Prevalence of Honeybee Parasites, Pests, and Their Associated Risk Factors in Central Ethiopia

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This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of honeybee parasites and pests in central Ethiopia from January 2025 to June 2025. Methods A cross-sectional design was employed, combining laboratory tests with a questionnaire survey of 100 beekeepers to identify risk factors affecting honeybee management. A total of 395 honeybee colonies from apiaries and backyard systems were sampled for laboratory analysis to detect pests. Data analysis was conducted via STATA version 14, including descriptive statistics, frequency analysis, and chi-square tests, with a significance level set at p < 0.05. Results The results revealed that the most common pests in honeybee colonies were ants (34.8%), wax moths (34.6%), small hive beetles (19.8%), and Varroa mites (10.6%). The study identified key challenges in beekeeping, such as pest attacks, limited forage (17.7%), absconding (16.77%), pesticide use (14.8%), water shortages (10.85%), colony mortality (10%), and migration (6.5%). The laboratory results revealed that the colony level prevalence of Varroa mites was 53.6%, that of bee lice was 3.04%, and that of Nosema apis was 17.22%. Notably, Varroa mite infestation was significantly associated (p < 0.05) with the type of colony management, with a 1.9 folder greater risk in modern apiary systems than in backyard systems. Conclusion This study highlights the significant impacts of pests such as ants, wax moths, small hive beetles, Varroa mites, and Nosema on honeybee health in the study area. This emphasized the importance of raising awareness about the risks of purchasing colonies from unknown sources and implementing effective quarantine measures. Honeybee parasite Honeybee pests Prevalence Risk factor Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. INTRODUCTION Beekeeping is an opportunity to harvest and add value to a local resource (floral nectar) to generate wealth and employment. Products from beekeeping contribute to the income and livelihood improvement of rural people. In addition, beekeeping plays an important role in providing export commodities and in environmental conservation [ 1 ]. In addition, veterinarians have used honey for the clinical wound management of myiasis and pododermatitis [ 2 ]. Honeybees play a crucial role in the environment by pollinating flowering plants and producing bee products [ 3 ]. Apiculture is valuable for rural livelihoods worldwide [ 4 ]. Beekeeping is a long-standing practice in the rural communities of Ethiopia [ 5 ]The beekeeping sub-sector has been an integral part of agriculture in Ethiopia. The country has enormous apicultural resources that make it the leading honey and beeswax producer in Africa [ 6 ]. Ethiopia is known for its tremendous variation in agroclimatic conditions and biodiversity, which favors the existence of diverse honeybee flora and a large number of honeybee colonies [ 7 ]. The essential and valuable contributions of honeybees depend upon their healthy population. The health of honeybees has been one of the most important topics in apiculture research in recent years [ 8 ]. Honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) are susceptible to pests and diseases, the majority of which are specific to honeybees. Beekeepers need to be aware of these disorders, to identify them, and effectively manage them to maintain healthy colonies. This is particularly important because the health of one beekeeper’s colony can influence another beekeeper’s colony in the surrounding area. Nosema disease, which is caused by a protozoan known as N. apis , is known to weaken the bee colonies by infecting the intestinal tract of adult bees and causing the death of bees several days earlier than that of normal healthy bees by 22–44%. N. apis has detrimental effects on honeybee colony development, queen performance, and honey production in Ethiopia, as reported by the Holeta Bee Research Center (HBRC) [ 9 , 10 ]. There was no positive result indicating the presence of the Acarine mite in Ethiopia [ 11 ]. [ 12 ] Dabessa and Belay (2015) reported that the existence of pests and predators was a major challenge for honeybees and beekeepers in the Tigray and Oromia Regions, respectively. The major pests and predators are ants, wax moths ( Galleria mellonella ), bee lice ( Braula coecal ), beetles ( Aethina tumida ), spiders, wasps, praying mantids, lizards, snakes, birds, and honey badgers ( Mellivora capensis ). Despite the high degree of beekeeping, the amount of resources available for honey and beeswax production in Ethiopia has thus far been much lower than its annual estimate [ 13 ]. The general image shows that in many beekeeping locations, the production of honey is decreasing. The benefit from the beekeeping sector to the nation and beekeepers has generally not been satisfactory [ 14 ]. Several factors have been suggested to constrain honeybees and deteriorate beekeeping activity in the country [ 5 ]. Like other living organisms, the lives and products of honeybees are affected by harmful diseases, pests, and toxic materials. Successful beekeeping requires regular and timely monitoring of any factors that endanger honeybee life and threaten honeybee products. In addition to identifying the occurrence and distribution of endangering factors, regular monitoring helps in the development of prevention and/or control mechanisms. A series of field diagnostic surveys and laboratory analyses have been conducted to identify and characterize honeybee diseases and pests associated with local honeybees in Ethiopia [ 9 , 10 , 15 ]. In the study area, there is a lack of adequate documentation regarding the types and prevalence of parasites, bee pests, and external parasite effects on honeybees, which makes it difficult for beekeepers to understand the problem. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the problems associated with beekeeping and the health of honeybees, as well as to evaluate risk factors related to honeybee pests, parasites, and honeybee constraints in the Sebeta sub-city, Addis Ababa sub-city, and the districts of the Gurage Zone in the Central, Regional State of Ethiopia. Therefore, the objectives of the study were as follows: To identify parasites and pests of honey bees in the study areas. To estimate the prevalence of the disease caused by parasites in honey bee colonies in the study areas. To assess the risk factors associated with beekeeping activity in the study areas. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Description of the Study Area The study was conducted in Sebeta subcity, Addis Ababa subcity, and selected districts of the Gurage Zone in the Central Regional State of Ethiopia. The study is being carried out in the Sebeta district, which is 24 kilometers west of Addis Ababa on the main road to Jimma, and in the special zone of Oromia regional state in the central highlands of Ethiopia. The area receives an average annual rainfall of approximately 1100 mm, more than 85% of which falls during the main rainy season (June to September). The altitude of the area ranges from 2200–2600 m.a.s.l., and the average annual temperature ranges from 6–21°C. The Sebeta subcity has 5872 bee hives (Sebeta Subcity Agricultural Office, 2024). Nifas silk lafto is one of the subcities of Addis Ababa, and is found in the southwest of the city of Addis Ababa 620 bee hive population (Nifas silk lafto Agricultural Office, 2024. The Kolfe Keranio subcity is located in the western part of Addis Ababa, 554 bee hive population (Kolfe Keranio Agricultural Office, 2024); Akaki-Kaliti is one of the urban zones of Addis Ababa and is located in the southern part of the city center, with 604 bee hive population (Akaki-Kaliti Subcity Agricultural Office, 2024). The Gurage Zone is located in the Central Regional State of Ethiopia, which is part of central Ethiopia. The zone is divided into three agroecological zones: highlands (31.6%), mid-highlands (65.3%), and lowlands (3.1%). The annual average rainfall ranges from 200 mm/annum to 1,400 mm/annum, and the temperature records are 7–32°C (DOFED, 2024). The Abeshege is located 30 km from Wolkite Town, one of the cities in the Gurage Zone. Abeshege had a bee hive population of 4232 (Abeshege Agricultural Office, 2024). The Cheha district in southern Ethiopia has an annual rainfall of 800-1,200 mm and an altitude range of 1,200-2,600 m.a.s.l. Cheha had a Bee hive population of 3431 (Cheha Agricultural Office, 2024). The Kebena district is one of the rural districts in the Gurage Zone and is characterized by a tropical climate of heavy rainfall and warm temperatures. The district has a mean annual temperature of 17–20 0 C. Its altitude ranges from 1700-2008m a.s.l, with 906 mm of annual rainfall, and has a bee hive population of 3096 (Kebena Agricultural office, 2024). 2.2. Study Design A cross-sectional study was conducted in central Ethiopia from January 2025 to June 2025 on honeybee colonies managed via various beekeeping methods to estimate the prevalence of major honeybee parasitic diseases and pests. 2.3. Sampling Method and Sample Size Determination. A purposive sampling procedure was used to select honeybee colonies. In the first stage, the districts Abeshige (146), Kebena (27), Cheha (29), Sebeta Subcity (79), Akaki Kality (36), Nifas Silk (49), and Kolfe Keraniyo Subcities (29) were chosen via purposive sampling and beekeeping potential, which was proportional to the number of hives found in the study area. In the second stage, three kebeles from Abeshige, one kebele from Kebena, one rural kebele from Cheha, and two kebeles from each of Addis Ababa's subcities were purposely chosen based on accessibility by vehicles and the potential of beekeeping. From all rural kebeles, beekeepers were selected via purposive sampling, regardless of whether the owners were volunteers, and emphasis was also given to those with many colonies, because the samples were collected at night with the help of the Woreda Agricultural Office. In the third stage, simple random sampling techniques were used to select honeybee colonies. A total of 395 bee colonies were selected randomly, and honey bee adults were sampled from the sampling sites. The sample size was determined according to [ 16 ], where n is the required sample size, p exp is the expected prevalence, and d is the desired absolute precision. $$\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:n\:=1.96\:2\:\left(pexp\right)\:(1\:-\:pexp)$$ $$\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:d2\:$$ By using 50%, the expected prevalence with a 95% confidence interval at 5% absolute precision, 384 hives are needed. The samples were collected at night to reduce disturbance to the environment by honeybees. A total of 100 beekeepers were selected purposefully based on their activity in extension services and experience in keeping honeybees to obtain reliable information for the interviewed respondents about the major pests and predators that challenge their colonies. The experience and activity of extension services in beekeeping were identified with the help of professional experts on the respective woredas and kebeles peasant associations. The sample size followed the Arsham formula, where n is the required sample size, and SE is equal to 5% [ 17 ]. $$\:n\:=\:0.25/SE2$$ 2.4. Study Methodology A sample unit was defined as a single beehive. Explanatory variables, or risk factors, such as hive types, districts, and management systems, were examined to determine whether they influenced the prevalence of pests and parasitic diseases affecting honeybees. There are three types of bee hives: improved movable frame hives, intermediate hives, and traditional hives, which are the three categories used to classify hive types. The observed management systems categorized the hives as being located in backyards, apiaries, or enclosed spaces. All tools and protective gear were cleaned and sanitized before hive inspections. To prevent the spread of disease from one honeybee colony to another, the chisel and gloves were thoroughly cleaned and changed. 2.5. Method of Data Collection 2.5.1 Questionnaire Survey A questionnaire survey was designed for both primary and secondary data collection in the study. The secondary data were obtained from the report office of the agriculture woreda, whereas the primary data were gathered from a sample of household keepers via a semi-structured questionnaire and field observations. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. For the quantitative data, the variables included age, livestock holding size, number of hives owned, honeybee absconding, colony marketing, amount of honey harvested, and honeybee performance (bee population, brood, nectar, and pollen areas). The qualitative data included sex and educational level of the respondents, types of hives owned, beekeeping placements, potential constraints of beekeeping, distributions of honeybee diseases and parasites, and hygienic behavior. For details regarding the questionnaire format (supplementary file) 2.5.2. Examination of Varroa mites and bee lice Adult worker honeybee samples were taken from bee colonies contained in traditional beehives, improved movable frame hives, and intermediate hives. Approximately 250 adult worker honeybees were taken from each bee colony and placed straight into a plastic jar with a wide mouth. After being gathered, the adult worker honeybees were killed and preserved in 70% ethyl alcohol before being sent to the Laboratory's animal health institution (AHI), Sebeta, Ethiopia. To remove the bee lice and Varroa mites, they were placed separately in 250 ml containers with 1% detergent-water solution and vigorously shaken for one minute. By modifying the solution with a ladle (8–12 mesh) that keeps bees back and releases the mites along with the solutions, the mites were collected. The bee lice and varroa mites were then held back, and the solutions were released using wire gauze. The mesh wire gauze was turned over onto white paper, which was used to count and examine the varroa mites and bee lice [ 18 ]. 2.5.3. Observation of small hive beetles and wax moths Through the use of semi-structured questionnaires for beekeeper interviews and hive inspection, the prevalence and significance of honeybee pests in the study areas were ascertained. Nevertheless, a check of the beehives revealed the presence of wax moths and small hive beetle larvae. Many morphological and behavioral traits allow for the differentiation of wax moths and small hive beetle larvae. The presence of small hive beetle infestation ( Aethina tumida ) was identified through its adult, larvae, or pupae and colony examination methods, as described by [ 19 ]. The larvae of small hive beetles have pairs of prominent brownish dorsal spines on each segment, with only 3 pairs of anterior prolegs. Based on the report of [ 20 ]the larvae of the wax moth have no spines but several setae (hairs)on each segment with 8 pairs of prolegs (3 pairs, 4 pairs, and 1 pair on the anterior, abdominal, and last segments, respectively). Unlike small hive beetles, silken galleries are produced. 2.5.4. Laboratory Examination of Nosema From the hive entrance, a sample of thirty to sixty adult worker honeybees was taken. The sample bees were preserved in 70% alcohol until they were sent for laboratory analysis. The abdomen of each honeybee sample was removed via scissors. Using a pestle and mortar with 5–10 mm of distilled water was used to grind the sliced abdomens until an even suspension was achieved. Before the mortar and pestle were used once more, they were thoroughly cleaned. Using the sterilized loop, a suspension loop was placed on the microscopic slide and covered with a cover slide. A light microscope with a 40x-magnification was used to examine the suspension to determine the presence of Nosema spores [ 21 ]. 2.6. Data Management and Statistical Analysis The data were entered and coded into Microsoft Excel and imported into the STATA software version 14 (Stata Corporation, College Station, USA) for statistical analysis. A chi-square test was used to assess the associations of the risk factors with the prevalence of major parasitic diseases in honeybees. Additionally, logistic regression was used. Statistical significance was set at a p-value of less than 0.05 with 95% confidence intervals. The data collected through semi-structured questionnaires were analyzed via descriptive statistics, and different types of beekeeping constraints were ranked via the rank index formula described by Musa et al . (2006). Rank index = sum of (5 X number of households rank first + 4 X number of households ranked second + 3 X number of households ranked third + 2 X number of household ranked fourth + 1 X X number of households ranked fifth) for an individual reason divided by the sum of (5 X number of households ranked first + 4 X number of households ranked second + 3 X number of households ranked third + 2 X number of households ranked fourth + 1 X number of households ranked fifth) for overall reasons. 2.7. Ethical Approval Ethical clearance for this study was obtained from the Ambo University Guder Mamo Mezemir Campus Ethical Review Board. Before the research was conducted, verbal consent was obtained from the hives' owners to collect samples from their hives and honeybees for laboratory examinations. 3. RESULTS 3.1. Socioeconomic Characteristics of the Respondent Among the 100 sampled houses, 92% had a male head, and 8% had a female head. This indicates that women are much less involved in beekeeping activities in the studied areas than men, and beekeeping is still viewed as a male-dominated occupation there. Beekeeping in the study area involved both educated and uneducated beekeepers; however, those with an educational background are more productive because they transfer knowledge about improved beekeeping technologies more quickly than their uneducated counterparts (Table 1). Table 1: Sex, educational, and marital status of the respondents . Socioeconomic variable Category N Percentage (%) Sex Male 92 92 Female 8 8 Education Illiterate 11 11 Attended high school 9 9 Completed Primary education 68 68 Completed Secondary education 8 8 College 4 4 Marital status Single 6 6 Married 86 86 Widow 4 4 Widower 4 4 N=Number of respondents 3.2. Major Constraints of Beekeeping The respondents mentioned several obstacles affecting the beekeeping business related to honeybees, such as a lack of equipment, a lack of a well-trained workforce, honey bee pests and diseases, the limited availability of modern beekeeping equipment, and the inappropriate use of pesticides (Table 2). Table 2: Reported constraints that affect beekeeping development in the study area Reported constraint The relative degree of importance according to the respondent Index Overall rank 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th Lack of bee forage 14 22 24 28 10 2 0 0.177 2 Lack of water 0 6 16 14 20 28 16 0.1085 5 Migration 0 0 4 8 10 24 54 0.0656 7 Absconding 12 22 22 20 16 8 0 0.1677 3 Pests and predators 60 34 2 4 0 0 0 0.2319 1 Pesticide and herbicide 10 14 24 6 32 8 6 0.1472 4 Colony death 2 4 8 22 12 28 24 0.1006 6 Index = sum of (7 * the number of households ranked first + 6 * number of households ranked second + 5 *the number of households ranked third + 4 * number of household ranked fourth + 3* the number of households ranked fiveth+2*number of households ranked six+1* number of households ranked seventh) for an individual reason divided by the sum of sum of (7 * number of households ranked first + 6 * number of households ranked second + 5 *the number of households ranked third + 4 * number of household ranked fourth + 3*number of households ranked fiveth+2*number of households ranked six+1* number of households ranked seventh) for overall constraints. 3.3. Major Pests and Predators in the Study Area These naturally occurring bee attackers are known to seriously harm life and contribute to honeybee colonies, which is just one of the many limitations of beekeeping (Table 3). Table 3: Rank index for major pests of honeybees in the study area Honeybee pests The relative degree of importance according to the respondent Index Overall rank 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th Ants 52 44 4 0 0.3486 1 Wax moth 46 54 0 0 0.3466 2 Bee lice/mites 0 0 6 94 0.106 4 Beetle 0 4 90 6 0.198 3 Index = Sum of (4*number of households ranked first+3*number of households ranked second+2*number of households ranked third+1*number of households ranked fourth) for individual pests and predators divided by the sum of (4*number of households ranked first+3*number of households ranked second+2*number of households ranked third+1*number of households ranked fourth) for overall pests and predators. 3.4. Source of the bee colony and placement of the hive Before beginning beekeeping, the beekeeper determines the source of honeybee colonies based on availability. During an interview with respondents in the study area, they stated that they obtained the established colony (63.4%) by buying colonies, (16.8%) by catching natural swarms, and (19.8%) catching swarms were common techniques used by almost all beekeepers in the study area (Figure 1). According to this finding, the majority of beekeepers placed their honeybee colonies in the backyard (41.6%), closure areas (47.5%), and hanging areas on trees (10.9%) (Figure 2). 3.5. Prevalence of Varroa Mites Among the 395 colonies examined, 212 (53.6%) were varroa mite-positive. The study found that the prevalence of varroa was higher in the moveable-frame hive types (54.5%) than in the intermediate hives (47.8%) and the traditional hive types (53.4%). We found that the apiary colony management system had a higher varroa prevalence (57.9%) compared to the backyard colony management system (41.9%). A statistically significant difference was observed (χ2=7.9; P<0.05). The increased prevalence of varroa mites in apiary management systems could be attributed to the introduction of unknown colony sources for transfer to contemporary hives, as well as differences in interactions between colonies. Most beekeepers sell colonies that are underperforming and/or have been infested with parasites. The introduction of such honeybee colonies into the apiaries increased their distribution within the apiaries. Colonies arranged closely together in the apiaries are believed to facilitate varroa mite transmission among colonies via swarms, drifting, and robbing. Beekeepers most likely spread infestations from one colony to another through frequent apiary manipulations. The type of management was discovered to be an important factor in the prevalence of varroa mites in the study area. Colonies managed in an apiary were 1.9 (OR=1.9, 95% CI=1.2- 3, P=0.05) times more likely to be infested with Varroa mites than colonies managed in a backyard (Figure 3, Tables 4 and 5). Table 4: Summarized data on the prevalence of varroa and various risk factors (means and standard deviations) Risk factors Category Prevalence n(%) Mean Standard deviation Sebeta 0 .57 .498 Districts Nifas silk lafto 6(12.24) .43 .500 Kolfe 12(41.38) .41 .501 Akaki kaliti 2(5.56) .67 .478 Abeshige 26(17.81) .58 .496 Kebena 12(44.44) .48 .509 Cheha 10(34.48) .45 .506 Traditional 41(23.84) .53 .500 Hives type Intermediate 1(4.35) .48 .511 Modern 26(13) .54 .499 Management Backyard 12(11.4) .42 .496 Apiary 56(19.3) .58 .495 Table 5: Univariate logistic regression analysis of risk factors associated with the prevalence of Varroa mites in honeybee colonies Risk factors Total(n) Positive(n) Positive (%) χ 2 OR 95% CI P-value Districts Sebeta 79 45 56.9 8.9 1 .175 Nefase Silk Lafto 49 21 42.8 .056 0.27-1.2 Kolfe 29 12 41.3 .053 0.22-1.2 Akaki kaliti 36 24 66.7 1.5 0.66-3 Abeshige 146 84 57.5 1.02 0.6-1.7 Kebena 27 13 48.1 .7 0.29-1.6 Cheha 29 13 44.8 .6 0.26-1.4 Hive type 0.8 Traditional 172 92 53.4 0.37 .96 .64- 1.4 Intermediate 23 11 47.8 .76 .32- 1.8 Modern hive 200 109 54.5 1 Sampling site Back yard 105 44 41.9 7.9 1 0 .005 Apiary 290 168 57.9 1.9 1.2- 3. 3.6. Prevalence of bee lice ( Braula Coeca ) The prevalence of bee lice was 12 (3.04%) of the adult honeybee infestations examined. In the present study, the prevalence of bee lice was higher in Kebena and lower in Abeshige, and Nifas silk lafto was greater in prevalence and lower in Akaki Kaliti, the Sebeta subcity. Despite variations in prevalence, no statistically significant (P>0.05) difference was observed across all districts. When comparing hive types, the prevalence of bee lice was higher in traditional hives (4.07%) than in movable frame hives (2%). The study found that honeybee colonies under apiary management had a higher prevalence of bee lice (χ2=4.5, p<0.034). This could be due to colony contact and introduction from unknown sources. The colonies in established apiaries are close together, allowing the pest to spread between the colonies by swarming and drifting (Tables 6 and 7). Table 6: Observed prevalence of bee lice and risk factors Risk factors Total(n) Positive(n) Positive (%) χ 2 P-value Districts Sebeta 79 1 1.17 5.16 .522 Nefase Silk Lafto 49 2 4.08 Kolfe 29 0 0 Akaki kaliti 36 1 2.78 Abeshige 146 6 4.11 Kebena 27 2 7 Cheha 29 0 0 Hive type Traditional 172 7 4.07 1.48 0.45 Intermediate 23 1 4.35 Modern hive 200 4 2 Sampling site Back yard 105 0 4.1 4.48 .034 Apiary 290 12 Table 7: Means and standard deviations used to summarize data on the prevalence of bee lice and risk factors Risk factors Category Prevalence n(%) Mean Standard deviation Districts Sebeta 0 % .01 .113 Nifas silk lafto 6(12.24) .04 .200 Kolfe 12(41.38) .00 .00 Akaki kaliti 2(5.56) .3 .167 Abeshige 26(17.81) .4 .199 Kebena 12(44.44) .07 .267 Cheha 10(34.48) .00 .00 Hive type Traditional 41(23.84) .04 .198 Intermediate 1(4.35) .04 .209 Modern 26(13) .02 .140 Sampling site Backyard 12(11.4) .00 .00 Apiary 56(19.3) .04 .20 3.7. Prevalence of Nosema Honeybees sampled from the study area were diagnosed with a prevalence of 17.22%. Among the types of hives, the incidence of Nosema was higher in traditional hives, followed by modern frame hives, with intermediate incidences of 23.8%, 13%, and 4.35, respectively, and this difference was statistically significant (OR=2; 95% CI=1.21-3.598; P<0.05). The prevalence of Nosema significantly differed across the study areas (χ2=52.7, p value<0.05). This difference arises from differences in the hygienic behavior of the bees, which may be due to differences in management practices, such as changing old combs, handling equipment, while performing bee colony purchases to transmit the disease, and the use of traditional control methods (Figure 8, Tables 8 and 9). The laboratory diagnostic results also confirmed that the prevalence of Nosema in apiary colony management was 19.33%, which was higher than that in backyard colony management (11.4%). This could be due to the confinement of more colonies at the apiary site, which leads to contamination through drifting and robbing. A lack of direct sunlight or relatively high humidity within the hives when they are placed inside the plantations may be conducive to disease prevention, but it may also hinder the proper regulation of heat and humidity inside their nests, suffocating the colonies and placing them under unnecessary stress. Table 8: Observed prevalence of Nosema and risk factors Variables Category Prevalence (%) x 2 p-value Districts Sebeta 0 % 52.74 0.00 Nifas silk lafto 6(12.24) Kolfe 12(41.38) Akaki kaliti 2(5.56%) Abeshige 26(17.81) Kebena 12(44.44) Cheha 10(34.48) Hive types Traditional 41(23.84%) 10.45 0.005 Intermediate 1(4.35%) Modern 26(13%) Sampling site Backyard 12(11.4%) 3.3 0.067 Apiary 56(19.3%) Table 9: Means and standard deviations used to summarize data on the prevalence of Nosema and risk factors Risk factors Category prevalence mean Standard deviation Sebeta 0 % .00 .00 Districts Nifas silk lafto 6(12.24) .12 .331 Kolfe 12(41.38) .41 .501 Akaki kaliti 2(5.56%) .06 .232 Abeshige 26(17.81) .18 .384 Kebena 12(44.44) .44 .506 Cheha 10(34.48) .34 .484 Hive type Traditional 41(23.84%) .24 .247 Intermediate 1(4.35%) .04 .209 Modern 26(13%) .13 .337 Management Backyard 12(11.4%) .11 .320 Apiary 56(19.3%) .19 .395 4. DISCUSSION Even if some of the respondents did not know about the existence of parasites that affect honeybees. This might have occurred because the local beekeepers were nonprofessionals and were not aware of the signs of different parasites while they were actively involved in beekeeping. Most respondents in the study area, with respect to their level of education, were primary school dominated, but education plays a role in knowledge transfer in beekeeping activities [12]. The occurrence and distribution of honey bee pests and parasites in central Ethiopia are not fully understood by all beekeepers; however, some beekeepers have developed traditional methods of pest control. The results of the diagnostic survey revealed that there are pests and parasites of honeybees that attack the adult honeybee colony, which is consistent with the results obtained by D Begna and Y Kebede [10]. The survey revealed that most honey bee hives were damaged by pests and parasitic diseases, but the damage varied from hive to hive and from apiary to apiary. The traditional hive was found to be heavily attacked by pests, but modern hives are less affected by the materials used, and beekeepers can easily inspect and control pests in modern hives. The honeybee pests that were most harmful in the study area were ants (34.8%), wax moths (34.6%), beetles (19.8%), and bee lice (10.6%). The ants are the first top-ranked, and the wax moths are the second-ranked. This result agrees with [11, 22], who reported that ants and wax moths are harmful pests in South Wollo and Waghimra Zones of the Amhara Region, Ethiopia, and in selected zones of the Tigray Region, Northern Ethiopia, respectively. Even if beekeepers use traditional methods to control ants, the ants cause damage to bee products (honey) and the absence of colonies, resulting in the complete loss of colonies. In the current study area, ants were found to be the most prevalent pest. Ants have experienced the most grievances about causing serious problems in honeybee colonies. It kills bees, robs their products, and results in reduced honey production. A study that evaluated the economic impact of ants (Dorylus fulvus ) in two potential beekeeping zones (West and South West Shoa) of the country reported that 44.2% of honeybee colonies are attacked by ants each year, with 24% absconding and 4.2% dying [9]. Similar results have been reported from different regions of Ethiopia, such as Atsbi Womberta [23], Bure district [24], Keffa, Shako, and Bench Maji zone [25], Central Ethiopia [23], Gomma district [26], and Central Tigray [27]. The wax moth is another pest that poses a challenge to beekeepers in central Ethiopia. Wax moths usually attack bee colonies when they become weak, which can occur due to starvation. This time, the wax moth larvae begin to grow inside the brood comb, causing damage to the brood and honeycombs. If a colony fails to control this phenomenon, it can cause significant damage and eventually lead to the abandonment of the colony. AG Adeday Gidey, SM Shiferaw Mulugeta and AF Abebe Fromsa [12], [28] reported that the existence of pests and predators was a major challenge for honeybees and beekeepers in the Tigray and Oromia Regions, respectively. The major pests and predators are ants, wax moths, bee lice ( Braula coeca ), beetles ( Aethina tumida ), and spiders. The overall prevalence of bee lice in the current study (3.04%) was consistent with a previous report in Wukro woreda by AG Adeday Gidey, SM Shiferaw Mulugeta and AF Abebe Fromsa [12], which reported a prevalence of 5.5% in adult honeybees. However, this figure is significantly lower than that reported by [29], who reported 42% lice prevalence in and around Holeta. In the present study, the prevalence of bee lice was higher in traditional hives (4.07%) than in movable frame hives (2%). This finding disagrees with that of G Guesh, B Amssalu, M Hailu and T Yayeneshet [22], who reported a 29% bee lice prevalence in traditional bee hives. However, there was no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of lice according to hive type (P>0.05). The difference in the prevalence of bee lice between the present study and previous studies could be attributed to the occurrence of bee lice in different study areas, as well as differences in environmental factors, management practices, or any other factor influencing bee lice incidence. Overall, the laboratory diagnosis results for varroa mites (53.6%). The present study result was slightly lower than the previous research findings of varroa mites reported by [22], which were 62.1% during honey flow and 53.4% during dearth periods. However, a high prevalence of the varroa mite was reported by [30] with an 82% prevalence in the Tigray Region;[11] reported an 85.9% prevalence in the eastern parts of the Amhara Region. The prevalence of Varroa mites varies across African countries, with 78.6% in Nigeria [31], 100% in South Africa [18], 83% in Kenya [32] , and 92% in Tanzania [33]. The major challenges facing honey bees include variations in prevalence due to ecological and climatic differences, the types of hives and improper hive management, the source of colonies, seasonal differences, and the high density of honey bee colonies, Numerous factors, such as management, bee forage availability, colony strength, honeybee colony movement, and colony marketing, could influence the variation in prevalence. In our study, a higher varroa prevalence (57.9%) was detected in the apiary colony management system than in the backyard colony management (41.9%). This finding was consistent with [11] report, which found that the prevalence of the varroa mites was higher in bees kept in an apiary management system (86.3%) than in bees kept in the backyard. This difference is due to honeybee colonies in the apiaries, which were arranged very close to each other, facilitating the transmission of varroa mites among the colonies. Additionally, most beekeepers purchase colonies weakened by parasite infestation. Also, our study found that moveable frame hive types had higher varroa prevalence (54.5%) than intermediate (47.8%) and traditional hive types (53.4%). The results were consistent with those of [11] who reported 94.2%, 84.8%, and 79.85% in movable frame hives, intermediate hives, and traditional hives, respectively, in the eastern parts of the Amhara Region. These findings contradict those of G Guesh, B Amssalu, M Hailu and T Yayeneshet [22], who reported that in the Tigray Region prevalence of the varroa mite was higher in traditional hives than in movable frame hives (68% and 58.8%). The lower varroa mite infestation rate in traditional hives than in the other two hive types could be due to the bees' behavioral adaptation to frequent swarming caused by overcrowding in their small-volume traditional hives, which leads to a reduction in varroa. The difference also results from management practices that introduce new colonies. P Rosenkranz, P Aumeier and B Ziegelmann [34] reported that temperature and relative humidity are the most significant climatic variables influencing Varroa mite reproduction. [32] found that elevation has a significant effect on Varroa mite levels, implying that environmental factors modulate Varroa infestation rates. The difference in disease prevalence between the study districts could be attributed to beekeepers' colony management during swarming. Honey extraction equipment contaminates colonies, which creates favorable conditions for parasite transmission and stressful conditions in the colony. The prevalence of Nosema reported in the present study (17.2%) was lower than that reported in previous studies in Ethiopia [35], who reported an overall prevalence of Nosema of 24.47% in the Armachiho and Tach Armachiho districts of the North Gondar Zone [22], reported that 38.8% of colonies in the Tigray Region formed during the honey flow season. However, Nosema was not detected during this period. The occurrence of Nosema apis was consistent with the findings of [18], who reported that the pathogen was limited during the dry season in South Africa. Our findings are lower than those of other studies conducted in Addis Ababa [10], which reported a prevalence of 53.3%, and [15] reported a prevalence of 58% in Oromia and 60% in Benishangul-Gumuz. This variation could be due to differences in sample collection season or humidity differences between geographical areas. It could also result from differences in hygienic behavior. Nosema apis prevalence varies significantly across hive types (p < 0.05), with traditional hives showing a higher prevalence than modern and intermediate hives. This finding is consistent with the findings of [36], who reported that N. apis disease was more prevalent in traditional hives than in modern and intermediate hives. This variation could be attributed to differences in management practices, such as hive placement and frame changes, poor air flow in traditional hives can lead to increase humidity, which is ideal for the survival and spread of nosema spore, traditional hives can become overcrowded which increases the likelihood of bees coming into contact with infected spores and the design of traditional hives often makes it challenging. Furthermore, traditional beehives are difficult to manipulate to control honeybee parasites and pests. As a result, these populations have become vulnerable to pests, and the current prevalence of Nosema in apiary colony management was 19.33%, which was higher than that in backyard colony management (11.4%). The results of the present study are consistent with those of [37], who reported that the prevalence of Nosema apis in apiary colony management was 58.33%, which was higher than that in backyard colony management (45.45%). This could be due to the confinement of more colonies at an apiary site, which leads to contamination. Due to time constraints, additional research is advised regarding the seasonal distribution and magnitude of honeybee diseases and pests, as well as their economic impact. Governmental or non-governmental apiculture staff must participate in community or beekeeper association extension programs, such as raising awareness of issues associated with bee diseases and how to manage and prevent them. 5. CONCLUSION Pests and honeybee parasites significantly constrain beekeeping development in the study area. Some beekeepers lack knowledge and practice of the constraints affecting honeybee health and production. The most prevalent honeybee pests and predators are ants, wax moths, spiders, and various beetles. The honeybee colony samples revealed infestations by parasites such as Varroa mites, bee lice, and Nosema. The prevalence of these parasites varies with colony management system, bee-hive type, and geographic location. Therefore, strategies to combat the constraints of honeybees through awareness creation, campaigns, training workshops, integrated pest management (IPM), regular hive inspections, resource development, support for local beekeeping communities, monitoring and evaluation, promoting bee biodiversity, and establishing a framework for monitoring and evaluating practices should be designed and implemented. Declarations Disclosure All the authors have read, evaluated, and decided to prepare a publication-ready version of the manuscript. Conflict of interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript. Consent All the respondents (hive owners) who participated in this study provided verbal consent before completing the questionnaire survey. The purpose, objectives, and procedures of the research were clearly explained in the local language (Afan Oromo), and each voluntary respondent gave verbal consent to participate. Before sample collection, the owners of the selected cattle received a detailed explanation of the sampling procedure and laboratory analysis, and they provided verbal consent. During the questionnaire survey and sample collection, no personal identifying information about the respondents' cattle or farms was collected, reported, or analyzed; all the data were analyzed and presented anonymously. Therefore, all hive or honeybee owners provided informed consent before voluntarily participating in the study. In accordance with relevant national and institutional guidelines for veterinary epidemiological research, informed consent was deemed appropriate and was guaranteed for the survey. Author contributions Conceptualization, methodology, data collection, data analysis, and writing the manuscripts by Nagash Asefa Bulcha, Waktole Terfa, and Getachew Mulatu Dilba. Laboratory investigation by Nagash Asefa Bulcha and Tesfaye Mulatu Funding The study has no funding (N/A). Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the study area housekeeping workers, respondents, and hive owners for their willingness to participate in this study. Additionally, Ambo University and the Animal Health Institution provided logistical support that contributed to the success of this study. Data availability statement The data that support the findings of the study and manuscript are available from the first and corresponding authors upon reasonable request. References Kasina JM, Mburu J, Kraemer M, Holm-Mueller K: Economic benefit of crop pollination by bees: a case of Kakamega small-holder farming in western Kenya. J Econ Entomol 2009, 102(2):467–473. 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Genersch E: Honey bee pathology: current threats to honey bees and beekeeping. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2010, 87(1):87–97. Begna D: Assessment of the effect of ant (Dorylus fulvus) on honeybee colony (A. mellifera) and their products in West & South-West Shewa Zones, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Animal Production 2007, 7(1):12–26. Begna D, Kebede Y: Survey of honeybee pests & pathogens in Addis Ababa region. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference Held by Ethiopian Beekeepers Association : 2005; 2005: 49–56. Tsegaye A: Potential Threats to Honeybee Health with Emphasis on Varroa mite in South Wollo Zone of Amhara Region. Bahir Dar University; 2015. Adeday Gidey AG, Shiferaw Mulugeta SM, Abebe Fromsa AF: Prevalence of bee lice Braula coeca (Diptera: Braulidae) and other perceived constraints to honey bee production in Wukro Woreda, Tigray region, Ethiopia. 2012. 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Strauss U, Human H, Gauthier L, Crewe RM, Dietemann V, Pirk CW: Seasonal prevalence of pathogens and parasites in the savannah honeybee (Apis mellifera scutellata). J Invertebr Pathol 2013, 114(1):45–52. Neumann P, Evans JD, Pettis JS, Pirk CW, Schäfer MO, Tanner G, Ellis JD: Standard methods for small hive beetle research. Journal of Apicultural Research 2013, 52(4):1–32. Ellis JD, Graham JR, Mortensen A: Standard methods for wax moth research. Journal of Apicultural Research 2013, 52(1):1–17. Fries I, Chauzat M-P, Chen Y-P, Doublet V, Genersch E, Gisder S, Higes M, McMahon DP, Martín-Hernández R, Natsopoulou M: Standard methods for Nosema research. Journal of apicultural research 2013, 52(1):1–28. Guesh G, Amssalu B, Hailu M, Yayeneshet T: Epidemiology of honey bee disease and pests in selected zones of tigray region, northern ethiopia. MSc. thesis, Bahir Dar University; 2015. Abebe W: Identification and documentation of indigenous knowledge of beekeeping practices in selected districts of Ethiopia. Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development 2011, 3(5):82–87. Tessega B: Honeybee production and marketing systems, constraints and opportunities in Burie District of Amhara Region. Ethiopia MSC Thesis Submitted to Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia 2009. Shenkute A, Getachew Y, Assefa D, Adgaba N, Ganga G, Abebe W: Honey production systems (Apis mellifera L.) in Kaffa, Sheka and Bench-Maji zones of Ethiopia. Shenkute, AG , Getachew, Y, Assefa, D, Adgaba, N, Ganga, G, and Abebe, W(2012) Honey production systems (Apis mellifera L) in Kaffa, Sheka and Bench-Maji zones of Ethiopia Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development 2012, 4(19):528–541. Kinati C, Tolemariam T, Debele K: Assessment of honey production and marketing system in Gomma District, South Western Ethiopia. Greener Journal of Business and Management Studies 2013, 3(3):099–107. Haftu K, Daniel D, Gebru B, Tsegay G, Guash A, Guesh G, Mulualem Z, Gebrekiros G: Analysis of honey bee production opportunities and challenges in central Zone of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications 2015, 5(4):1–6. Dabessa J, Belay A: Survey on major honey bee pests and predators in Oromia special zone surrounding Finfine in Walmara District. European Journal of Biological Sciences 2015, 7(2):62–70. Gizachew Gemechu GG, Sefinew Alemu SA, Amssalu Bezabeh AB, Malede Berhan MB: Prevalence and associated risk factors of bee lice in Holeta and its suroundings, Ethiopia. 2013. Desalegn B: Occurrences and distributions of varroa mite (Varroa destructor) in Tigray regional state, Ethiopia. Journal of Fisheries and Livestock production 2014, 2(3):1–4. Akinwande K, Badejo M, Ogbogu S: Challenges associated with the honey bee (Apis mellifera adansonii) colonies establishment in south western Nigeria. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 2013, 13(2). Muli E, Patch H, Frazier M, Frazier J, Torto B, Baumgarten T, Kilonzo J, Kimani JN, Mumoki F, Masiga D et al : Evaluation of the distribution and impacts of parasites, pathogens, and pesticides on honey bee (Apis mellifera) populations in East Africa. PLoS One 2014, 9(4):e94459. Mumbi CT, Mwakatobe AR, Mpinga IH, Richard A, Machumu R: Parasitic mite, Varroa species (Parasitiformes: Varroidae) infesting the colonies of African honeybees, Apis mellifera scutellata (Hymenoptera: Apididae) in Tanzania. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 2014, 2(3):188–196. Rosenkranz P, Aumeier P, Ziegelmann B: Biology and control of Varroa destructor. J Invertebr Pathol 2010, 103 Suppl 1:S96–119. Nega T, Yayeh M, Mitiku T, Birhan M, Bogale B, Chanie M, Kinubeh A: Prevalence of parasitic honeybee diseases, pests and predators in North. 2019. Solomon S, Degu T, Fesseha H, Mathewos M: Study on major parasitic diseases of adult honeybees in three districts of Kaffa Zone, Southern Ethiopia. Veterinary Medicine International 2021, 2021(1):6346703. Bizuayehu Ayele AJ, Haylemelekot M, Ayalew W: Beekeeping diseases and pests in east and west Gojjam zones of Amhara region, Ethiopia. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 2020, 8(6):32–45. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Supplementaryfile.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8691322","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":580007559,"identity":"1670aa32-5cb0-4ece-ac97-6d3a55feeadf","order_by":0,"name":"Nagash Asefa Bulcha","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ambo University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nagash","middleName":"Asefa","lastName":"Bulcha","suffix":""},{"id":580007560,"identity":"d12fa32a-5071-4134-8602-7ecbdab019a6","order_by":1,"name":"Waktole Terfa Iteya","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ambo 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area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8691322/v1/6868004db627bdb9c4b5b315.png"},{"id":101241855,"identity":"044ebcb4-5796-4c2c-9e03-5adb4ac1ccaa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-27 15:48:25","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19559,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSite of placement of the hive\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8691322/v1/9b29ce9d807d9498b35eee4f.png"},{"id":101241858,"identity":"7b98a542-6e5e-4b9d-954b-5e5a4d291631","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-27 15:48:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":100790,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHoneybee Varroa mites in the study area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8691322/v1/83f58799b60c8a58741aa878.jpeg"},{"id":101296864,"identity":"e795edfc-79c5-4903-b597-a6c59efbedff","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-28 09:22:12","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":367250,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNosema of the study Area (Nosema)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8691322/v1/f938ef678adc83306d7e65bd.png"},{"id":101880537,"identity":"a9764d5b-5267-4be9-9e05-4d70f024a059","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-04 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INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eBeekeeping is an opportunity to harvest and add value to a local resource (floral nectar) to generate wealth and employment. Products from beekeeping contribute to the income and livelihood improvement of rural people. In addition, beekeeping plays an important role in providing export commodities and in environmental conservation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, veterinarians have used honey for the clinical wound management of myiasis and pododermatitis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Honeybees play a crucial role in the environment by pollinating flowering plants and producing bee products [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Apiculture is valuable for rural livelihoods worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Beekeeping is a long-standing practice in the rural communities of Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]The beekeeping sub-sector has been an integral part of agriculture in Ethiopia. The country has enormous apicultural resources that make it the leading honey and beeswax producer in Africa [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthiopia is known for its tremendous variation in agroclimatic conditions and biodiversity, which favors the existence of diverse honeybee flora and a large number of honeybee colonies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. The essential and valuable contributions of honeybees depend upon their healthy population. The health of honeybees has been one of the most important topics in apiculture research in recent years [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Honeybees (\u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e) are susceptible to pests and diseases, the majority of which are specific to honeybees. Beekeepers need to be aware of these disorders, to identify them, and effectively manage them to maintain healthy colonies. This is particularly important because the health of one beekeeper\u0026rsquo;s colony can influence another beekeeper\u0026rsquo;s colony in the surrounding area. Nosema disease, which is caused by a protozoan known as \u003cem\u003eN. apis\u003c/em\u003e, is known to weaken the bee colonies by infecting the intestinal tract of adult bees and causing the death of bees several days earlier than that of normal healthy bees by 22\u0026ndash;44%. \u003cem\u003eN. apis\u003c/em\u003e has detrimental effects on honeybee colony development, queen performance, and honey production in Ethiopia, as reported by the Holeta Bee Research Center (HBRC) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere was no positive result indicating the presence of the Acarine mite in Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] Dabessa and Belay (2015) reported that the existence of pests and predators was a major challenge for honeybees and beekeepers in the Tigray and Oromia Regions, respectively. The major pests and predators are ants, wax moths (\u003cem\u003eGalleria mellonella\u003c/em\u003e), bee lice (\u003cem\u003eBraula coecal\u003c/em\u003e), beetles (\u003cem\u003eAethina tumida\u003c/em\u003e), spiders, wasps, praying mantids, lizards, snakes, birds, and honey badgers (\u003cem\u003eMellivora capensis\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the high degree of beekeeping, the amount of resources available for honey and beeswax production in Ethiopia has thus far been much lower than its annual estimate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. The general image shows that in many beekeeping locations, the production of honey is decreasing. The benefit from the beekeeping sector to the nation and beekeepers has generally not been satisfactory [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Several factors have been suggested to constrain honeybees and deteriorate beekeeping activity in the country [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Like other living organisms, the lives and products of honeybees are affected by harmful diseases, pests, and toxic materials. Successful beekeeping requires regular and timely monitoring of any factors that endanger honeybee life and threaten honeybee products. In addition to identifying the occurrence and distribution of endangering factors, regular monitoring helps in the development of prevention and/or control mechanisms. A series of field diagnostic surveys and laboratory analyses have been conducted to identify and characterize honeybee diseases and pests associated with local honeybees in Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the study area, there is a lack of adequate documentation regarding the types and prevalence of parasites, bee pests, and external parasite effects on honeybees, which makes it difficult for beekeepers to understand the problem. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the problems associated with beekeeping and the health of honeybees, as well as to evaluate risk factors related to honeybee pests, parasites, and honeybee constraints in the Sebeta sub-city, Addis Ababa sub-city, and the districts of the Gurage Zone in the Central, Regional State of Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, the objectives of the study were as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify parasites and pests of honey bees in the study areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo estimate the prevalence of the disease caused by parasites in honey bee colonies in the study areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo assess the risk factors associated with beekeeping activity in the study areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Description of the Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Sebeta subcity, Addis Ababa subcity, and selected districts of the Gurage Zone in the Central Regional State of Ethiopia. The study is being carried out in the Sebeta district, which is 24 kilometers west of Addis Ababa on the main road to Jimma, and in the special zone of Oromia regional state in the central highlands of Ethiopia. The area receives an average annual rainfall of approximately 1100 mm, more than 85% of which falls during the main rainy season (June to September). The altitude of the area ranges from 2200–2600 m.a.s.l., and the average annual temperature ranges from 6–21°C. The Sebeta subcity has 5872 bee hives (Sebeta Subcity Agricultural Office, 2024). Nifas silk lafto is one of the subcities of Addis Ababa, and is found in the southwest of the city of Addis Ababa 620 bee hive population (Nifas silk lafto Agricultural Office, 2024. The Kolfe Keranio subcity is located in the western part of Addis Ababa, 554 bee hive population (Kolfe Keranio Agricultural Office, 2024); Akaki-Kaliti is one of the urban zones of Addis Ababa and is located in the southern part of the city center, with 604 bee hive population (Akaki-Kaliti Subcity Agricultural Office, 2024). The Gurage Zone is located in the Central Regional State of Ethiopia, which is part of central Ethiopia. The zone is divided into three agroecological zones: highlands (31.6%), mid-highlands (65.3%), and lowlands (3.1%). The annual average rainfall ranges from 200 mm/annum to 1,400 mm/annum, and the temperature records are 7–32°C (DOFED, 2024). The Abeshege is located 30 km from Wolkite Town, one of the cities in the Gurage Zone. Abeshege had a bee hive population of 4232 (Abeshege Agricultural Office, 2024). The Cheha district in southern Ethiopia has an annual rainfall of 800-1,200 mm and an altitude range of 1,200-2,600 m.a.s.l. Cheha had a Bee hive population of 3431 (Cheha Agricultural Office, 2024). The Kebena district is one of the rural districts in the Gurage Zone and is characterized by a tropical climate of heavy rainfall and warm temperatures. The district has a mean annual temperature of 17–20 \u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC. Its altitude ranges from 1700-2008m a.s.l, with 906 mm of annual rainfall, and has a bee hive population of 3096 (Kebena Agricultural office, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Study Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional study was conducted in central Ethiopia from January 2025 to June 2025 on honeybee colonies managed via various beekeeping methods to estimate the prevalence of major honeybee parasitic diseases and pests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Sampling Method and Sample Size Determination.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA purposive sampling procedure was used to select honeybee colonies. In the first stage, the districts Abeshige (146), Kebena (27), Cheha (29), Sebeta Subcity (79), Akaki Kality (36), Nifas Silk (49), and Kolfe Keraniyo Subcities (29) were chosen via purposive sampling and beekeeping potential, which was proportional to the number of hives found in the study area. In the second stage, three kebeles from Abeshige, one kebele from Kebena, one rural kebele from Cheha, and two kebeles from each of Addis Ababa's subcities were purposely chosen based on accessibility by vehicles and the potential of beekeeping. From all rural kebeles, beekeepers were selected via purposive sampling, regardless of whether the owners were volunteers, and emphasis was also given to those with many colonies, because the samples were collected at night with the help of the Woreda Agricultural Office.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the third stage, simple random sampling techniques were used to select honeybee colonies. A total of 395 bee colonies were selected randomly, and honey bee adults were sampled from the sampling sites. The sample size was determined according to [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], where n is the required sample size, p\u003csub\u003eexp\u003c/sub\u003e is the expected prevalence, and d is the desired absolute precision.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:n\\:=1.96\\:2\\:\\left(pexp\\right)\\:(1\\:-\\:pexp)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:d2\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy using 50%, the expected prevalence with a 95% confidence interval at 5% absolute precision, 384 hives are needed. The samples were collected at night to reduce disturbance to the environment by honeybees.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 100 beekeepers were selected purposefully based on their activity in extension services and experience in keeping honeybees to obtain reliable information for the interviewed respondents about the major pests and predators that challenge their colonies. The experience and activity of extension services in beekeeping were identified with the help of professional experts on the respective woredas and kebeles peasant associations. The sample size followed the Arsham formula, where n is the required sample size, and SE is equal to 5% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equc\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equc\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:n\\:=\\:0.25/SE2$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Study Methodology\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA sample unit was defined as a single beehive. Explanatory variables, or risk factors, such as hive types, districts, and management systems, were examined to determine whether they influenced the prevalence of pests and parasitic diseases affecting honeybees. There are three types of bee hives: improved movable frame hives, intermediate hives, and traditional hives, which are the three categories used to classify hive types. The observed management systems categorized the hives as being located in backyards, apiaries, or enclosed spaces. All tools and protective gear were cleaned and sanitized before hive inspections. To prevent the spread of disease from one honeybee colony to another, the chisel and gloves were thoroughly cleaned and changed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Method of Data Collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5.1 Questionnaire Survey\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA questionnaire survey was designed for both primary and secondary data collection in the study. The secondary data were obtained from the report office of the agriculture woreda, whereas the primary data were gathered from a sample of household keepers via a semi-structured questionnaire and field observations. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. For the quantitative data, the variables included age, livestock holding size, number of hives owned, honeybee absconding, colony marketing, amount of honey harvested, and honeybee performance (bee population, brood, nectar, and pollen areas). The qualitative data included sex and educational level of the respondents, types of hives owned, beekeeping placements, potential constraints of beekeeping, distributions of honeybee diseases and parasites, and hygienic behavior. For details regarding the questionnaire format (supplementary file)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5.2. Examination of Varroa mites and bee lice\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdult worker honeybee samples were taken from bee colonies contained in traditional beehives, improved movable frame hives, and intermediate hives. Approximately 250 adult worker honeybees were taken from each bee colony and placed straight into a plastic jar with a wide mouth. After being gathered, the adult worker honeybees were killed and preserved in 70% ethyl alcohol before being sent to the Laboratory's animal health institution (AHI), Sebeta, Ethiopia. To remove the bee lice and Varroa mites, they were placed separately in 250 ml containers with 1% detergent-water solution and vigorously shaken for one minute. By modifying the solution with a ladle (8–12 mesh) that keeps bees back and releases the mites along with the solutions, the mites were collected. The bee lice and varroa mites were then held back, and the solutions were released using wire gauze. The mesh wire gauze was turned over onto white paper, which was used to count and examine the varroa mites and bee lice [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5.3. Observation of small hive beetles and wax moths\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrough the use of semi-structured questionnaires for beekeeper interviews and hive inspection, the prevalence and significance of honeybee pests in the study areas were ascertained. Nevertheless, a check of the beehives revealed the presence of wax moths and small hive beetle larvae. Many morphological and behavioral traits allow for the differentiation of wax moths and small hive beetle larvae. The presence of small hive beetle infestation (\u003cem\u003eAethina tumida\u003c/em\u003e) was identified through its adult, larvae, or pupae and colony examination methods, as described by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. The larvae of small hive beetles have pairs of prominent brownish dorsal spines on each segment, with only 3 pairs of anterior prolegs. Based on the report of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]the larvae of the wax moth have no spines but several setae (hairs)on each segment with 8 pairs of prolegs (3 pairs, 4 pairs, and 1 pair on the anterior, abdominal, and last segments, respectively). Unlike small hive beetles, silken galleries are produced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5.4. Laboratory Examination of Nosema\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the hive entrance, a sample of thirty to sixty adult worker honeybees was taken. The sample bees were preserved in 70% alcohol until they were sent for laboratory analysis. The abdomen of each honeybee sample was removed via scissors. Using a pestle and mortar with 5–10 mm of distilled water was used to grind the sliced abdomens until an even suspension was achieved. Before the mortar and pestle were used once more, they were thoroughly cleaned. Using the sterilized loop, a suspension loop was placed on the microscopic slide and covered with a cover slide. A light microscope with a 40x-magnification was used to examine the suspension to determine the presence of Nosema spores [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6. Data Management and Statistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data were entered and coded into Microsoft Excel and imported into the STATA software version 14 (Stata Corporation, College Station, USA) for statistical analysis. A chi-square test was used to assess the associations of the risk factors with the prevalence of major parasitic diseases in honeybees. Additionally, logistic regression was used. Statistical significance was set at a p-value of less than 0.05 with 95% confidence intervals. The data collected through semi-structured questionnaires were analyzed via descriptive statistics, and different types of beekeeping constraints were ranked via the rank index formula described by Musa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2006).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank index = sum of (5 X number of households rank first + 4 X number of households ranked second + 3 X number of households ranked third + 2 X number of household ranked fourth + 1 X X number of households ranked fifth) for an individual reason divided by the sum of (5 X number of households ranked first + 4 X number of households ranked second + 3 X number of households ranked third + 2 X number of households ranked fourth + 1 X number of households ranked fifth) for overall reasons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.7. Ethical Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical clearance for this study was obtained from the Ambo University Guder Mamo Mezemir Campus Ethical Review Board. Before the research was conducted, verbal consent was obtained from the hives\u0026apos; owners to collect samples from their hives and honeybees for laboratory examinations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1. Socioeconomic Characteristics of the Respondent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmong the 100 sampled houses, 92% had a male head, and 8% had a female head. This indicates that women are much less involved in beekeeping activities in the studied areas than men, and beekeeping is still viewed as a male-dominated occupation there. Beekeeping in the study area involved both educated and uneducated beekeepers; however, those with an educational background are more productive because they transfer knowledge about improved beekeeping technologies more quickly than their uneducated counterparts (Table 1).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc190421527\"\u003eTable 1: Sex, educational, and marital status of the respondents\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Socioeconomic variable \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCategory\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eN\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIlliterate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAttended high school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 181px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompleted Primary education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompleted Secondary education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCollege\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWidow\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 168px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWidower\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eN=Number of respondents\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc190353893\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2. Major Constraints of Beekeeping\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe respondents mentioned several obstacles affecting the beekeeping business related to honeybees, such as a lack of equipment, a lack of a well-trained workforce, honey bee pests and diseases, the limited availability of modern beekeeping equipment, and the inappropriate use of pesticides (Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc190421528\"\u003eTable 2: Reported constraints that affect beekeeping development in the study area\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"600\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReported constraint\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe relative degree of importance according to the respondent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndex\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOverall rank\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003csup\u003est\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003csup\u003end\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003csup\u003erd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLack of bee forage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.177\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLack of water\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1085\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMigration\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0656\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbsconding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1677\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePests and predators\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2319\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePesticide and herbicide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1472\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eColony death\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndex = sum of (7 * the number of households ranked first + 6 * number of households ranked second + 5 *the number of households ranked third + 4 * number of household ranked fourth + 3* the number of households ranked fiveth+2*number of households ranked six+1* number of households ranked seventh) for an individual reason divided by the sum of sum of (7 * number of households ranked first + 6 * number of households ranked second + 5 *the number of households ranked third + 4 * number of household ranked fourth + 3*number of households ranked fiveth+2*number of households ranked six+1* number of households ranked seventh) for overall constraints.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc190353894\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3. Major Pests and Predators in the Study Area\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese naturally occurring bee attackers are known to seriously harm life and contribute to honeybee colonies, which is just one of the many limitations of beekeeping (Table 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc190421529\"\u003eTable 3: Rank index for major pests of honeybees in the study area\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHoneybee pests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 357px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe relative degree of importance according to the respondent \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndex\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOverall rank\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003csup\u003est\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003csup\u003end\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003csup\u003erd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnts\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3486\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWax moth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3466\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBee lice/mites\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.106\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeetle\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.198\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndex = Sum\u0026nbsp;of (4*number of households ranked first+3*number of households ranked second+2*number of households ranked third+1*number of households ranked fourth) for\u0026nbsp;individual pests and predators divided by the sum\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;(4*number of households ranked first+3*number of households ranked second+2*number of households ranked third+1*number of households ranked fourth) for overall pests and predators.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc190353895\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.4. Source of the bee colony and placement of the hive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore beginning beekeeping, the beekeeper determines the source of honeybee colonies based on availability. During an interview with respondents in the study area, they stated that they obtained the established colony (63.4%) by buying colonies, (16.8%) by catching natural swarms, and (19.8%) catching swarms were common techniques used by almost all beekeepers in the study area (Figure 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to this finding, the majority of beekeepers placed their honeybee colonies in the backyard (41.6%), closure areas (47.5%), and hanging areas on trees (10.9%) (Figure 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc190353896\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.5. Prevalence of Varroa Mites\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmong the 395 colonies examined, 212 (53.6%) were varroa mite-positive. The study found that the prevalence of varroa was higher in the moveable-frame hive types (54.5%) than in the intermediate hives (47.8%) and the traditional hive types (53.4%). We found that the apiary colony management system had a higher varroa prevalence (57.9%) compared to the backyard colony management system (41.9%). A statistically significant difference was observed (\u0026chi;2=7.9; P\u0026lt;0.05). The increased prevalence of varroa mites in apiary management systems could be attributed to the introduction of unknown colony sources for transfer to contemporary hives, as well as differences in interactions between colonies. Most beekeepers sell colonies that are underperforming and/or have been infested with parasites. The introduction of such honeybee colonies into the apiaries increased their distribution within the apiaries. Colonies arranged closely together in the apiaries are believed to facilitate varroa mite transmission among colonies via swarms, drifting, and robbing. Beekeepers most likely spread infestations from one colony to another through frequent apiary manipulations. The type of management was discovered to be an important factor in the prevalence of varroa mites in the study area. Colonies managed in an apiary were 1.9 (OR=1.9, 95% CI=1.2- 3, P=0.05) times more likely to be infested with Varroa mites than colonies managed in a backyard (Figure 3, Tables 4 and 5).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc190421530\"\u003eTable 4: Summarized data on the prevalence of varroa and various risk factors (means and standard deviations)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRisk factors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCategory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence n(%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStandard deviation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSebeta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.498\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDistricts\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNifas silk lafto\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6(12.24)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKolfe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(41.38)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.501\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAkaki kaliti\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(5.56)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.478\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbeshige\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26(17.81)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.496\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKebena\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(44.44)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.509\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCheha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10(34.48)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.506\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTraditional\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41(23.84)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHives type\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntermediate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(4.35)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.511\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModern\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26(13)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.499\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eManagement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBackyard\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(11.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.496\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eApiary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56(19.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.495\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Table 5: Univariate logistic regression analysis of risk factors associated with the prevalence of Varroa mites in honeybee colonies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"577\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRisk factors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal(n)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePositive(n)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePositive (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOR\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e95% CI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDistricts\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSebeta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.175\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNefase Silk Lafto\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.056\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27-1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKolfe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22-1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAkaki kaliti\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbeshige\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e146\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6-1.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKebena\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29-1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCheha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26-1.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHive type\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTraditional\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e172\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.64- 1.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntermediate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.32- 1.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModern hive\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e109\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSampling site\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBack yard\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e105\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.9 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;0 .005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eApiary\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e168\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;3.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc190353897\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.6. Prevalence of bee lice (\u003cem\u003eBraula Coeca\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe prevalence of bee lice was 12 (3.04%) of the adult honeybee infestations examined. In the present study, the prevalence of bee lice was higher in Kebena and lower in Abeshige, and Nifas silk lafto was greater in prevalence and lower in Akaki Kaliti, the Sebeta subcity. Despite variations in prevalence, no statistically significant (P\u0026gt;0.05) difference was observed across all districts. When comparing hive types, the prevalence of bee lice was higher in traditional hives (4.07%) than in movable frame hives (2%). The study found that honeybee colonies under apiary management had a higher prevalence of bee lice (\u0026chi;2=4.5, p\u0026lt;0.034). This could be due to colony contact and introduction from unknown sources. The colonies in established apiaries are close together, allowing the pest to spread between the colonies by swarming and drifting (Tables 6 and 7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 6: Observed prevalence of bee lice and risk factors\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"578\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRisk factors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal(n)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePositive(n)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePositive (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDistricts\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSebeta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.522\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNefase Silk Lafto\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKolfe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAkaki kaliti\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbeshige\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e146\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKebena\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCheha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHive type\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTraditional\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e172\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntermediate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModern hive\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSampling site\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBack yard\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e105\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.48\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eApiary\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Table 7: Means and standard deviations used to summarize data on the prevalence of bee lice and risk factors\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"564\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRisk factors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCategory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence n(%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStandard deviation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDistricts \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSebeta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 %\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.113\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNifas silk lafto\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6(12.24)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKolfe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(41.38)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAkaki kaliti\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(5.56)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.167\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbeshige\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26(17.81)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.199\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKebena\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(44.44)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.267\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCheha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10(34.48)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHive type\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTraditional\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41(23.84)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.198\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntermediate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(4.35)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.209\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModern\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26(13)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSampling site\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBackyard\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(11.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eApiary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56(19.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc190353899\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003e3.7. Prevalence of Nosema\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHoneybees sampled from the study area were diagnosed with a prevalence of 17.22%. Among the types of hives, the incidence of Nosema was higher in traditional hives, followed by modern frame hives, with intermediate incidences of 23.8%, 13%, and 4.35, respectively, and this difference was statistically significant (OR=2; 95% CI=1.21-3.598; P\u0026lt;0.05). The prevalence of Nosema significantly differed across the study areas (\u0026chi;2=52.7, p value\u0026lt;0.05). This difference arises from differences in the hygienic behavior of the bees, which may be due to differences in management practices, such as changing old combs, handling equipment, while performing bee colony purchases to transmit the disease, and the use of traditional control methods (Figure 8, Tables 8 and 9).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe laboratory diagnostic results also confirmed that the prevalence of Nosema in apiary colony management was 19.33%, which was higher than that in backyard colony management (11.4%). This could be due to the confinement of more colonies at the apiary site, which leads to contamination through drifting and robbing. A lack of direct sunlight or relatively high humidity within the hives when they are placed inside the plantations may be conducive to disease prevention, but it may also hinder the proper regulation of heat and humidity inside their nests, suffocating the colonies and placing them under unnecessary stress.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 8: Observed prevalence of Nosema and\u0026nbsp;risk factors\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"564\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrevalence (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ex\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003cem\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDistricts\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSebeta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 %\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;52.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNifas silk lafto\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6(12.24)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKolfe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(41.38)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAkaki kaliti\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(5.56%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbeshige\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26(17.81)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKebena\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(44.44)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCheha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10(34.48)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Hive types\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTraditional\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41(23.84%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;10.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntermediate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(4.35%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModern\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26(13%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSampling site\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBackyard\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(11.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.067\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eApiary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56(19.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc190421535\"\u003eTable 9: Means and standard deviations used to summarize data on the prevalence of Nosema and risk factors\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"558\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRisk factors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCategory\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eprevalence\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emean\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStandard deviation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSebeta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 %\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDistricts\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNifas silk lafto\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6(12.24)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.331\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKolfe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(41.38)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.501\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAkaki kaliti\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(5.56%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.232\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbeshige\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26(17.81)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.384\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKebena\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(44.44)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.506\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCheha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10(34.48)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.484\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHive type\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTraditional\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41(23.84%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.247\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntermediate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(4.35%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.209\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModern\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26(13%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.337\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eManagement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBackyard\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(11.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.320\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eApiary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56(19.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.395\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eEven if some of the respondents did not know about the existence of parasites that affect honeybees. This might have occurred because the local beekeepers were nonprofessionals and were not aware of the signs of different parasites while they were actively involved in beekeeping. Most respondents in the study area, with respect to their level of education, were primary school dominated, but education plays a role in knowledge transfer in beekeeping activities [12]. The occurrence and distribution of honey bee pests and parasites in central Ethiopia are not fully understood by all beekeepers; however, some beekeepers have developed traditional methods of pest control. The results of the diagnostic survey revealed that there are pests and parasites of honeybees that attack the adult honeybee colony, which is consistent with the results obtained by D Begna and Y Kebede [10]. The survey revealed that most honey bee hives were damaged by pests and parasitic diseases, but the damage varied from hive to hive and from apiary to apiary. The traditional hive was found to be heavily attacked by pests, but modern hives are less affected by the materials used, and beekeepers can easily inspect and control pests in modern hives.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe honeybee pests that were most harmful in the study area were ants (34.8%), wax moths (34.6%), beetles (19.8%), and bee lice (10.6%). The ants are the first top-ranked, and the wax moths are the second-ranked. This result agrees with [11, 22], who reported that ants and wax moths are harmful pests in South Wollo and Waghimra Zones of the Amhara Region, Ethiopia, and in selected zones of the Tigray Region, Northern Ethiopia, respectively. Even if beekeepers use traditional methods to control ants, the ants cause damage to bee products (honey) and the absence of colonies, resulting in the complete loss of colonies.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the current study area, ants were found to be the most prevalent pest. Ants have experienced the most grievances about causing serious problems in honeybee colonies. It kills bees, robs their products, and results in reduced honey production. A study that evaluated the economic impact of ants \u003cem\u003e(Dorylus fulvus\u003c/em\u003e) in two potential beekeeping zones (West and South West Shoa) of the country reported that 44.2% of honeybee colonies are attacked by ants each year, with 24% absconding and 4.2% dying [9].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilar results have been reported from different regions of Ethiopia, such as Atsbi Womberta [23], Bure district [24], Keffa, Shako, and Bench Maji zone [25], Central Ethiopia [23], Gomma district [26], and Central Tigray [27]. The wax moth is another pest that poses a challenge to beekeepers in central Ethiopia. Wax moths usually attack bee colonies when they become weak, which can occur due to starvation. This time, the wax moth larvae begin to grow inside the brood comb, causing damage to the brood and honeycombs. If a colony fails to control this phenomenon, it can cause significant damage and eventually lead to the abandonment of the colony. AG Adeday Gidey, SM Shiferaw Mulugeta and AF Abebe Fromsa [12], [28]\u0026nbsp; reported that the existence of pests and predators was a major challenge for honeybees and beekeepers in the Tigray and Oromia Regions, respectively. The major pests and predators are ants, wax moths, bee lice (\u003cem\u003eBraula coeca\u003c/em\u003e), beetles (\u003cem\u003eAethina tumida\u003c/em\u003e), and spiders. The overall prevalence of bee lice in the current study (3.04%) was consistent with a previous report in Wukro woreda by AG Adeday Gidey, SM Shiferaw Mulugeta and AF Abebe Fromsa [12], which reported a prevalence of 5.5% in adult honeybees. However, this figure is significantly lower than that reported by [29], who reported 42% lice prevalence in and around Holeta.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, the prevalence of bee lice was higher in traditional hives (4.07%) than in movable frame hives (2%). This finding disagrees with that of G Guesh, B Amssalu, M Hailu and T Yayeneshet [22], who reported a 29% bee lice prevalence in traditional bee hives. However, there was no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of lice according to hive type (P\u0026gt;0.05). The difference in the prevalence of bee lice between the present study and previous studies could be attributed to the occurrence of bee lice in different study areas, as well as differences in environmental factors, management practices, or any other factor influencing bee lice incidence. Overall, the laboratory diagnosis results for varroa mites (53.6%). The present study result was slightly lower than the previous research findings of varroa mites reported by [22], which were 62.1% during honey flow and 53.4% during dearth periods. However, a high prevalence of the varroa mite was reported by [30] with an 82% prevalence in the Tigray Region;[11] reported an 85.9% prevalence in the eastern parts of the Amhara Region. The prevalence of Varroa mites varies across African countries, with 78.6% in Nigeria [31], 100% in South Africa [18], 83% in Kenya\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e[32]\u003c/em\u003e, and 92% in Tanzania\u0026nbsp;[33]. The major challenges facing\u0026nbsp;honey bees include variations in prevalence due to ecological and climatic differences, the types of hives and improper hive management, the source of colonies, seasonal differences, and the high density of honey bee colonies, Numerous factors, such as management, bee forage availability, colony strength, honeybee colony movement, and colony marketing, could influence the variation in prevalence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn our study, a higher varroa prevalence (57.9%) was detected in the apiary colony management system than in the backyard colony management (41.9%). This finding was consistent with [11] report, which found that the prevalence of the varroa mites was higher in bees kept in an apiary management system (86.3%) than in bees kept in the backyard. This difference is due to honeybee colonies in the apiaries, which were arranged very close to each other, facilitating the transmission of varroa mites among the colonies. Additionally, most beekeepers purchase colonies weakened by parasite infestation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlso, our study found that moveable frame hive types had higher varroa prevalence (54.5%) than intermediate (47.8%) and traditional hive types (53.4%). The results were consistent with those of [11] who reported 94.2%, 84.8%, and 79.85% in movable frame hives, intermediate hives, and traditional hives, respectively, in the eastern parts of the Amhara Region. These findings contradict those of G Guesh, B Amssalu, M Hailu and T Yayeneshet [22], who reported that in the Tigray Region prevalence of the varroa mite was higher in traditional hives than in movable frame hives (68% and 58.8%). The lower varroa mite infestation rate in traditional hives than in the other two hive types could be due to the bees\u0026apos; behavioral adaptation to frequent swarming caused by overcrowding in their small-volume traditional hives, which leads to a reduction in varroa. The difference also results from management practices that introduce new colonies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eP Rosenkranz, P Aumeier and B Ziegelmann [34] reported that temperature and relative humidity are the most significant climatic variables influencing Varroa mite reproduction. [32] found that elevation has a significant effect on Varroa mite levels, implying that environmental factors modulate Varroa infestation rates. The difference in disease prevalence between the study districts could be attributed to beekeepers\u0026apos; colony management during swarming. Honey extraction equipment contaminates colonies, which creates favorable conditions for parasite transmission and stressful conditions in the colony.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe prevalence of Nosema reported in the present study (17.2%) was lower than that reported in previous studies in Ethiopia [35], who reported an overall prevalence of Nosema of 24.47% in the Armachiho and Tach Armachiho districts of the North Gondar Zone [22], reported that 38.8% of colonies in the Tigray Region formed during the honey flow season. However, Nosema was not detected during this period. The occurrence of \u003cem\u003eNosema apis\u003c/em\u003e was consistent with the findings of [18], who reported that the pathogen was limited during the dry season in South Africa. Our findings are lower than those of other studies conducted in Addis Ababa [10], which reported a prevalence of 53.3%, and [15] reported a prevalence of 58% in Oromia and 60% in Benishangul-Gumuz. This variation could be due to differences in sample collection season or humidity differences between geographical areas. It could also result from differences in hygienic behavior. \u003cem\u003eNosema apis\u003c/em\u003e prevalence varies significantly across hive types (p \u0026lt; 0.05), with traditional hives showing a higher prevalence than modern and intermediate hives. This finding is consistent with the findings of [36], who reported that \u003cem\u003eN. apis\u003c/em\u003e disease was more prevalent in traditional hives than in modern and intermediate hives. This variation could be attributed to differences in management practices, such as hive placement and frame changes, poor air flow in traditional hives can lead to increase humidity, which is ideal for the survival and spread of nosema spore, traditional hives can become overcrowded which increases the likelihood of bees coming into contact with infected spores and the design of traditional hives often makes it challenging. Furthermore, traditional beehives are difficult to manipulate to control honeybee parasites and pests. As a result, these populations have become vulnerable to pests, and the current prevalence of Nosema in apiary colony management was 19.33%, which was higher than that in backyard colony management (11.4%). The results of the present study are consistent with those of [37], who reported that the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eNosema apis\u003c/em\u003e in apiary colony management was 58.33%, which was higher than that in backyard colony management (45.45%). This could be due to the confinement of more colonies at an apiary site, which leads to contamination. Due to time constraints, additional research is advised regarding the seasonal distribution and magnitude of honeybee diseases and pests, as well as their economic impact. Governmental or non-governmental apiculture staff must participate in community or beekeeper association extension programs, such as raising awareness of issues associated with bee diseases and how to manage and prevent them.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003ePests and honeybee parasites significantly constrain beekeeping development in the study area. Some beekeepers lack knowledge and practice of the constraints affecting honeybee health and production. The most prevalent honeybee pests and predators are ants, wax moths, spiders, and various beetles. The honeybee colony samples revealed infestations by parasites such as Varroa mites, bee lice, and Nosema. The prevalence of these parasites varies with colony management system, bee-hive type, and geographic location. Therefore, strategies to combat the constraints of honeybees through awareness creation, campaigns, training workshops, integrated pest management (IPM), regular hive inspections, resource development, support for local beekeeping communities, monitoring and evaluation, promoting bee biodiversity, and establishing a framework for monitoring and evaluating practices should be designed and implemented.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDisclosure\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the authors have read, evaluated, and decided to prepare a publication-ready version of the manuscript. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the respondents (hive owners) who participated in this study provided verbal consent before completing the questionnaire survey. The purpose, objectives, and procedures of the research were clearly explained in the local language (Afan Oromo), and each voluntary respondent gave verbal consent to participate. Before sample collection, the owners of the selected cattle received a detailed explanation of the sampling procedure and laboratory analysis, and they provided verbal consent. During the questionnaire survey and sample collection, no personal identifying information about the respondents\u0026apos; cattle or farms was collected, reported, or analyzed; all the data were analyzed and presented anonymously. Therefore, all hive or honeybee owners provided informed consent before voluntarily participating in the study. In accordance with relevant national and institutional guidelines for veterinary epidemiological research, informed consent was deemed appropriate and was guaranteed for the survey.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization, methodology, data collection, data analysis, and writing the manuscripts by Nagash Asefa Bulcha, Waktole Terfa, and Getachew Mulatu Dilba. Laboratory investigation by Nagash Asefa Bulcha and Tesfaye Mulatu\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study has no funding (N/A).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors acknowledge the study area housekeeping workers, respondents, and hive owners for their willingness to participate in this study. Additionally, Ambo University and the Animal Health Institution provided logistical support that contributed to the success of this study. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Data availability statement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of the study and manuscript are available from the first and corresponding authors upon reasonable request. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKasina JM, Mburu J, Kraemer M, Holm-Mueller K: Economic benefit of crop pollination by bees: a case of Kakamega small-holder farming in western Kenya. \u003cem\u003eJ Econ Entomol\u003c/em\u003e 2009, 102(2):467\u0026ndash;473.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEyarefe OD, Oguntoye C: Honey, an unexplored topical wound dressing agent in Nigerian veterinary practice. \u003cem\u003eSokoto Journal of Veterinary Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 2016, 14(3):8-17-18\u0026ndash;17.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLe Conte Y, Navajas M: Climate change: impact on honey bee populations and diseases. \u003cem\u003eRev Sci Tech\u003c/em\u003e 2008, 27(2):485\u0026ndash;497, 499\u0026ndash;510.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMudzengi C, Kapembeza CS, Dahwa E, Taderera L, Moyana S, Zimondi M: Ecological benefits of apiculture on savanna rangelands. \u003cem\u003eBee World\u003c/em\u003e 2020, 97(1):17\u0026ndash;20.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYirga G, Teferi M: Participatory technology and constraints assessment to improve the livelihood of beekeepers in Tigray Region, northern Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eMomona Ethiopian Journal of Science\u003c/em\u003e 2010, 2(1).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLegesse G: Review of progress in Ethiopian honey production and marketing. \u003cem\u003eLivestock Research for Rural Development\u003c/em\u003e 2014, 26(1):1\u0026ndash;6.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDugda D, Addi A: Honeybee Floral Diversity of Gemachis Forest, West Hararghe Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers\u003c/em\u003e 2024, 4(2):55\u0026ndash;67.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGenersch E: Honey bee pathology: current threats to honey bees and beekeeping. \u003cem\u003eAppl Microbiol Biotechnol\u003c/em\u003e 2010, 87(1):87\u0026ndash;97.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBegna D: Assessment of the effect of ant (Dorylus fulvus) on honeybee colony (A. mellifera) and their products in West \u0026amp; South-West Shewa Zones, Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eEthiopian Journal of Animal Production\u003c/em\u003e 2007, 7(1):12\u0026ndash;26.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBegna D, Kebede Y: Survey of honeybee pests \u0026amp; pathogens in Addis Ababa region. 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In.; 2007.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStrauss U, Human H, Gauthier L, Crewe RM, Dietemann V, Pirk CW: Seasonal prevalence of pathogens and parasites in the savannah honeybee (Apis mellifera scutellata). \u003cem\u003eJ Invertebr Pathol\u003c/em\u003e 2013, 114(1):45\u0026ndash;52.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNeumann P, Evans JD, Pettis JS, Pirk CW, Sch\u0026auml;fer MO, Tanner G, Ellis JD: Standard methods for small hive beetle research. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Apicultural Research\u003c/em\u003e 2013, 52(4):1\u0026ndash;32.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEllis JD, Graham JR, Mortensen A: Standard methods for wax moth research. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Apicultural Research\u003c/em\u003e 2013, 52(1):1\u0026ndash;17.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFries I, Chauzat M-P, Chen Y-P, Doublet V, Genersch E, Gisder S, Higes M, McMahon DP, Mart\u0026iacute;n-Hern\u0026aacute;ndez R, Natsopoulou M: Standard methods for Nosema research. \u003cem\u003eJournal of apicultural research\u003c/em\u003e 2013, 52(1):1\u0026ndash;28.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGuesh G, Amssalu B, Hailu M, Yayeneshet T: Epidemiology of honey bee disease and pests in selected zones of tigray region, northern ethiopia. MSc. thesis, Bahir Dar University; 2015.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbebe W: Identification and documentation of indigenous knowledge of beekeeping practices in selected districts of Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development\u003c/em\u003e 2011, 3(5):82\u0026ndash;87.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTessega B: Honeybee production and marketing systems, constraints and opportunities in Burie District of Amhara Region. \u003cem\u003eEthiopia MSC Thesis Submitted to Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia\u003c/em\u003e 2009.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShenkute A, Getachew Y, Assefa D, Adgaba N, Ganga G, Abebe W: Honey production systems (Apis mellifera L.) in Kaffa, Sheka and Bench-Maji zones of Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eShenkute, AG\u003c/em\u003e, Getachew, Y, Assefa, \u003cem\u003eD, Adgaba, N, Ganga, G, and Abebe, W(2012) Honey production systems (Apis mellifera L) in Kaffa, Sheka and Bench-Maji zones of Ethiopia Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development\u003c/em\u003e 2012, 4(19):528\u0026ndash;541.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKinati C, Tolemariam T, Debele K: Assessment of honey production and marketing system in Gomma District, South Western Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eGreener Journal of Business and Management Studies\u003c/em\u003e 2013, 3(3):099\u0026ndash;107.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHaftu K, Daniel D, Gebru B, Tsegay G, Guash A, Guesh G, Mulualem Z, Gebrekiros G: Analysis of honey bee production opportunities and challenges in central Zone of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Scientific and Research Publications\u003c/em\u003e 2015, 5(4):1\u0026ndash;6.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDabessa J, Belay A: Survey on major honey bee pests and predators in Oromia special zone surrounding Finfine in Walmara District. \u003cem\u003eEuropean Journal of Biological Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 2015, 7(2):62\u0026ndash;70.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGizachew Gemechu GG, Sefinew Alemu SA, Amssalu Bezabeh AB, Malede Berhan MB: Prevalence and associated risk factors of bee lice in Holeta and its suroundings, Ethiopia. 2013.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDesalegn B: Occurrences and distributions of varroa mite (Varroa destructor) in Tigray regional state, Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Fisheries and Livestock production\u003c/em\u003e 2014, 2(3):1\u0026ndash;4.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkinwande K, Badejo M, Ogbogu S: Challenges associated with the honey bee (Apis mellifera adansonii) colonies establishment in south western Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eAfrican Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development\u003c/em\u003e 2013, 13(2).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e 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1:S96\u0026ndash;119.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNega T, Yayeh M, Mitiku T, Birhan M, Bogale B, Chanie M, Kinubeh A: Prevalence of parasitic honeybee diseases, pests and predators in North. 2019.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSolomon S, Degu T, Fesseha H, Mathewos M: Study on major parasitic diseases of adult honeybees in three districts of Kaffa Zone, Southern Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eVeterinary Medicine International\u003c/em\u003e 2021, 2021(1):6346703.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBizuayehu Ayele AJ, Haylemelekot M, Ayalew W: Beekeeping diseases and pests in east and west Gojjam zones of Amhara region, Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Entomology and Zoology Studies\u003c/em\u003e 2020, 8(6):32\u0026ndash;45.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Honeybee parasite, Honeybee pests, Prevalence, Risk factor","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8691322/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8691322/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHoneybees are essential for global nutrition and agriculture, and support income and environmental sustainability through plant pollination. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of honeybee parasites and pests in central Ethiopia from January 2025 to June 2025.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional design was employed, combining laboratory tests with a questionnaire survey of 100 beekeepers to identify risk factors affecting honeybee management. A total of 395 honeybee colonies from apiaries and backyard systems were sampled for laboratory analysis to detect pests. Data analysis was conducted via STATA version 14, including descriptive statistics, frequency analysis, and chi-square tests, with a significance level set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results revealed that the most common pests in honeybee colonies were ants (34.8%), wax moths (34.6%), small hive beetles (19.8%), and Varroa mites (10.6%). The study identified key challenges in beekeeping, such as pest attacks, limited forage (17.7%), absconding (16.77%), pesticide use (14.8%), water shortages (10.85%), colony mortality (10%), and migration (6.5%). The laboratory results revealed that the colony level prevalence of Varroa mites was 53.6%, that of bee lice was 3.04%, and that of \u003cem\u003eNosema apis\u003c/em\u003e was 17.22%. Notably, Varroa mite infestation was significantly associated (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) with the type of colony management, with a 1.9 folder greater risk in modern apiary systems than in backyard systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the significant impacts of pests such as ants, wax moths, small hive beetles, Varroa mites, and Nosema on honeybee health in the study area. This emphasized the importance of raising awareness about the risks of purchasing colonies from unknown sources and implementing effective quarantine measures.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Prevalence of Honeybee Parasites, Pests, and Their Associated Risk Factors in Central Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-27 15:48:20","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8691322/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c19d9241-7d55-44ea-bf12-2b9bf97c84d8","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 27th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-29T12:56:41+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-27 15:48:20","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8691322","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8691322","identity":"rs-8691322","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}