Non-Human Life' refers to the diversity of living organisms that coexist with humans. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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07:20:27","extension":"html","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":106504,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8031630/v1/9a558ac60e50f64604a8270d.html"},{"id":98377966,"identity":"f0aef127-cd04-4d51-894c-279bbb6b9ff2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 07:20:27","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":174873,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMethodological synthesis: a methodological triangulation is presented across steps a-b-c, guided by constant feedback. The normative analysis required a theoretical foundation of the concepts for selecting the relevant norms, which was necessary for selecting key actors and designing the thematic axes of the interviews and questionnaires. The analysis of the different discourses of the actors interviewed and surveyed, combined with previously obtained partial results, enabled a multilevel approach involving multiple participants. Personal elaboration.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8031630/v1/6c5fdbd2bb3d0b8cefa231c6.jpeg"},{"id":98774594,"identity":"c7e1e2e9-fe32-48d1-b6c6-89868f4b5d57","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:02:47","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1270281,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8031630/v1/26ea1cb0-b8a4-4924-bac8-fda75b8169fa.pdf"},{"id":98440221,"identity":"f3231251-da3d-4f46-8566-40944a524cae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 17:03:31","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":296565,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryMaterial.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8031630/v1/a513c79766c0982f99e9983d.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"A Multilevel Analysis of Urban Green Infrastructure Planning Gaps for Climate Resilience in Córdoba Argentina","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eOn the global agenda, climate change is one of the most complex environmental challenges facing humanity today (Camilloni, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere have significant effects on the climate (B\u0026aacute;rcena et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; World Meteorological Organization [WMO], 2021), driving changes that, on a global scale, impact the health of the population, cause droughts, heat waves, floods and biodiversity loss among other effects (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Cities play a crucial role, as they concentrate the largest volume of emissions, demand for materials and energy, and the largest concentrations of people - it is estimated that in Argentina, more than 90% of the population lives in cities (National Institute of Statistics and Censuses [INDEC], 2010).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProcesses such as land-use change, urban expansion and pressure on natural resources (Delgado Ramos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) lead to landscape fragmentation and degradation of natural ecosystems, which aggravate the loss of connectivity of the natural system by increasing the atomization and isolation of the Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI) inserted in the urban matrix. The UGI, composed of all spaces containing vegetation or natural elements, forms a complex system of interconnected components whose behavior cannot be explained by individual variables or linear relationships. Instead, it must be understood at a systemic level based on the functions that emerge from the system as a whole (Menconi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021a\u003c/span\u003e; Menconi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021b\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a consequence of urban sprawl, there is a loss of biodiversity, along with the conversion of horticultural farmland to urbanized areas and the introduction of invasive exotic species. This process decreases the availability of Urban Ecosystem Services (UES), broadly defined as the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, such as climate regulation or cultural services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [MEA], 2005). UES depends on the IGU maintaining ecological characteristics capable of sustaining biophysical processes. Urban sprawl that lacks ecological planning criteria diminishes the UES that cities require.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe multidimensional nature of the climate crisis and the uncertainty about the magnitude and frequency of events affecting cities make it necessary to design urban resilience policies. This involves rethinking how a complex system (Zeng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) can maintain or restore desired functions after a disturbance, while transforming systems to improve adaptive capacity (Meerow et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResilience requires increasing adaptive capacity and managing the risks faced by populations and the environment, as well as understanding the relationship between the effects of climate change and vulnerability in an uncertain context. In this sense, the Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) approach - defined as the integration of biodiversity management policies with socioeconomic and development policies (Scarano, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) - provides a framework to analyze UGI and UES, concepts institutionalized in international policy frameworks, and to align with national and subnational urban resilience policies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic policy documents produced by the state, such as regulations, planning documents and others, are essential to organize and drive public administration (Wu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, these documents often lack a coherent and up-to-date knowledge framework (Measham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) and adequate attention to IGU, often because local or resource-constrained governments lack planning capacity, technical expertise and human resources (Litt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, there are difficulties in effectively implementing established policy frameworks (Zorrilla-Miras et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and insufficient integration of geographic planning and governance processes under the principles of connectivity, multifunctionality and social inclusion (Eshetu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this article, we investigate the presence of the concepts in the regulatory frameworks at different levels of government. In order to do that, we took as a case study the national regulations of Argentina, the provincial and municipal regulations of the city of Cordoba, referred to the management of the UGI. Furthermore, we examined the perception of government agents in charge of public policies and of professionals and scientists on the concepts and guidelines for UGI management and their knowledge of the regulatory frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe methodological process involved a triangulation of the literature review of the concepts discussed in the study, the analysis of regulations at different governmental levels and the analysis of the discourse of social actors through interviews and questionnaires (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e: Methodological synthesis: a methodological triangulation is presented across steps a-b-c, guided by constant feedback. The normative analysis required a theoretical foundation of the concepts for selecting the relevant norms, which was necessary for selecting key actors and designing the thematic axes of the interviews and questionnaires. The analysis of the different discourses of the actors interviewed and surveyed, combined with previously obtained partial results, enabled a multilevel approach involving multiple participants. Personal elaboration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Theoretical review of the concepts of UGI and UES and the EbA approach\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA bibliographic search and compilation was conducted on scientific articles and technical documents using Google Scholar. The following keywords were employed: \u0026ldquo;Green Infrastructure\u0026rdquo;; \u0026ldquo;Urban Green Infrastructure\u0026rdquo;; \u0026ldquo;Ecosystem Service\u0026rdquo;; and \u0026ldquo;Urban Ecosystem Service.\u0026rdquo; A critical appraisal of the literature was performed to generate a synthetic conceptual framework regarding UGI and UES, capable of adaptation to the specific contexts of public policy design in the face of climate change. Furthermore, the Ecosystem-based Adaptation approach was examined as a strategy for urban resilience. This conceptual review informed the refined selection of regulations for subsequent analysis and served as input for the development of interview protocols.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Normative Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe documentary method was applied to guide the search for current regulations at the national, provincial, and municipal levels for the city of C\u0026oacute;rdoba. The aim was to identify laws related to climate change, biodiversity, urban planning and spatial planning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the national level, the investigation concentrated on baseline environmental legislation, establishing constitutional minimum standards, and legislation ratifying international agreements and treaties. For identifying local regulations (provincial and municipal ordinances), the search employed the keywords \"land use\" and \"public green spaces\" within the respective legal digest. Additionally, searches were conducted within relevant executive agencies - specifically environmental ministries and secretariats of local governments - for public policy planning documents, using the same set of keywords. Once the documents were selected, we applied hermeneutics and conducted a critical content analysis of legal instruments and policy documents to assess their coherence with and inclusion of green urban infrastructure framework within the international policy agenda, while examining their implementation across national, provincial, and municipal regulations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Key Informant Interviews: academics and professionals, government officials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study received ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee of the National University of C\u0026oacute;rdoba, which sets the protocols and ethical principles for research in the social sciences and humanities. All research methods, including interview modalities and data safeguarding procedures, were approved before the commencement of the research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interviews focused on technical-operational aspects of governance praxis, as well as conceptualizations and theoretical frameworks related to urban green infrastructure (UGI) and urban ecosystem services (UES). Both research strands examine the potential linkages between the knowledge systems and practical approaches employed in public green space planning/intervention, and urban resilience policies addressing climate change.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn selecting participants, we distinguished two groups: government officials, representing multiple jurisdictional levels with executive authority; and professionals and academics engaged in scientific research, advisory services, and on-the-ground interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted an interview with a senior official from the Ministry of Environment and Circular Economy of C\u0026oacute;rdoba province. This key informant plays a pivotal role in coordinating environmental policies related to ecological restoration processes, including technical support for urban natural space development\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the municipal level, we interviewed a senior official from the Secretariat of Sustainable Environment and Circular Economy, whose department oversees urban tree management and implementation of street tree planting programs, as well as park and plaza greening initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe selected professionals and academics represented a national, multidisciplinary cohort with expertise in green infrastructure, urban planning, spatial planning, ecosystem services, urban ecology, and biodiversity. We conducted interviews with twelve (12) researchers and practitioners specializing in biology, architecture, environmental assessment and management, geography, landscape planning and design, agronomy, and social work. Participants were based in Mar del Plata, Bah\u0026iacute;a Blanca, Buenos Aires (Autonomous City), C\u0026oacute;rdoba, Comodoro Rivadavia, and Tucum\u0026aacute;n.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the professionals interviewed, three C\u0026oacute;rdoba-based participants were engaged through in-person interviews, while the remaining nine completed open-ended questionnaires administered online. This mixed approach enabled national coverage. The sample size was determined by data saturation, as no new information emerged after the eighth interview (Guest et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary data collection method employed was semi-structured interviewing, which was utilized across all participant groups. This approach was selected for its flexibility, allowing researchers to adapt questions to each interviewee while maintaining methodological rigor. The technique created space for respondents to elaborate, while enabling follow-up questions and clarifications to probe deeper into topics of interest (Diaz Bravo et al., 2013).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCustomized interview instruments were designed for each participant group (see supplementary material 1). For public officials, questions were structured around their jurisdictional authority, management competencies, and relevant regulatory frameworks. For professionals and researchers, questions drew from established theoretical concepts in the literature and applied professional practice. All in-person interviews were audio-recorded for subsequent transcription and analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis and interpretation of interview data employed hermeneutic discourse analysis. This approach was guided by established analytical frameworks that structured the inquiry for both participant groups, enabling systematic qualitative interpretation. The synthesis framework comprised eight core dimensions: Green Infrastructure (GI) Conceptualization; Ecosystem Services-GI Interrelations; Biodiversity in Urban Environments; Ecosystem Service Enhancement Tools; GI Planning Variables; Indicator Integration Methods; GI Implementation Barriers; Resilience Planning Considerations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Conceptual Framework: Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI), Urban Ecosystem Services (UES), and Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreen Infrastructure (GI) is widely defined in the literature as an interconnected network of natural and semi-natural elements that preserves ecosystem integrity while delivering essential ecosystem services (Childers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Romero-Duque et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Calaza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Grabowski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This comprehensive system encompasses a wide range of components, including natural parks and urban reserves, watercourses and riparian corridors, urban forests and greenways, hybrid engineered-natural systems (e.g., green roofs, living walls, permeable pavements). GI is the biophysical basis for cities renaturation, interconnecting a web of life, and deploying their multifunctionality through urban planning and management.. (Giobellina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Its multifunctionality manifests through multiple beneficial effects, such as biodiversity conservation, urban heat island (UHI) mitigation, air quality improvement, stormwater regulation and flood control, carbon sequestration, public health enhancement (physical and psychological), and improved environmental governance frameworks (Calaza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eG\u0026oacute;mez-Baggethun and Barton (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) define Urban Ecosystem Services (UES) as the benefits provided by urban ecosystems, supported by ecological properties such as biodiversity and biophysical processes (Qu\u0026eacute;tier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Alberti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). GI plays a pivotal role in delivering UES, while (EbA) provides a strategic approach that integrates both mitigation (emissions reduction) and adaptation (vulnerability reduction) through biodiversity restoration and the enhancement of UES (Gonz\u0026aacute;lez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; UNEP, 2023). The implementation of EbA strategies requires careful consideration of ecological factors (e.g., habitat naturalness), social interests, and governance frameworks, thereby promoting multidimensional planning for resilient cities (United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP], 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Multilevel Policy Analysis of Climate Change, Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI), and Urban Ecosystem Services (UES)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 International Frameworks: Key Agreements and Milestones in Global Environmental Governance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree pivotal milestones in the international environmental agenda have established fundamental guidelines for Argentina's environmental public policies, where UGI has emerged as a central strategic approach.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (United Nations [UN], 1992), ratified through National Law N\u0026deg; 24.375/94, establishes a direct connection between biodiversity conservation and both human well-being and climate stability. This foundational international treaty recognizes biological diversity as the essential basis for sustainable development, community welfare, and public health. It explicitly articulates the critical interdependence between: (i) water security, (ii) sustainable food production systems, and (iii) climate regulation capacities \u0026ndash; all of which fundamentally depend on properly conserved natural ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother milestone was the Paris Agreement (UN, 2015a), ratified through National Law N\u0026deg; 27.270/16), which aims to limit global warming to 1.5\u0026deg;C through integrated mitigation and adaptation strategies. The agreement specifically establishes ecological restoration as a fundamental pillar and promotes measures to enhance the resilience of socio-ecological systems against climate extreme events.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, within the framework of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 2030) (UN, 2015b) - particularly SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land) - serve to integrate and reinforce these preceding international agreements. While the CBD and Paris Agreement constitute legally binding frameworks, the SDGs operate as complementary soft-law instruments. Collectively, these policy frameworks recognize UGI as essential for maintaining biodiversity, sustaining ecosystem service and promoting ecosystem-based adaptation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 National Framework Law for the Implementation of International Climate Agreements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Law N\u0026deg; 27.520 on Minimum Standards for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation serves as Argentina's regulatory framework for implementing its international climate commitments. This legislation establishes mechanisms to reduce vulnerability in both human populations and natural systems facing adverse climate impacts, with particular emphasis on urban areas, where green infrastructure plays a strategic role.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo operationalize these objectives, Argentina developed the National Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Plan (NCCAyMP) (Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development [MAyDS], 2022), which incorporates climate policies into territorial planning, prioritizing two key actions in the urban field The first is integrated climate risk management to enhance settlement resilience against extreme weather events, and the second is sustainable spatial planning implementing nature-based solutions promoting green and blue infrastructure projects through the restoration of green spaces and urban design guidelines from an EbA approach.The NCCAyMP not only aligns national policy with the global agenda but also equips provincial and municipal governments with a theoretical-methodological framework and practical tools for public space transformation. It positions green infrastructure as a central pillar of both territorial planning and urban resilience strategies. Thus, the plan serves as both a regulatory and practical framework for institutional capacity building. It establishes a polycentric, multi-scalar governance system for designing, managing, and implementing local climate policies through an integrated, cross-cutting approach that engages all social stakeholders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.3 Local Legislation: Provincial and Municipal Jurisdictional Frameworks\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaws N\u0026deg;9.841 and N\u0026deg;10.004 \u0026ndash; integral components of the Master Road Plan for the Metropolitan Area \u0026ndash; regulate territorial planning in C\u0026oacute;rdoba\u0026rsquo;s metropolitan region. These statutes formally classify parks, grasslands, and protected natural areas as \"Recreational Green Spaces\", a designation functionally analogous to UGI within the planning framework. The legislation additionally establishes an \"Agricultural Production Zone\" category, which may be classified within UGI frameworks due to its multifunctional landscape benefits. Both categories are classified as non-developable land under current regulations. However, these laws (enacted 2010\u0026ndash;2011) fail to incorporate contemporary climate governance frameworks (Paris Agreement\u0026rsquo;s and SDG 2030) maintaining a restrictive approach that prioritizes real estate expansion over the ecological planning of the territory.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the city of C\u0026oacute;rdoba, only 9.56% of the territory is categorized as green, natural or risk areas (IDECOR, 2025), the latter being limited to the banks of the Suqu\u0026iacute;a River, while ignoring other urban hydrological and geomorphological risks that have been little explored.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Green Lungs Program led by the Provincial Government (Ministerio de Ambiente y Econom\u0026iacute;a Circular, n.d.) and targeting local municipalities, promotes ecological restoration through afforestation strategies aligned with SDG 13 and 15. The program's voluntary adoption and fragmented application by municipalities, without a comprehensive UGI strategy of provincial scope, makes the program's impact less robust.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the municipal level, ordinances such as N\u0026deg; 8.060/1985 (Land Subdivision Regulations) mandate a 10% green space allocation in new developments, while Ordinance N\u0026deg; 8.133/1985 (Land Use Zoning) establishes zoning classifications without fully integrating UES criteria or providing clear definitions of UGI. This regulation identifies UGI as including natural reserves, metropolitan-scale parks, horticultural areas, and natural resource utilization zones. However, it effectively obscures UGI by embedding it within other land-use categories, particularly residential zones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is worth noting the conceptual mismatch between the zoning categories and land use types, and the global frameworks along with the SEU and IVU categories. Despite the update of the land use map in 2021 through Ordinance N\u0026deg; 13.131 (Territorial Planning Plan for the Intermediate and Peripheral Area of the City of C\u0026oacute;rdoba), the criteria for industrial use and real estate development remain outdated in their theoretical basis. In contrast to Provincial Law N\u0026deg; 9.841, there is no evident initiative to reduce socio-environmental vulnerability or increase resilience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrdinance N\u0026deg; 9.962/1998, \"Criteria for the Architectural, Urban, and Environmental Design of Public Green Spaces,\" introduces conceptual advances by classifying green spaces according to environmental functions (e.g., thermal regulation) and requiring a minimum of \"effective green space\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[1]\u003c/sup\u003e.\" However, its application remains limited due to a lack of monitoring. The ordinance establishes green space (GS) typologies and a functional classification system. However, no city GS classification map exists, nor were any indicators, monitoring tools, or compliance mechanisms identified to verify whether each GS meets the required \"effective green space\" percentage. Furthermore, there are no documents available confirming the existence of integrated management plans for parks exceeding 5 hectares.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore recent regulations like Ordinance N\u0026deg; 12.370/2014 (Green Corridor Network) aim to ecologically connect the city's green spaces with natural and semi-natural systems in the peri-urban area through green infrastructure, urban tree canopy, and green walls. This strengthens ecological connectivity while providing environmental services to mitigate the urban heat island effect. Although the ordinance provides for surveying and mapping tools, to date no such instruments have been identified.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrdinance N\u0026deg;12.472/2015 on Urban Public Tree Planting regulates street trees and green space vegetation, including a zoning-based forestry plan that specifies suitable native species. While this represents a technical-operational approach, it lacks comprehensive tree planting planning aligned with the city's environmental needs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, Ordinance N\u0026deg;12.548/2016 (updated in 2024) on Green Roofs and Walls partially aligns urban planning with climate objectives by introducing building code modifications aimed at energy efficiency and urban heat island mitigation. However, it lacks a systemic vision integrating the UGI as a core component of urban resilience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u0026oacute;rdoba\u0026rsquo;s regulatory framework reveals absence of coordination. These policies function as isolated instruments for managing urban ecosystem interventions, lacking clear articulation across government scales or alignment with contemporary priorities. Outdated approaches fail to address the climate emergency, systematically relegating green infrastructure to a secondary role behind real estate development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Table\u0026nbsp;1 (Supplementary Material 2) presents a synthesis of the results, disclosing the relationship between each regulation and the analytical axes of Climate Change, UGI and UES. This material organically reveals the normative scaffolding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Results from Interviews with Academics and Professionals, and Government Officials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings emerge from both interview analysis and interpretation through the previously compiled and systematized conceptual framework. For each thematic area, we present a perspective that synthesizes and contrasts the discourse of government officials with that of professionals regarding the issues examined.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese synthesis themes are: (1) Definition of urban green infrastructure and its key characteristics; (2) Urban ecosystem services and their relationship to UGI; (3) Role of biodiversity in urban environments; (4) Strategies to Enhance Urban Ecosystem Services; (5) Tools, Variables and Indicators for UGI Planning; (6) Threats Facing UGI. A summary of the results presented in this section is provided in Table\u0026nbsp;2 (Supplementary Material 2).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1 Definition of urban green infrastructure and its key characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGovernment officials:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOfficials formulated their definition of UGI by identifying a set of descriptive characteristics, while conceptually linking the UGI concept to that of 'green spaces' a term specific to the provincial and municipal regulatory frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to these actors, public green spaces are designated for social use and provide ecosystem services, including mitigation of the urban heat island effect and improvements to physical and mental health. These spaces, together with street trees (or the urban forest), constitute the city\u0026rsquo;s green infrastructure. They acknowledge that connectivity between these elements is essential for maintaining ecological functionality and forming corridors for flora and fauna conservation. In terms of management aspects embedded in this conceptualization, green spaces are planned and administered by municipal governments and serve to offset and regulate real estate development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThey attribute a compensatory purpose to UGI, manifested through the reservation of parcels as public green spaces when land use changes to urbanization. This approach aims to preserve environmental functions and enhance urban cohesion. Notably, there is explicit recognition of the State's role as both planner and administrator of UGI - positioned as a capable, competent, and responsible agent for implementing public policy through regulatory instruments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademics and professionals:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the expert group, there is consensus that UGI constitutes a territorially planned network of open spaces, natural or semi-natural, and constructed, containing existing or potential vegetation, whether naturally occurring or intentionally planted. These spaces form an integral part of the broader landscape and serve as a physicochemical support system for ecological processes. This strategically designed system of nodes and linkages, adapted to the urban fabric, sustains 'human and more-than-human life\u003csup\u003e[2]\u003c/sup\u003e' (Interviewee 2, personal communication, 2024). The UGI (Urban Green Infrastructure) is multifunctional. It must meet safety and habitability conditions for people, preserve its cultural components (emphasizing activities that promote the conservation and care of natural and common spaces), and maintain natural elements, which are key for landscape connectivity. Additionally, the system is multi-scalar and serves as a structuring framework for land uses along an urban-rural gradient, where conditions for the sustainable development of the territory must be articulated. The planning of the UGI should be formalized in a regulatory instrument.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe construction of the concept by this group of stakeholders encompasses the diversity of elements that make up a definition of UGI from different perspectives. It is important to highlight that in the discourse of professionals, the dimensions observed in the literature emerge\u0026mdash;specifically, a definition integrating both the ecological perspective and the planning perspective, tailored to the local conditions of the community and the environment. Additionally, it contributes to the discussion on from what standpoint territorial planning should be approached, raising the question of how far and in what ways to intervene in non-human life systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.2 Urban ecosystem services and their relationship to Urban Green Infrastructure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGovernment officials:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOfficials defined the concept of UES by outlining certain characteristics and functions. They identified the roles of UGI (Urban Green Infrastructure) as including urban temperature regulation, along with functions tied to social, cultural, and psychophysical health uses. They also mentioned ES related to biodiversity, pollutant control, or windbreaks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEven though respondents listed UES in their answers, they did not develop their understanding based on the biophysical processes or the interactions between the elements that support their production. In other words, they failed to recognize that UES strictly depend on the interactions between the components of UGI. The lack of qualified technical staff may pose an obstacle to properly planning and managing UGI.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademics and professionals:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThey present different definitions of UES aligned with academic theoretical frameworks. For instance, they reference the Nature's Contributions to People (NCP) framework - specifically contributions from ecological structure or function - or concepts proposed by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Within these frameworks, they exemplify various UES categorized under traditional classifications, recognizing regulatory UES (thermal regulation, flood control) and cultural UES (mental health benefits, aesthetic values, education, social gathering spaces), among others. However, from these frameworks, they generate a redefinition of UES linked to social interaction and sense of identity. They speak of healthy habitability conceived as the conditions of well-being for both people and biodiversity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalysis of the responses revealed two underlying trends in the provided definitions. The first positions humans as beneficiaries or recipients of contributions from the biophysical system to human quality of life, often associating these with quantifiable dimensions that could plausibly be assigned a monetary value. The second trend emphasizes human dependence on ecological interactions as the foundation for habitable conditions, introducing a perspective that views the components and interactions within GI as common goods. This latter approach is crucial for public policy planning aimed at reducing both social and ecosystem vulnerability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.3 Role of biodiversity in urban environments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGovernment officials:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the role of biodiversity, two different responses were obtained. From the municipal executive, there is an association with the ecological concept of species abundance. It is under this interpretation that the actions being carried out consist of reforestation and species enrichment. As an example, it was explained how rehabilitation and reforestation efforts in public spaces in high-income areas of the city improved the landscape quality and increased the use of public space.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the provincial executive, biodiversity is associated with identity values, where native species take on relevance. It is assigned a cultural role that underpins processes of social and community development. The official's perspective operates on a broad territorial scale, without taking a position on particular cases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is noted that there is no recognition of the role of biodiversity as essential for supporting ecosystem services as a whole, beyond its cultural value. This disconnect is also evident in the regulations outlining the functions that green spaces should fulfill. Understanding the processes and basic conditions of naturalness is fundamental for managing and implementing the public policy outlined in current regulations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademics and professionals:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis group recognizes the role of biodiversity in supporting ecosystem services that mitigate and address environmental challenges. Within biodiversity, they argue that vegetation is the key element and highlight the need to promote functional diversity and varied life forms in vegetation, which helps enhance diverse habitats for other species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor this to happen, professionals assert that it is necessary to allow biodiversity to thrive and to coexist with it, a goal that can be achieved through clear policy guidelines and management strategies. Without explicitly stating it, the professionals point to deficiencies in UGI management as one of the obstacles preventing existing biodiversity from reaching its full potential in terms of cultural ecosystem services, thermal regulation, or hydrological control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.4 Strategies to Enhance Urban Ecosystem Services\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGovernment officials:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding potential strategies to enhance the UES provided by UGI, the relevant municipal department focuses primarily on tree planting and sanitary maintenance of the urban tree canopy. The creation of biological corridors is mentioned as a possible strategy, but no concrete actions, plans, or public policies are observed to promote UGI connectivity at an urban or metropolitan scale. At the provincial level, the strategy reiterates the concept of ecological restoration, emphasizing the recovery and incorporation of native trees as a key approach.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe responses obtained are consistent with the management approaches or UES that officials prioritize, which focus almost exclusively on tree cover. However, they fail to recognize that UGI should support greater biodiversity and create complex structures capable of replicating intricate biophysical processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademics and professionals:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe professionals argue that enhancing the capacity of UGI to provide UES requires careful planning of its design and public policy management mechanisms. In this planning process, citizen participation, co-creation with local communities, and interdisciplinary collaboration are considered crucial. Equally important are access to information and education, which provide the foundation for developing proposals and monitoring methods, a fundamental stage for guiding and assessing the impact of implemented actions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, they propose the framework of Nature-Based Solutions, which involves respecting natural rhythms and cycles, along with promoting ecological corridors and landscape design that enhances connectivity and ecological interaction. This approach also includes vegetation management guidelines and the avoidance of agrotoxins.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.5 Tools, Variables and Indicators for UGI Planning\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGovernment officials:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt becomes evident that the tools being employed are closely tied to routine management practices, which do not necessarily reflect the integration of variables and indicators used for planning and monitoring purposes. At the municipal level, the focus remains on a limited set of dasometric and sanitary variables specific to urban tree management, rather than comprehensive UGI planning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the provincial level, there is recognition of the need to monitor the progress of restoration efforts, focusing on measuring variables related to soil conditions, wildlife presence in restored areas, and the development of introduced vegetation. However, technical deficiencies persist regarding how to establish and implement an environmental baseline and monitoring system. The lack of concrete elements hinders the development of public policies aligned with national regulatory frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademics and professionals:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe professionals propose tools for integrating variables and indicators, capable of incorporating them into complex, multidimensional, and multi-scale analyses. The use of spatial data infrastructures as information sources, geographic information systems (GIS), or models like InVEST (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs), among others, proves highly effective for analyzing diverse variables related to biodiversity, climate, social factors and economic factors. These tools enable comprehensive assessment of urban landscape complexity. They argue that the selection of variables and tools for UGI planning must be approached through an interdisciplinary lens, guided by a fundamental question: How can we effectively interconnect UGI systems?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.6 Threats Facing UGI\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGovernment officials:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOfficials identified private real estate developers as the primary drivers and planners of new green spaces. While the development sector complies with Ordinance N\u0026deg; 8.060 regarding land allocation for public green spaces, we observe weak enforcement and monitoring of Ordinance N\u0026deg; 9.962 - a deficiency that threatens the mandated ecological functions of Green Infrastructure (GI). At the provincial level, authorities highlight another critical challenge: their inability to generate essential data for effective GI planning and management, despite this being their institutional responsibility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademics and professionals:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary threat identified by professionals is real estate developers or urban sprawl driven by property development lobbies, compounded by inadequate urban planning and deficiencies in land-use regulations. This advancement contributes to: the anthropization of fragile, high-ecological-value environments; soil sealing; poor vegetation and hydrological system management practices; and increasing pollution, among other impacts. Experts emphasize the absence of citizen participation mechanisms and access to information as critical deficiencies that must be addressed for effective UGI planning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study results demonstrate that Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI) emerges as a key component for strengthening cities' socio-environmental resilience through urban development planning based on ecological criteria. However, a significant gap was identified between international theoretical frameworks and national regulatory frameworks that guide urbanization processes and their effective implementation at subnational and local levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of regulatory frameworks and the discourse of government and professional stakeholders reveals that provincial and municipal regulations tend to align with broader national laws but lack an integrative perspective. These regulations show weak coordination across jurisdictional levels and address the issue in a fragmented manner, failing to fully incorporate contemporary environmental governance approaches or the principles of EbA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLikewise, institutional and technical limitations were identified in the agencies responsible for planning and managing UGI. Interviews with officials revealed gaps in specialized training, difficulties in accessing and producing territorial information, and a lack of regulatory guidelines to steer the implementation of public policies from an ecosystem perspective. These weaknesses result in ineffective planning and the perpetuation of practices that undermine urban sustainability goals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, the literature review and interviews with professionals and scientists indicated the existence of sufficient technical capacity to implement EbA-based planning tools. However, the identified obstacles relate to institutional weaknesses, such as a lack of specialized human resources, inadequate political practices, the absence of citizen participation mechanisms, and the low priority given to urban resilience and climate change adaptation in the political agenda.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn particular, it was found that the urban development model driven by real estate expansion poses a critical threat to the connectivity of the UGI and the fulfillment of its ecosystem functions, especially in contexts where land-use regulations favor urbanization without considering sustainability criteria.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this context, it is concluded that the planning and management of the UGI must be institutionalized as a structural, cross-cutting, and sustainable public policy, anchored in trans-scalar governance (Dellmuth \u0026amp; Gustafsson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This policy must engage actors from the public, private, scientific, and civil society sectors, while ensuring effective mechanisms for citizen participation, transparency, and access to information in planning processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOvercoming fragmented approaches and implementing EbA requires advancing toward an urban commons framework, one that ensures equitable access to ecosystem services, socio-economic improvement strategies, and community-based development planning, particularly for and with the most vulnerable social sectors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the methodology employed enabled a cross-cutting and comprehensive analysis of concepts, regulations, public officials' management practices, and scientific-professional knowledge related to UGI planning and governance. This approach revealed gaps and shortcomings in public policy design and implementation, while also proposing potential guidelines to enhance climate change adaptation planning processes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data supporting the results of this study are available, but restrictions apply to the availability of the data as they are derived from interviews with participants. Information may be requested from the corresponding author (Pablo Goldner) with reasonable justification.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe sincerely thank all participants who generously gave their time for the interviews. This study could not have been conducted without their involvement. \u0026nbsp;We also acknowledge the support on the part of the public national system of science and technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have received no funds, grants, or other support during the preparation of this manuscript. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors and Affiliations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstitute of Advanced Space Studies \u0026quot;Mario Gulich\u0026quot; \u0026ndash; National Commission on Space Activities (CONAE) C\u0026oacute;rdoba, Argentina\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePablo Goldner \u0026amp; Mar\u0026iacute;a Victoria Marinelli\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstitute of Biological and Technological Research (IIBYT) \u0026ndash; National Research Council Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), C\u0026oacute;rdoba, Argentina\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePablo Goldner \u0026amp; Juan Ariel Insaurralde\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eContributions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors conceptualized the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGoldner: Conceptualization, data collection, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing\u0026mdash;original draft \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsaurralde: Methodology, writing review, supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMarinelli: Writing review, supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorresponding author\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrespondence to Pablo Goldner\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number: not applicable\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors submitted the study protocol to the National University of C\u0026oacute;rdoba before beginning the research, followed Argentina\u0026rsquo;s National Law No. 25,326 on Personal Data Protection, and adhered to the Ethical Principles for Social Sciences and Humanities established by the Research Ethics Committee of the National University of C\u0026oacute;rdoba. The National University of C\u0026oacute;rdoba confirmed that no formal approval was needed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe participant has consented to the submission of the case report to the journal.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflicts of interest with the content of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAdditional information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePublisher\u0026apos;s Note\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCamilloni I. 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Legitimacy in the trans-scalar governance of climate adaptation. npj Clim Action. 2023;2:2. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s44168-023-00036-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/s44168-023-00036-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Footnotes","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e Ordinance 9962 defines \"Effective Green Space\" as: \"the combination of plant species of varying size, structure, and foliar/root architecture capable of performing permanent or semi-permanent assimilatory, productive, and bio-digestion functions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e The interviewee adopts a biocentric paradigm. From this perspective, 'Non-Human Life' refers to the diversity of living organisms that coexist with humans.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-environment","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Environment](https://www.springer.com/44274/)","snPcode":"44274","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44274/3","title":"Discover Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Urban Green Infrastructure, Urban Ecosystem Services, Climate Change, Urban Resilience, Ecosystem-based Adaptation, Environmental Regulations","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8031630/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8031630/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn the current climate emergency, enhancing resilience and developing sustainable urban models represents an ongoing challenge, based on a solid theoretical framework to support various management and planning strategies for the territorial organization of cities. The global environmental agenda systematized in international treaties and agreements provides a comprehensive framework for the development of urban resilience policies across multiple levels of government. This article integrates three analytical axes: (1) the conceptualization of Urban green infrastructure (UGI) and Urban ecosystem services (UES) from an ecosystem-based solutions approach, and their interconnection with urban resilience planning processes; (2) the analysis of how the theoretical frameworks of the global environmental agenda are incorporated across different levels of government (national, provincial, and municipal), examining their application in urban planning public policies and their alignment with the climate agenda and the concepts of UGI and UES; (3) the comparison between the normative analysis and the perspectives and conceptual constructions of the actors involved in the process of regulation management and enforcement, as well as in the production of knowledge and professional practice. This study employs a multilevel case study approach, examining national environmental regulations in Argentina, and subnational policy frameworks in C\u0026oacute;rdoba Province. It is concluded that,at the subnational level, regulations are outdated and unharmonized in comparison to global theoretical frameworks. Moreover, public policy managers lack technical skills and there is absence of ecological criteria for participation in the planning and design processes of UGI.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"A Multilevel Analysis of Urban Green Infrastructure Planning Gaps for Climate Resilience in Córdoba Argentina","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-17 07:20:22","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8031630/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-02-13T11:09:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-29T12:24:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-27T02:48:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"245099422580498680945103661702268665688","date":"2025-12-20T19:54:20+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-16T15:25:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"332732079794847516922621862529806254266","date":"2025-12-15T11:14:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"4560588308313365613144103467289792109","date":"2025-12-11T12:55:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-11T12:45:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-19T15:32:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-18T18:18:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Environment","date":"2025-11-18T18:15:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-environment","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Environment](https://www.springer.com/44274/)","snPcode":"44274","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44274/3","title":"Discover Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3bf59e62-808b-45ec-a958-04f68570877b","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-11T14:24:03+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-17 07:20:22","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8031630","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8031630","identity":"rs-8031630","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}