Impact of cellulose and nanocellulose obtained from Sugarcane Bagasse on mechanical properties and durability of concrete

Impact of cellulose and nanocellulose obtained from Sugarcane Bagasse on mechanical properties and durability of concrete | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Impact of cellulose and nanocellulose obtained from Sugarcane Bagasse on mechanical properties and durability of concrete Sajal Agarwal, Laxmi Kant Mishra, Sadhana Sachan, Dheeraj Ahuja, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7468279/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This research focuses on the need for strong urban infrastructures in the Indian subcontinent by incorporating eco-friendly additives into concrete. Market-available cellulose and Sugarcane bagasse cellulose both are added into the concrete to check the improvement of durability and enhancement in mechanical properties of concrete and for comparison between the other additives. Celluloses are further converted to a more advanced form that is nanocellulose and added to the concrete. It has been discovered that the utilization of nanomaterials in cement concrete, either as a partial substitution for binder or as a filler material which resulted in a significant improvement in the mechanical properties and durability characteristics of cementitious composites. FTIR spectra and XRD showed the authenticity of the cellulose prepared was of good quality. PSA of nano-cellulose is also shown to verify the size of nano fibres is in the range of less than 100 nanometres. Sustainable Cellulose Nanocellulose Concrete Cement Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Introduction Concrete has been utilized extensively in the construction industry worldwide in the past decade. In contrast to conventional cement, aggregates, water, and admixtures, concrete is now an engineered material that contains various supplementary components (Aı̈tcin et al. 2000). Concrete is a construction material that is widely used and highly efficient on a global scale. It is distinguished by its remarkable strength and cost-effectiveness in comparison to alternative building materials, which enables it to meet the increased demand driven by urbanization and facilitate a wide range of applications (Qureshi et al. 2020). The annual cement production exceeds 4 billion tonnes, resulting in a per capita consumption of 560 kg (Sandak et al. 2023). The focus on sustainability is crucial, as CO 2 emissions are a significant contributor to climate change. The current production of concrete is responsible for 8% of global CO 2 emissions and must be reduced by at least 16% by 2030 to comply with the Paris Agreement (Lehne et al. 2018). The construction industry is therefore pursuing eco-friendly alternatives for concrete to mitigate CO 2 emissions and reconcile environmental accountability with infrastructural reliability. One of the most significant areas of research is the production of materials for construction from waste, which can come from a variety of economic sectors, including but not limited to the production of paper and cellulose, mining, ornamental stone manufacturing, paints, the steel industry, and even civil construction (Lehne et al. 2018, Yang et al. 2024 , Shi et al. 2018 ). In addition to removing these waste products, the use of these materials in construction projects protects the environment from being filled with pollutants. We require a solution that is beneficial to the environment and allows us to make use of organic material that doesn't consist of any chemicals. There are products in the market that include chemical substances that are hazardous and have been shown to have adverse impacts on human health over time (Vijay et al. 2024 ). Numerous issues, such as plastic pollution, carbon footprint reduction, sustainability, and the localization and decrease of oil supplies, could be resolved by this substitute. The country's leadership in the global sugar sector is a significant accomplishment and a testament to the country's increasing prominence in this field. India has been the world's second-largest producer and largest purchaser of sugar. Indian sugar trends have a significant impact on global markets, as they account for approximately 15% of global sugar consumption and 20% of sugar production (Ministry of Consumer Affairs Food & Public Distribution, 2023). India has been appointed as the Chair of the International Sugar Organisation (ISO), which is headquartered in London, for the year 2024. Cellulose is a polymer that has a high molecular weight and a linear structure. Because of the existence of intermolecular and intramolecular (–OH) hydroxy group bonding, it is difficult for cellulose to mix freely in common solvents. The majority of plant biomass is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. It is common for agricultural lignocellulosic biomass to contain between 20 and 30 percent hemicellulose, 10 to 25 percent lignin, and 40 to 50 percent cellulose (Andrade et al. 2020 , Aramburu et al. 2023 , Cavdar et al. 2022 ). A wide variety of materials, including cotton, wood, tunicate, wheat straw, and ramie, can be used to produce celluloses, which have the form of rod-like particles. Nanocellulose is a unique and promising natural nanomaterial and has gained significant attention due to its applications in several important areas. Nanocellulose is the cellulose converted to nano fibrils having a size in the range of less than 100 nanometers. It shows enhanced crystallinity, high surface area, rheological properties, alignment and orientation, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and low toxicity (Nasir et al. 2017 ). Concrete's tensile strength is typically enhanced through the use of suitable reinforcement. Nevertheless, the concrete can be made more sustainable and crack-resistant if the intrinsic tensile strength of the concrete can be enhanced by engineering the initial concrete mix to increase tensile strength by incorporating a variety of admixtures, such as cellulose-based components (Feng et al. 2023 ). According to the research published in the cement and concrete literature adding cellulose-based compounds to cement mixtures has been shown to improve their strength and durability (Hisseine et al. 2018 , Morimitsu et al. 2025 , Rosson et al. 2024 , Mahmood et al. 2024 ). Nanoengineering alters the structure of concrete at the nanoscale level, resulting in the development of a new category of cement-based composites (Shah et al. 2016 ). The exceptional qualities of nanocellulose (NC), together with their ease of adaptation, have made it possible for them to be utilized as functionalized nanoparticles in a variety of systems. These systems include emulsions of oil and water, colloids, two-dimensional films, membranes, as well as three-dimensional hydrogels and aerogels. In one particular instance, NCs showed better results in cement and concrete composites, along with improvement in stiffness, compressive strength of the concrete, tensile strength of concrete, fracture energy, behavior at high temperatures, and durability (Gupta et al. 2020 , Shaikh et al. 2019, Peng et al. 2023 , Demir et al. 2025 , Haridharan et al. 2017 , Igbokwe et al. 2024 ). The processing conditions determine the variety of NC that is produced. The methods used to produce nanocellulose are outlined, including the choice of raw materials, the structural and chemical elements required to comprehend the extraction process, the traditional and cutting-edge mechanical disintegration processes, and the chemical and biological pretreatments meant to aid in the isolation of NCs (Khaire et al. 2021 ). Both crystalline and amorphous forms of cellulose are present in biomass due to the presence of lignin and hemicellulose within the polymer matrix (Chen et al. 2023 , Loow et al. 2017 ). There are several constraints associated with the organic binders that are utilized for strengthening procedures in order to bond the fibre sheets together (Thiong'o et al. 1995). High-strength and durable fabric/textile was also organized in mesh and encased in cement mortar, or inorganic binders, made up nano fibrils added to concrete, Carbon, Glass, Basalt and Polyparaphenylene Benzobisoxazole (Tran et al. 2022 , Alsayed et al. 2010 , Aydemir et al. 2022, Loreto et al. 2021). The production of one tonne of cement, which is the primary material used in the construction of concrete structures, results in the production of the equivalent amount of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) (Alsayed et al. 2010 ). In this study the need for increase of strength, earthquake-prone regions must be not only durable and ductile, but also robust enough to absorb and dissipate seismic energy. Concrete of inferior quality can result in calamitous failures, which can jeopardise both infrastructure and human life. This research has been focused on using lab prepared cellulose and nanocellulose mixed with concrete to enhance its strength. Sugarcane bagasse cellulose and microcrystalline cellulose and their subsequent nanocelluloses were used and the cement was replaced to reduce the carbon footprint and reduce in release of harmful gases which are released in the production of cement. Tests were run after 7 and 28 days and the strength was calculated. Compressive, split tensile, and flexural strength were used to calculate the strength of the cubes prepared and compared with the strength of the control sample. Market cellulose and sugarcane bagasse cellulose were converted to nanocellulose and again the strength was calculated to see the difference in the increase of strengths. SEM images were used to justify the micro-level bonding of cement with cellulose and nanocellulose. FTIR images were used to characterize the lab-made cellulose and XRD was used to distinguish between the crystallinity of lab-made cellulose and the cellulose available in the market. Material and Methods Raw Materials Cellulose microcrystalline (CDH Chemicals) was purchased from the market. For preparation, cellulose is isolated from Sugarcane bagasse waste (SB). Chemicals used were Sodium hydroxide (SRL), Sulphuric acid (Rankem), Sodium Chlorite (SRL). Ordinary Portland Cement 43 (KJS CEMENT) used to prepare cubes was purchased from the market. Sika ViscoCrete 4107PQ (Modified PCE) is used as a superplastisizer. The pH of the water used was 6.8 which is within the 6.5 to 8 range. Cellulose extraction from sugarcane bagasse waste Moisture removal and size reduction To begin, sugarcane bagasse waste is collected from the local vendor and was soaked in distilled water for two days in order to remove extractives that were readily soluble in water. Next, the waste was dried in an oven at 60°C for two days. Waste material is now grinded in Bajaj Mixer. Following that, the waste was pulverised and sent through a screen with a mesh size of 52. Alkali treatment For alkali treatment, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used. Some part of hemicellulose and lignin are removed in this step. 2% (w/w) NaOH solution is made and then the dried waste is added to the solution. The solution is stirred continuously for three hours on a heated plate using a magnetic stirrer (REMI) to raise the overall temperature of the solution between 75 to 85°C. After 3 hours the treated biomass fibres are rinsed and washed with distilled water to maintain the pH of the fibres, the fibres were dried in an oven at a temperature of 60°C and kept overnight Acid hydrolysis Following the application of the alkaline treatment with NaOH, the lignin and any other impurities present in the fibres were eliminated using acid hydrolysis with diluted H 2 SO 4 solution 4%(v/v) and stirring at 85°C for 3 to 4 hours. The pH of the treated Sugarcane bagasse biomass fibres was adjusted to 7 by washing and filtering them with distilled water, and then they were dried at 60°C for the entire night. Bleaching The white cellulose is achieved by treating the sample with Sodium Chlorite (NaClO 2 ) at a temperature of 80°C for 4 hours. 4% (w/w) solution of NaClO 2 is used throughout the bleaching procedure. The pH was maintained in the narrow range of 3 to 4, Acetic acid was used to adjust the pH to the desired level. After being washed, the white cellulose fibers were dried at a temperature of 60°C for at least 24 hours. The cellulose prepared is then stored in the air tight container so that it does not absorbs moistures from the surrounding. Preparation of Nanocellulose from Cellulose Sugarcane bagasse Cellulose (SBC) obtained from sugarcane baggase waste and market purchased cellulose (MC) is converted into Nanocellulose by two step process. The first step consists of ultrasonification of the cellulose in Ultrasonicator cleaner (ACUTEK, ULTRASONIC POWER 60W, FREQUENCY 40KHZ) by adding a 10% by weight of dried cellulose powder in the distilled water. Ultrasonic waves passes through the sample breaking the cellulose into smaller fragments. The process lasts for 4 hours at 50°C. The second step consists of homogenization of the sample by the homogenizer (IKA T25 ULTRA TURRAX) at 10000 rounds per minute for half hour. Homogenizer converts the larger cellulose fibers into the range of nano-meters. The Nanocellulose(NC) is then seperated from the distilled water through filter paper having pore size 30 to 40 nanometer to obtain Nano-market cellulose (NMC) from MC and Nano-Sugarcane bagasse cellulose(NSBC) from SBC. Making of Concrete cubes Mixed designing of M30 grade concrete was done as per IS 10262:2019 by mixing the materials that are Cement (CM), Fine aggregate(FA) and Courseaggregate(CA) in the proportion of (CM:FA:CA::1:1.77:3.25). Water-Cement ratio is taken to be 0.4. Cellulose is added to the mixture in the quantity of 0.5% of the cement weight replacing that amount of cement. Sika ViscoCrete 4107PQ (Modified PCE) Superplasticizer of 0.5% by weight of cement is used to reduce water content and enhance the workability. All the materials were weighed and mixed inside a concrete mixer to obtain mix proportions as shown in Table 1 . After all materials had been thoroughly combined in the mixer, tap water was added according to IS 456:2000. Oil was applied to all the contact surfaces of mould. The moulds of cubes, cylinders, and beams were filled with fresh concrete and compacted using the table vibrating machine. After 24 hours of setting, samples were de-moulded from the moulds and immediately placed in a water tank in the lab for curing until testing days. The workability of the concrete mix was tested using a slump cone test with dimensions (upper diameter = 100mm, bottom diameter = 200mm, and height = 300mm). Step by step process of cellulose production and mixing it in concrete to form cubes, cylinders and beam from starting to end is shown in Fig. 1 Table 1 Amount of materials (in Kg) required for preparation of 1 m 3 volume of concrete mix. Amount of materials used Cement Water Fine aggregate Course Aggregate Admixture used Cellulose (0.5%) 383.18 153.27 674.69 191.551 2.68 1.91 Test methods Characterization of Cellulose and nanocellulose Before the characterization of cellulose bagasse waste is done the cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin content in it is calculated as shown in Table 2 . FTIR Component variations in the polymer structure are shown in Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra (Balaguru 1987 ). Pellets were created for analysis following the sample's crushing using KBr. Using a Perkin Elmer Bx11-FTIR Spectrophotometer, spectra were obtained in the 4,000–400 cm-1 range. The materials were subjected to testing and then sieved using a 300 µm sieve. To keep the samples fresh, an airtight bag was utilised. XRD Central Interdisciplinary Research (CIR), a laboratory located at MNNIT Allahabad, Prayagraj, is the location where the X-ray diffraction (XRD) study was conducted. The RIGAKU SMART LAB 3KW High-Resolution X-ray Diffraction was utilized for the experiments with Kβ filter was used. The Detector used is D/tex Ultra Detector, Scanning range was maintained from 5° to 60° with step width 0.02° with the total time of run is 20 minutes with Fixed slits having automatic switching between reflection and transmission geometry (CBO optics) and Sample holder is made of glass. The instrument used a high-end monochromator that effectively filters out the Kα₂ emission line, resulting in diffraction data primarily from the Kα₁ line (1.5406 Å). The Segal method, a widely adopted methodology for the calculation of relative crystallinity in cellulose-based samples, was used to determine the Crystallinity Index (CrI) of the samples using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis. The CrI was determined using the following equation. CrI(%) = (I 200 − I am ) /I 200 × 100 Where I am is the intensity of the amorphous background at about 2θ = 18° and I 200 is the intensity of the crystalline peak at about 2θ ≈ 22° (which represents the (200) plane of crystalline cellulose). This method compares the intensity of crystalline and amorphous regions in the XRD pattern to estimate the relative crystallinity (Segal et al. 1959 ). PSA Nanofibers made after ultrasonication and homogenization process was analyzed by Particle size analyzer (Nanotrac Wave) to find their correct size. DIMENSIONS LS is the measurement and evaluation software that Microtrac has developed for their nanoparticle instruments (Nanotrac series). NCs which were in the range of 50 to 100 Nanometers showed the best results as it bonded with concrete properly and better than mirco-cellulose. Table 2 Cellulose content of Sugarcane bagasse waste Sugarcane bagasse This study Ref. study[43] Cellulose 42% 32–45% Hemicellulose 28% 20–32% Lignin 30% 17–32% Properties of cement and aggregates Properties of Ordinary Portland Cement 43 Grade (KJS CEMENT) which is brought from Prayagraj, India is tested and are described in Table 3 where different compositions of cement are represented in the percentage wise manner according to the (IS 8112:1989: reaffirmed in 2013). Physical properties such as specific gravity, standard consistency, initial setting time and final setting time are calculated according to the Indian standards (IS 516: part 1 sec 1: 2021). Testing of CA and FA was done according to (IS 2386: 1963: reaffirmed in 2021) and Properties of CA and FA was done according to (IS 383:1970: reaffirmed in 2002) were calculated according to the Indian standards and are shown in Table 4 . Table 3 Characteristics of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) Item Test Result Normal Range(IS 8112:1989:2013) Composition % % CaO 62.8 60–65 SiO 2 20.6 17–25 Al 2 O 3 4.6 3–8 Fe 2 O 3 3.8 0.5-6 MgO 0.6 0.5-4 SO 3 1.2 1–2 Insoluble Residue Physical properties Fineness 8.5% 30 Final setting time 540 min <=600 Table 4 Properties of coarse aggregates and fine aggregates Properties of course aggregate Values Specific Gravity (a) 10mm (b) 20mm 2.63 2.80 Water absorption 0.58% Aggregate Crushing value 12.4% Abrasion value 26.2% Flakiness Index 17.3% Elongation Index 22.4% Aggregate Impact value 19.4% Fineness Modulus 7.21 Colour Grey Various physical properties of fine aggregates Water absorption 1.36% Fineness modulus 2.54 Zone of Sand II Specific Gravity 2.72 Workability test and Mechanical properties of concrete The concrete mixture workability was tested using a slump cone test with dimensions (top diameter = 100mm, bottom diameter = 200mm, and height = 300mm).Table 5 shows the slump value of M30 grade concrete when different additives were added in the concrete. The slump value increases due to the enhanced flow ability because of the nano fibers present which fill the gaps between the cement and concrete on nano level scale (Balaguru et al. 1987).Compressive strength tests were conducted and the results were expressed in Newton per square millimetre (N/mm 2 ) according to the IS516(Part1:Sec1):2021by testing 100mm cubes on a analog compressive testing machine(AIMIL, India) with a loading capacity of 2000KN shown in Fig. 2 .The average value of three specimens was used to calculate compressive strength of concrete. Curing times for concrete cubes were 7 and 28 days. Split-Tensile Strength Test was performed on a cylinder having the dimension of 200*100mm (height*length) at 7 days and 28 days water curing and and the values were expressed in N/mm 2 as per procedure described in IS 516(Part1:Sec1):2021 on compression testing machine only. Flexural strength test was performed on a beam with dimensions of 500*100*100mm(length*breath*height) after 7 and 28 days of water curingand the values were expressed in N/mm 2 as described in IS516(Part 1:Sec 1):2021 on flexural testing machine (AIMIL, India) with maximum load of 250KN as shown in Fig. 2 . Table 5 Slump cone test values Materials added CS MC SBC NMC NSBC Value (mm) 80 86 92 93 98 SEM analysis Before drying to a constant mass at a temperature of 50°C, specimens from each mixture were first submerged in a solution of propan-2-ol for a period of twenty-four hours. Subsequently, the specimens were covered with carbon, polished with a variety of grit papers sequentially (Thiong'o et al. 1995), and then impregnated with epoxy. Images are zoomed to the magnification of X50. It is feasible to observe the microcrystalline structure of cellulose in the SEM-SED pictures of both MC and SBC. Cellulose, when combined with cement, demonstrated a strong connection between the cement and cellulose powder, as well as between the cement and NCs that were mixed together. After the strength tests were completed, samples of the cubes, cylinders, and beams that were created from adding NCs were obtained and scanned using the scanning electron microscope (SEM-SED). Results and Discussion Characterization of cellulose and Nanocellulose Cellulosic research has made considerable use of FTIR spectroscopy. Because it provides a convenient means of directly collecting information on the chemical changes that take place throughout different chemical treatments (Sun et al. 2004). FTIR of sugarcane bagasse waste and lab prepared cellulose from sugarcane bagasse and market purchased cellulose is compared in Fig. 3. The lignin peaks are removed by the process of alkali treatment and acid hydrolysis treatment as shown in figure at 1510cm − 1 and 1430cm − 1 . The peak diminishes in the sugarcane bagasse cellulose and market cellulose does not have such a peak at both the wavelengths. The hemicelluloses peak is removed by the process of alkali treatment and acid hydrolysis treatment as shown in figure at 1050cm − 1 . The peak diminishes in the sugarcane bagasse cellulose and market cellulose does not have such a peak at that wavelength. XRD analysis is a distinctive technique for determining the degree of crystallinity in polymers. In Fig. 4 shows the crystalline cellulose peaks of microcrystalline cellulose and lab prepared cellulose from sugarcane bagasse is examined to check the crystallinity of the celluloses. In Fig. 4 the black line shows the XRD spectra for microcrystalline cellulose whereas red line shows the XRD spectra for lab prepared cellulose bagasse. Calculations using Origin software was done by substracting baseline method and then using interpolation which showed Crystallinity of 73.62% in MC, 61.61% in SBC and 34.86% in Raw sugarcane bagasse waste. In XRD spectra it is visible that the cellulose prepared in lab is less crystalline (Basak et al. 2025). PSA used to determine the size of NCs that were prepared from MC and SBC (Kajtna 2017). Particle size analyser showed that the Nano cellulose prepared from MC 80% percent pass lies in the range of 60–75 nano meters as shown in Fig. 5 (a) and SBC nano cellulose 80% percent pass lies in the range of 60–80 nano meters as shown the Fig. 5 (b) . Workability test and mechanical properties of concrete Compressive strength The compressive strength of concrete has a major impact on the integrity of the structure and durability of concrete constructions, which is a fundamental property. It is an indicator of the concrete's capacity to resist transverse loads or forces that have the potential to compress or collapse the material. Compressive strength is a critical factor in the design and evaluation of concrete structures, as it is essential for guaranteeing that the concrete can withstand the applied loads without failure. According to the IS: 516 (part 1:Sec 1) the test on cubes are performed and the following results shows the significant increase in the strength of the concrete cubes as shown in Fig. 6. Strength was calculated after the 7 days of curing, the followings results were recorded. MC showed a increase of 10% ±0.5% with respect to the CS. SBC showed a 14%±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. NMC (NC derived from MC) showed a 50%±0.5% increase of strength with respect to the CS and NSBC(NC derived from SBC) showed a huge increase in strength of 60%±0.5% with respect to the CS. After 28 days of curing, the following results were recorded. MC showed a increase of 12% ±0.5% with respect to the CS. SBC showed a 9%±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. NC derived from MC showed a 23%±0.5% increase of strength with respect to the CS and NC derived from SBC showed a huge increase in strength of 38%±0.5% with respect to the CS. This enhancement in the compressive strength is due to the binders and fibres present in the concrete mixture (Cheah et al. 2011, Pavlíková et al. 2018). Split Tensile Strength An important mechanical test for determining the tensile strength of cylindrical concrete specimens is the Splitting Tensile Test. The splitting tensile test evaluates the material's resistance to tensile forces, in contrast to conventional compression tests, which determine the concrete's compressive strength (Haufe et al. 2019). Split Tensile strength analysis showed that when cellulose and nano cellulose is added to the concrete, there is an increase in tensile strength which is shown in Fig. 7. The durability and serviceability of concrete are still significantly influenced by its tensile strength. The tensile strength of concrete is also significantly correlated with the propagation and control of cracks in the concrete. Strength was calculated after the 7 days of curing, the followings results were recorded. MC showed a increase of 9% ±0.5% with respect to the CS. SBC showed a 12%±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. NMC showed a 25%±0.5% increase of strength with respect to the CS and NSBC showed a huge increase in strength of 26%±0.5% with respect to the CS. After 28 days of curing, the following results were recorded. MC showed10% ±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. SBC showed a 14%±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. NMC showed a 18%±0.5% increase of strength with respect to the CS and NSBC showed a huge increase in strength of 22%±0.5% with respect to the CS. Flexural Strength The flexural strength test is used to determine the extent to which the concrete beam or slab that is being evaluated is capable of withstanding resistance to bending. Similar to compressive strength, flexural strength is another essential quality of concrete that needs to be carefully examined before it is utilised in building projects. The results have been showed in Fig. 8. Strength was calculated after the 7 days of curing, the followings results were recorded. MC showed a increase of 3% ±0.5% with respect to the CS. SBC showed a 11%±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. NMC showed a 22%±0.5% increase of strength with respect to the CS and NSBC showed a huge increase in strength of 25%±0.5% with respect to the CS. After 28 days of curing, the following results were recorded. MC showed a increase of 4% ±0.5% with respect to the CS. SBC showed a 5%±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. NMC showed a 16%±0.5% increase of strength with respect to the CS and NSBC showed a huge increase in strength of 19%±0.5% with respect to the CS. Additives showed an increase in flexural strength of the beam due to the micro fibres present in the concrete due to cellulose and nano fibres present in NC prepared from MC and SBC (Cheah et al. 2011, Pavlíková et al. 2018). SEM analysis The microstructure of the concrete is assessed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) pictures. However, there are still issues because the available techniques are labor-intensive, semi-automated, and only suitable for certain concrete specimens at specific magnifications (Bangaru et al. 2022). For scanning electron microscopy, a secondary electron detector (SED) provides images with a resolution that is not reliant on the material. SED images offer the highest resolution topographical information and enable visualization of the inelastically scattered electrons generated near the sample surface. SEM image of MC purchased from market Fig. 9 (a) is shown at 500 micrometer scale and SBC prepared from sugarcane bagasse Fig. 9 (b) is shown to see microfibers surface morphology. In Fig. 9 (a) MC having a crystalline nature is shown whereas in Fig. 9 (b) the microfibres are shown which are different from MC. Fibers in SBC bond with cement easily due to the less crystalline nature and result in increase in mechanical properties of the cement than the MC. MC and SBC both celluloses are then converted into nano cellulose and then the nano cellulose is added in concrete. NMC and NSBC mixed in concrete is shown in Fig. 9 (c) and Fig. 9 (d) respectively. Gaps are shown in the yellow rectangle when NMC was used whereas those gaps disappear when we used NSBC. NSBC fills the gaps between the cement particles to show a better bonding in the microstructure of concrete giving better durability and enhanced mechanical properties than NMC (Sofla et al. 2016). Conclusion The experimental study gave the following conclusions The use of MC, SBC, NMC, and NSBC enhanced the mechanical properties of concrete. When 0.5 percent cement was replaced by these fibres, tensile strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength increased. FTIR spectra were used to determine the successful conversion of raw material into cellulose by removing the hemicelluloses and lignin from the raw material. XRD graph showed the less crystalline nature of SBC than the MC. SEM images showed the crystalline nature of MC and the fibrous nature of SBC. The mixing of NC prepared from MC and SBC at the micrometer level, between the concrete and NCs was also shown by the SEM images. Particle size analyzer machine data showed the size of the NMC converted from MC and NSBC converted from SBC. Both the NCs were found within the range of less than 100 nanometers. The NMC used showed better results than the MC and SBC due to the size of the fibers in nanometers. In contrast, lab-prepared NSBC provided the best results in terms of mechanical properties and durability. Providing an eco-friendly solution for the environment and reducing carbon emissions by reducing cement consumption and lowering the carbon footprint on the environment. Declarations Competing Interests The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article Funding This research received no external funding. Author Contributions All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Sajal Agarwal. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Sajal Agarwal and Ankur Gaur and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript References Aïtcin PC (2000) Cements of yesterday and today: Concrete of tomorrow. Cem Concr Res 30:1349–1359. Qureshi, Tanvir, and Abir Al-Tabbaa. 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Feng S, Lyu J, Xiao H, Feng J (2023) Application of cellulose fibre in ultra-high-performance concrete to mitigate autogenous shrinkage. J Sustain Cem.-Based Mater 12(7):842-855. Hisseine OA, Omran AF, Tagnit-Hamou A (2018) Influence of cellulose filaments on cement paste and concrete. J Mater Civ Eng 30(6):04018109. Al G, Aydemir D, Kaygin B, Ayrilmis N, Gunduz G (2018) Preparation and characterization of biopolymer nanocomposites from cellulose nanofibrils and nanoclays. J Compos Mater 52(5):689-700. Hamada H, Shi J, Yousif ST, Al Jawahery M, Tayeh B, Jokhio G (2023) Use of nano-silica in cement-based materials–a comprehensive review. J Sustain Cem.-Based Mater 12(10):1286-1306. Mahmood A, Pechočiaková M, Noman MT, Wacławek S, Gheibi M, Behzadian K, Wiener J, Militký J (2024) Aging behaviour assessment of cellulosic fibres in alkaline media: A green technology approach in construction materials. J Build Eng 92:109685. Shah SP, Hou P, Konsta-Gdoutos MS (2016) Nano-modification of cementitious material: Toward a stronger and durable concrete. J Sustain Cem.-Based Mater 5(1-2):1-22. Gupta H, Kumar H, Kumar M, Gehlaut AK, Gaur A, Sachan S, Park JW (2020) Synthesis of biodegradable films obtained from rice husk and sugarcane bagasse to be used as food packaging material. Environ Eng Res 25(4):506-514. Shaikh FUA, Dobson J (2019) Effect of fly ash on compressive strength and chloride binding of seawater-mixed mortars. J Sustain Cem.-Based Mater 8(5):275-289. Peng Y, Zhang Y, Li Z et al. (2023) Preparation and characterization of sisal cellulose nanocrystals-assembled film. Fibers Polym 24:3027-3036. Demir A, Balpetek FG, Yiğit E et al. (2025) From waste cotton to functional textiles: Nanocellulose reinforcement and effect of plasma treatment. Fibers Polym 26:247-259. Haridharan MK, Natarajan C, Chen SE (2017) Evaluation of residual strength and durability aspect of concrete cube exposed to elevated temperature. J Sustain Cem.-Based Mater 6(4):231-253. Igbokwe E, Ibekwe S, Mensah P, Agu O, Li G (2024) Self-healing of macroscopic cracks in concrete by cellulose fiber carried microbes. J Build Eng 90:109383. Khaire KC, Moholkar VS, Goyal A (2021) Bioconversion of sugarcane tops to bioethanol and other value added products: An overview. Mater Sci Energy Technol 4:54-68. Chen Y, Ma Q, Wang K, Mahoney A, Miao R, Jiang L (2023) The synergistic effects of lignin and cellulose nanofibers on the properties of starch/zein blends. J Compos Mater 57(16):2627-2642. Loow YL, New EK, Yang GH, Ang LY, Foo LYW, Wu TY (2017) Potential use of deep eutectic solvents to facilitate lignocellulosic biomass utilization and conversion. Cellulose 24:3591-3618. Tran NP, Gunasekara C, Law DW, Houshyar S, Setunge S, Cwirzen A (2022) Comprehensive review on sustainable fiber reinforced concrete incorporating recycled textile waste. J Sustain Cem.-Based Mater 11(1):28-42. Alsayed SH, Almusallam TH, Al-Salloum YA, Siddiqui NA (2010) Seismic rehabilitation of corner RC beam-column joints using CFRP composites. J Compos Constr 14(6):681-692. Aydemir D, Gardner DJ (2022) Biopolymer nanocomposites of polyhydroxybutyrate and cellulose nanofibrils: Effects of cellulose nanofibril loading levels. J Compos Mater 56(8):1175-1190. Loreto G, Leardini L, Arboleda D, Nanni A (2014) Performance of RC slab-type elements strengthened with fabric-reinforced cementitious-matrix composites. J Compos Constr 18(3):A4013003. Balaguru P, Ramakrishnan V (1987) Comparison of slump cone and VB tests as measures of workability for fiber-reinforced and plain concrete. Cem Concr Aggreg 9(1):3-11. Thiong'o JK (1995) The effect of fluorides on reinforced concrete. The University of Manchester (United Kingdom). Sun JX, Sun XF, Zhao H, Sun RC (2004) Isolation and characterization of cellulose from sugarcane bagasse. Polym Degrad Stab 84(2):331-339. Pamidipati S, Ahmed A (2019) Cellulase stimulation during biodegradation of lignocellulosic residues at increased biomass loading. Biocat Biotransform 37(4):261-267. Kajtna J, Šebenik U (2017) Novel acrylic/nanocellulose microsphere with improved adhesive properties. Int J Adhes Adhes 74:100-106. Cheah CB, Ramli M (2011) The implementation of wood waste ash as a partial cement replacement material in the production of structural grade concrete and mortar: An overview. Resour Conserv Recycl 55(7):669-685. Pavlíková M, Zemanová L, Pokorný J, Záleská M, Jankovský O, Lojka M, Sedmidubský D, Pavlík Z (2018) Valorization of wood chips ash as an eco-friendly mineral admixture in mortar mix design. Waste Manag 80:89-100. Haufe J, Vollpracht A (2019) Tensile strength of concrete exposed to sulfate attack. Cem Concr Res 116:81-88. Bangaru SS, Wang C, Zhou X, Hassan M (2022) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image segmentation for microstructure analysis of concrete using U-net convolutional neural network. Autom Constr 144:104602. Sofla MRK, Brown RJ, Tsuzuki T, Rainey TJ (2016) A comparison of cellulose nanocrystals and cellulose nanofibres extracted from bagasse using acid and ball milling methods. Adv Nat Sci: Nanoscience Nanotechnol 7(3):035004. Kumar A, Kumar V, Singh B (2021) Cellulosic and hemicellulosic fractions of sugarcane bagasse: Potential, challenges and future perspective. Int J Biol Macromol 169:564-582. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 22 Sep, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 22 Sep, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 31 Aug, 2025 First submitted to journal 27 Aug, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7468279","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":518856560,"identity":"fdc996e0-4d38-469f-b17d-e4e7cf6116b9","order_by":0,"name":"Sajal Agarwal","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sajal","middleName":"","lastName":"Agarwal","suffix":""},{"id":518856561,"identity":"67f18526-3620-4afd-a513-7406267b1fb5","order_by":1,"name":"Laxmi Kant Mishra","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Laxmi","middleName":"Kant","lastName":"Mishra","suffix":""},{"id":518856562,"identity":"65327a9b-1890-4ff5-9a9d-a80a599fed4e","order_by":2,"name":"Sadhana Sachan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sadhana","middleName":"","lastName":"Sachan","suffix":""},{"id":518856564,"identity":"7565671e-135c-4be7-844f-43e44b3fd5d7","order_by":3,"name":"Dheeraj Ahuja","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dheeraj","middleName":"","lastName":"Ahuja","suffix":""},{"id":518856565,"identity":"b2c05df2-9699-4f18-b2a2-dc167437d1c1","order_by":4,"name":"Ankur Gaur","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAt0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACNiCuAGJmCJeHSC1nQFqYSdHC2MaAsIYg4J/dliZdOW9bnjk7/wGGHzUMMuaEtEjcOXZM8uy228WWzcwMjD3HGHgsGwjpuZHeJtm47XbihsNAh/E2MPAYHCCgQx6sZQ5EC+NfYrQY3Eg7JtnYANHCTJQthjfSki0bjoG1GByWOSZBWIvcjTTDmw01QC3nDz58+KbGxp6gFhQAVCxBivpRMApGwSgYBbgAALW4PVwKSaDGAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ankur","middleName":"","lastName":"Gaur","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-27 06:23:07","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7468279/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7468279/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":95664169,"identity":"012509bc-5cd4-4a33-8f8c-94b288c5b3de","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:40:00","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":450262,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProcess Flowchart\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468279/v1/885bae6c5722d62609db00b6.png"},{"id":95664088,"identity":"6ea67b93-ac82-4977-a95a-6202ba5bfa25","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:39:48","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":287263,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTesting machines used for compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural Strength\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468279/v1/0c8e62bdeac5a505fc1338dc.png"},{"id":95664142,"identity":"764d00e3-8b9f-49e2-885c-697d885b1b26","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:39:58","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":123445,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFTIR analysis of Market cellulose(blue), Sugarcane bagasse cellulose(red) and Raw sugarcane bagasse(black)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468279/v1/d71fcd6c5ca421152577fe90.png"},{"id":95664141,"identity":"78aeef52-9c73-4020-a7f3-d74100a010f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:39:57","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":63069,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eXRD analysis of Market cellulose(black), Sugarcane bagasse cellulose(red) and Raw sugarcane bagasse(blue)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468279/v1/96eaf2ffff86ef23ee6c5240.png"},{"id":95664083,"identity":"3181be0b-fa17-4ada-9100-862a47280bba","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:39:48","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":180912,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePSA of (a) Nano market cellulose(NMC) (b) Nano sugarcane bagasse cellulose(NSBC)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468279/v1/37b3c546be5955432bea82ed.png"},{"id":95664127,"identity":"7339bd7a-1d36-40b2-8112-eef2fc8afa7b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:39:54","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":327771,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompressive strength variation for Control sample (CS), Market cellulose(MC), Sugarcane bagasse cellulose(SBC), Nano market cellulose (NMC), Nano sugarcane bagasse cellulose (NSBC)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468279/v1/9b590e9ea9b886bec0030948.png"},{"id":95664129,"identity":"c82dd11c-bd1d-4048-aa50-7607160ffad9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:39:54","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":360784,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSplit tensile strength variation for Control sample (CS), Market cellulose(MC), Sugarcane bagasse cellulose(SBC), Nano market cellulose (NMC), Nano sugarcane bagasse cellulose (NSBC)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468279/v1/d375d7f6939dd0525231c42e.png"},{"id":95664143,"identity":"83c15808-f61c-44fe-a6d8-554995201e9a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:39:59","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":322796,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlexural strength variation for Control sample (CS), Market cellulose(MC), Sugarcane bagasse cellulose(SBC), Nano market cellulose (NMC), Nano sugarcane bagasse cellulose (NSBC)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468279/v1/9c898e1a9c641d2ceac96bef.png"},{"id":95664124,"identity":"06078f42-5354-4330-b6eb-bf7883edc39b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:39:54","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":661392,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM image of (a) Market cellulose(MC) (b) Sugarcane bagasse cellulose(SBC) (c) Nano market cellulose(NMC) mixed in concrete (d) Nano sugarcane bagasse cellulose (NSBC) mixed in concrete\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468279/v1/5d212d1102166cbf2163d78d.png"},{"id":95797398,"identity":"ea2af944-87d4-4c2a-8909-613bc1b28f22","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 08:04:40","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3580228,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468279/v1/6ac56f56-ac64-4e79-9cca-eea282a45dff.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Impact of cellulose and nanocellulose obtained from Sugarcane Bagasse on mechanical properties and durability of concrete","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eConcrete has been utilized extensively in the construction industry worldwide in the past decade. In contrast to conventional cement, aggregates, water, and admixtures, concrete is now an engineered material that contains various supplementary components (Aı̈tcin et al. 2000). Concrete is a construction material that is widely used and highly efficient on a global scale. It is distinguished by its remarkable strength and cost-effectiveness in comparison to alternative building materials, which enables it to meet the increased demand driven by urbanization and facilitate a wide range of applications (Qureshi et al. 2020). The annual cement production exceeds 4\u0026nbsp;billion tonnes, resulting in a per capita consumption of 560 kg (Sandak et al. 2023). The focus on sustainability is crucial, as CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions are a significant contributor to climate change. The current production of concrete is responsible for 8% of global CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions and must be reduced by at least 16% by 2030 to comply with the Paris Agreement (Lehne et al. 2018). The construction industry is therefore pursuing eco-friendly alternatives for concrete to mitigate CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions and reconcile environmental accountability with infrastructural reliability. One of the most significant areas of research is the production of materials for construction from waste, which can come from a variety of economic sectors, including but not limited to the production of paper and cellulose, mining, ornamental stone manufacturing, paints, the steel industry, and even civil construction (Lehne et al. 2018, Yang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e, Shi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In addition to removing these waste products, the use of these materials in construction projects protects the environment from being filled with pollutants. We require a solution that is beneficial to the environment and allows us to make use of organic material that doesn't consist of any chemicals. There are products in the market that include chemical substances that are hazardous and have been shown to have adverse impacts on human health over time (Vijay et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Numerous issues, such as plastic pollution, carbon footprint reduction, sustainability, and the localization and decrease of oil supplies, could be resolved by this substitute.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe country's leadership in the global sugar sector is a significant accomplishment and a testament to the country's increasing prominence in this field. India has been the world's second-largest producer and largest purchaser of sugar. Indian sugar trends have a significant impact on global markets, as they account for approximately 15% of global sugar consumption and 20% of sugar production (Ministry of Consumer Affairs Food \u0026amp; Public Distribution, 2023). India has been appointed as the Chair of the International Sugar Organisation (ISO), which is headquartered in London, for the year 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCellulose is a polymer that has a high molecular weight and a linear structure. Because of the existence of intermolecular and intramolecular (\u0026ndash;OH) hydroxy group bonding, it is difficult for cellulose to mix freely in common solvents. The majority of plant biomass is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. It is common for agricultural lignocellulosic biomass to contain between 20 and 30 percent hemicellulose, 10 to 25 percent lignin, and 40 to 50 percent cellulose (Andrade et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Aramburu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, Cavdar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). A wide variety of materials, including cotton, wood, tunicate, wheat straw, and ramie, can be used to produce celluloses, which have the form of rod-like particles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNanocellulose is a unique and promising natural nanomaterial and has gained significant attention due to its applications in several important areas. Nanocellulose is the cellulose converted to nano fibrils having a size in the range of less than 100 nanometers. It shows enhanced crystallinity, high surface area, rheological properties, alignment and orientation, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and low toxicity (Nasir et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcrete's tensile strength is typically enhanced through the use of suitable reinforcement. Nevertheless, the concrete can be made more sustainable and crack-resistant if the intrinsic tensile strength of the concrete can be enhanced by engineering the initial concrete mix to increase tensile strength by incorporating a variety of admixtures, such as cellulose-based components (Feng et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). According to the research published in the cement and concrete literature adding cellulose-based compounds to cement mixtures has been shown to improve their strength and durability (Hisseine et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e, Morimitsu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e, Rosson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e, Mahmood et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNanoengineering alters the structure of concrete at the nanoscale level, resulting in the development of a new category of cement-based composites (Shah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The exceptional qualities of nanocellulose (NC), together with their ease of adaptation, have made it possible for them to be utilized as functionalized nanoparticles in a variety of systems. These systems include emulsions of oil and water, colloids, two-dimensional films, membranes, as well as three-dimensional hydrogels and aerogels. In one particular instance, NCs showed better results in cement and concrete composites, along with improvement in stiffness, compressive strength of the concrete, tensile strength of concrete, fracture energy, behavior at high temperatures, and durability (Gupta et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Shaikh et al. 2019, Peng et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, Demir et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e, Haridharan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, Igbokwe et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The processing conditions determine the variety of NC that is produced. The methods used to produce nanocellulose are outlined, including the choice of raw materials, the structural and chemical elements required to comprehend the extraction process, the traditional and cutting-edge mechanical disintegration processes, and the chemical and biological pretreatments meant to aid in the isolation of NCs (Khaire et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Both crystalline and amorphous forms of cellulose are present in biomass due to the presence of lignin and hemicellulose within the polymer matrix (Chen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, Loow et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). There are several constraints associated with the organic binders that are utilized for strengthening procedures in order to bond the fibre sheets together (Thiong'o et al. 1995). High-strength and durable fabric/textile was also organized in mesh and encased in cement mortar, or inorganic binders, made up nano fibrils added to concrete, Carbon, Glass, Basalt and Polyparaphenylene Benzobisoxazole (Tran et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e, Alsayed et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, Aydemir et al. 2022, Loreto et al. 2021). The production of one tonne of cement, which is the primary material used in the construction of concrete structures, results in the production of the equivalent amount of carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) (Alsayed et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study the need for increase of strength, earthquake-prone regions must be not only durable and ductile, but also robust enough to absorb and dissipate seismic energy. Concrete of inferior quality can result in calamitous failures, which can jeopardise both infrastructure and human life. This research has been focused on using lab prepared cellulose and nanocellulose mixed with concrete to enhance its strength. Sugarcane bagasse cellulose and microcrystalline cellulose and their subsequent nanocelluloses were used and the cement was replaced to reduce the carbon footprint and reduce in release of harmful gases which are released in the production of cement. Tests were run after 7 and 28 days and the strength was calculated. Compressive, split tensile, and flexural strength were used to calculate the strength of the cubes prepared and compared with the strength of the control sample. Market cellulose and sugarcane bagasse cellulose were converted to nanocellulose and again the strength was calculated to see the difference in the increase of strengths. SEM images were used to justify the micro-level bonding of cement with cellulose and nanocellulose. FTIR images were used to characterize the lab-made cellulose and XRD was used to distinguish between the crystallinity of lab-made cellulose and the cellulose available in the market.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eRaw Materials\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCellulose microcrystalline (CDH Chemicals) was purchased from the market. For preparation, cellulose is isolated from Sugarcane bagasse waste (SB). Chemicals used were Sodium hydroxide (SRL), Sulphuric acid (Rankem), Sodium Chlorite (SRL). Ordinary Portland Cement 43 (KJS CEMENT) used to prepare cubes was purchased from the market. Sika ViscoCrete 4107PQ (Modified PCE) is used as a superplastisizer. The pH of the water used was 6.8 which is within the 6.5 to 8 range.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCellulose extraction from sugarcane bagasse waste\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMoisture removal and size reduction\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo begin, sugarcane bagasse waste is collected from the local vendor and was soaked in distilled water for two days in order to remove extractives that were readily soluble in water. Next, the waste was dried in an oven at 60\u0026deg;C for two days. Waste material is now grinded in Bajaj Mixer. Following that, the waste was pulverised and sent through a screen with a mesh size of 52.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAlkali treatment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor alkali treatment, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used. Some part of hemicellulose and lignin are removed in this step. 2% (w/w) NaOH solution is made and then the dried waste is added to the solution. The solution is stirred continuously for three hours on a heated plate using a magnetic stirrer (REMI) to raise the overall temperature of the solution between 75 to 85\u0026deg;C. After 3 hours the treated biomass fibres are rinsed and washed with distilled water to maintain the pH of the fibres, the fibres were dried in an oven at a temperature of 60\u0026deg;C and kept overnight\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAcid hydrolysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing the application of the alkaline treatment with NaOH, the lignin and any other impurities present in the fibres were eliminated using acid hydrolysis with diluted H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e solution 4%(v/v) and stirring at 85\u0026deg;C for 3 to 4 hours. The pH of the treated Sugarcane bagasse biomass fibres was adjusted to 7 by washing and filtering them with distilled water, and then they were dried at 60\u0026deg;C for the entire night.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eBleaching\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe white cellulose is achieved by treating the sample with Sodium Chlorite (NaClO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) at a temperature of 80\u0026deg;C for 4 hours. 4% (w/w) solution of NaClO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e is used throughout the bleaching procedure. The pH was maintained in the narrow range of 3 to 4, Acetic acid was used to adjust the pH to the desired level. After being washed, the white cellulose fibers were dried at a temperature of 60\u0026deg;C for at least 24 hours. The cellulose prepared is then stored in the air tight container so that it does not absorbs moistures from the surrounding.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePreparation of Nanocellulose from Cellulose\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSugarcane bagasse Cellulose (SBC) obtained from sugarcane baggase waste and market purchased cellulose (MC) is converted into Nanocellulose by two step process. The first step consists of ultrasonification of the cellulose in Ultrasonicator cleaner (ACUTEK, ULTRASONIC POWER 60W, FREQUENCY 40KHZ) by adding a 10% by weight of dried cellulose powder in the distilled water. Ultrasonic waves passes through the sample breaking the cellulose into smaller fragments. The process lasts for 4 hours at 50\u0026deg;C. The second step consists of homogenization of the sample by the homogenizer (IKA T25 ULTRA TURRAX) at 10000 rounds per minute for half hour. Homogenizer converts the larger cellulose fibers into the range of nano-meters. The Nanocellulose(NC) is then seperated from the distilled water through filter paper having pore size 30 to 40 nanometer to obtain Nano-market cellulose (NMC) from MC and Nano-Sugarcane bagasse cellulose(NSBC) from SBC.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMaking of Concrete cubes\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMixed designing of M30 grade concrete was done as per IS 10262:2019 by mixing the materials that are Cement (CM), Fine aggregate(FA) and Courseaggregate(CA) in the proportion of (CM:FA:CA::1:1.77:3.25). Water-Cement ratio is taken to be 0.4. Cellulose is added to the mixture in the quantity of 0.5% of the cement weight replacing that amount of cement. Sika ViscoCrete 4107PQ (Modified PCE) Superplasticizer of 0.5% by weight of cement is used to reduce water content and enhance the workability. All the materials were weighed and mixed inside a concrete mixer to obtain mix proportions as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. After all materials had been thoroughly combined in the mixer, tap water was added according to IS 456:2000. Oil was applied to all the contact surfaces of mould. The moulds of cubes, cylinders, and beams were filled with fresh concrete and compacted using the table vibrating machine. After 24 hours of setting, samples were de-moulded from the moulds and immediately placed in a water tank in the lab for curing until testing days. The workability of the concrete mix was tested using a slump cone test with dimensions (upper diameter\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100mm, bottom diameter\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;200mm, and height\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;300mm). Step by step process of cellulose production and mixing it in concrete to form cubes, cylinders and beam from starting to end is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmount of materials (in Kg) required for preparation of 1 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e volume of concrete mix.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmount of materials used\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine aggregate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCourse Aggregate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdmixture used\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCellulose (0.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e383.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e153.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e674.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e191.551\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTest methods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCharacterization of Cellulose and nanocellulose\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore the characterization of cellulose bagasse waste is done the cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin content in it is calculated as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFTIR\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eComponent variations in the polymer structure are shown in Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra (Balaguru \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). Pellets were created for analysis following the sample's crushing using KBr. Using a Perkin Elmer Bx11-FTIR Spectrophotometer, spectra were obtained in the 4,000\u0026ndash;400 cm-1 range. The materials were subjected to testing and then sieved using a 300 \u0026micro;m sieve. To keep the samples fresh, an airtight bag was utilised.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eXRD\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCentral Interdisciplinary Research (CIR), a laboratory located at MNNIT Allahabad, Prayagraj, is the location where the X-ray diffraction (XRD) study was conducted. The RIGAKU SMART LAB 3KW High-Resolution X-ray Diffraction was utilized for the experiments with Kβ filter was used. The Detector used is D/tex Ultra Detector, Scanning range was maintained from 5\u0026deg; to 60\u0026deg; with step width 0.02\u0026deg; with the total time of run is 20 minutes with Fixed slits having automatic switching between reflection and transmission geometry (CBO optics) and Sample holder is made of glass. The instrument used a high-end monochromator that effectively filters out the Kα₂ emission line, resulting in diffraction data primarily from the Kα₁ line (1.5406 \u0026Aring;). The Segal method, a widely adopted methodology for the calculation of relative crystallinity in cellulose-based samples, was used to determine the Crystallinity Index (CrI) of the samples using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis. The CrI was determined using the following equation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrI(%) = (I\u003csub\u003e200\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;I\u003csub\u003eam\u003c/sub\u003e) /I\u003csub\u003e200\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026times; 100\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere I\u003csub\u003eam\u003c/sub\u003e is the intensity of the amorphous background at about 2θ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18\u0026deg; and I\u003csub\u003e200\u003c/sub\u003e is the intensity of the crystalline peak at about 2θ\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;22\u0026deg; (which represents the (200) plane of crystalline cellulose). This method compares the intensity of crystalline and amorphous regions in the XRD pattern to estimate the relative crystallinity (Segal et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1959\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePSA\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNanofibers made after ultrasonication and homogenization process was analyzed by Particle size analyzer (Nanotrac Wave) to find their correct size. DIMENSIONS LS is the measurement and evaluation software that Microtrac has developed for their nanoparticle instruments (Nanotrac series). NCs which were in the range of 50 to 100 Nanometers showed the best results as it bonded with concrete properly and better than mirco-cellulose.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCellulose content of Sugarcane bagasse waste\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSugarcane bagasse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRef. study[43]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCellulose\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u0026ndash;45%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemicellulose\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;32%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLignin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u0026ndash;32%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eProperties of cement and aggregates\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eProperties of Ordinary Portland Cement 43 Grade (KJS CEMENT) which is brought from Prayagraj, India is tested and are described in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e where different compositions of cement are represented in the percentage wise manner according to the (IS 8112:1989: reaffirmed in 2013). Physical properties such as specific gravity, standard consistency, initial setting time and final setting time are calculated according to the Indian standards (IS 516: part 1 sec 1: 2021). Testing of CA and FA was done according to (IS 2386: 1963: reaffirmed in 2021) and Properties of CA and FA was done according to (IS 383:1970: reaffirmed in 2002) were calculated according to the Indian standards and are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of ordinary Portland cement (OPC)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTest Result\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNormal Range(IS 8112:1989:2013)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComposition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5-6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMgO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInsoluble Residue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhysical properties\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFineness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.5%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecific gravity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.10\u0026ndash;3.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStandard consistency\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.0%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u0026ndash;33%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003einitial setting time\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37 min\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinal setting time\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e540 min\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;=600\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProperties of coarse aggregates and fine aggregates\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProperties of course aggregate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eValues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecific Gravity (a) 10mm\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(b) 20mm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater absorption\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.58%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAggregate Crushing value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.4%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbrasion value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.2%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlakiness Index\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.3%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElongation Index\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.4%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAggregate Impact value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.4%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFineness Modulus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eColour\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrey\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVarious physical properties of fine aggregates\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater absorption\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.36%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFineness modulus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZone of Sand\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eII\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecific Gravity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eWorkability test and Mechanical properties of concrete\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe concrete mixture workability was tested using a slump cone test with dimensions (top diameter\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100mm, bottom diameter\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;200mm, and height\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;300mm).Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows the slump value of M30 grade concrete when different additives were added in the concrete. The slump value increases due to the enhanced flow ability because of the nano fibers present which fill the gaps between the cement and concrete on nano level scale (Balaguru et al. 1987).Compressive strength tests were conducted and the results were expressed in Newton per\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003esquare millimetre (N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) according to the IS516(Part1:Sec1):2021by testing 100mm cubes on a analog compressive testing machine(AIMIL, India) with a loading capacity of 2000KN shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.The average value of three specimens was used to calculate compressive strength of concrete. Curing times for concrete cubes were 7 and 28 days. Split-Tensile Strength Test was performed on a cylinder having the dimension of 200*100mm (height*length) at 7 days and 28 days water curing and and the values were expressed in N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e as per procedure described in IS 516(Part1:Sec1):2021 on compression testing machine only. Flexural strength test was performed on a beam with dimensions of 500*100*100mm(length*breath*height) after 7 and 28 days of water curingand the values were expressed in N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e as described in IS516(Part 1:Sec 1):2021 on flexural testing machine (AIMIL, India) with maximum load of 250KN as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlump cone test values\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaterials added\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSBC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNMC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNSBC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eValue (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSEM analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore drying to a constant mass at a temperature of 50\u0026deg;C, specimens from each mixture were first submerged in a solution of propan-2-ol for a period of twenty-four hours. Subsequently, the specimens were covered with carbon, polished with a variety of grit papers sequentially (Thiong'o et al. 1995), and then impregnated with epoxy. Images are zoomed to the magnification of X50. It is feasible to observe the microcrystalline structure of cellulose in the SEM-SED pictures of both MC and SBC. Cellulose, when combined with cement, demonstrated a strong connection between the cement and cellulose powder, as well as between the cement and NCs that were mixed together. After the strength tests were completed, samples of the cubes, cylinders, and beams that were created from adding NCs were obtained and scanned using the scanning electron microscope (SEM-SED).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eCharacterization of cellulose and Nanocellulose\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCellulosic research has made considerable use of FTIR spectroscopy. Because it provides a convenient means of directly collecting information on the chemical changes that take place throughout different chemical treatments (Sun et al. 2004). FTIR of sugarcane bagasse waste and lab prepared cellulose from sugarcane bagasse and market purchased cellulose is compared in Fig.\u0026nbsp;3. The lignin peaks are removed by the process of alkali treatment and acid hydrolysis treatment as shown in figure at 1510cm\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e and 1430cm\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e. The peak diminishes in the sugarcane bagasse cellulose and market cellulose does not have such a peak at both the wavelengths. The hemicelluloses peak is removed by the process of alkali treatment and acid hydrolysis treatment as shown in figure at 1050cm\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e. The peak diminishes in the sugarcane bagasse cellulose and market cellulose does not have such a peak at that wavelength. XRD analysis is a distinctive technique for determining the degree of crystallinity in polymers. In Fig.\u0026nbsp;4 shows the crystalline cellulose peaks of microcrystalline cellulose and lab prepared cellulose from sugarcane bagasse is examined to check the crystallinity of the celluloses. In Fig.\u0026nbsp;4 the black line shows the XRD spectra for microcrystalline cellulose whereas red line shows the XRD spectra for lab prepared cellulose bagasse. Calculations using Origin software was done by substracting baseline method and then using interpolation which showed Crystallinity of 73.62% in MC, 61.61% in SBC and 34.86% in Raw sugarcane bagasse waste. In XRD spectra it is visible that the cellulose prepared in lab is less crystalline (Basak et al. 2025). PSA used to determine the size of NCs that were prepared from MC and SBC (Kajtna 2017). Particle size analyser showed that the Nano cellulose prepared from MC 80% percent pass lies in the range of 60–75 nano meters as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;5\u003cb\u003e(a)\u003c/b\u003e and SBC nano cellulose 80% percent pass lies in the range of 60–80 nano meters as shown the Fig.\u0026nbsp;5\u003cb\u003e(b)\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eWorkability test and mechanical properties of concrete\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eCompressive strength\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe compressive strength of concrete has a major impact on the integrity of the structure and durability of concrete constructions, which is a fundamental property. It is an indicator of the concrete's capacity to resist transverse loads or forces that have the potential to compress or collapse the material. Compressive strength is a critical factor in the design and evaluation of concrete structures, as it is essential for guaranteeing that the concrete can withstand the applied loads without failure. According to the IS: 516 (part 1:Sec 1) the test on cubes are performed and the following results shows the significant increase in the strength of the concrete cubes as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;6. Strength was calculated after the 7 days of curing, the followings results were recorded. MC showed a increase of 10% ±0.5% with respect to the CS. SBC showed a 14%±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. NMC (NC derived from MC) showed a 50%±0.5% increase of strength with respect to the CS and NSBC(NC derived from SBC) showed a huge increase in strength of 60%±0.5% with respect to the CS. After 28 days of curing, the following results were recorded. MC showed a increase of 12% ±0.5% with respect to the CS. SBC showed a 9%±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. NC derived from MC showed a 23%±0.5% increase of strength with respect to the CS and NC derived from SBC showed a huge increase in strength of 38%±0.5% with respect to the CS. This enhancement in the compressive strength is due to the binders and fibres present in the concrete mixture (Cheah et al. 2011, Pavlíková et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eSplit Tensile Strength\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAn important mechanical test for determining the tensile strength of cylindrical concrete specimens is the Splitting Tensile Test. The splitting tensile test evaluates the material's resistance to tensile forces, in contrast to conventional compression tests, which determine the concrete's compressive strength (Haufe et al. 2019). Split Tensile strength analysis showed that when cellulose and nano cellulose is added to the concrete, there is an increase in tensile strength which is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;7. The durability and serviceability of concrete are still significantly influenced by its tensile strength. The tensile strength of concrete is also significantly correlated with the propagation and control of cracks in the concrete. Strength was calculated after the 7 days of curing, the followings results were recorded. MC showed a increase of 9% ±0.5% with respect to the CS. SBC showed a 12%±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. NMC showed a 25%±0.5% increase of strength with respect to the CS and NSBC showed a huge increase in strength of 26%±0.5% with respect to the CS. After 28 days of curing, the following results were recorded. MC showed10% ±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. SBC showed a 14%±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. NMC showed a 18%±0.5% increase of strength with respect to the CS and NSBC showed a huge increase in strength of 22%±0.5% with respect to the CS.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eFlexural Strength\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe flexural strength test is used to determine the extent to which the concrete beam or slab that is being evaluated is capable of withstanding resistance to bending. Similar to compressive strength, flexural strength is another essential quality of concrete that needs to be carefully examined before it is utilised in building projects. The results have been showed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;8. Strength was calculated after the 7 days of curing, the followings results were recorded. MC showed a increase of 3% ±0.5% with respect to the CS. SBC showed a 11%±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. NMC showed a 22%±0.5% increase of strength with respect to the CS and NSBC showed a huge increase in strength of 25%±0.5% with respect to the CS. After 28 days of curing, the following results were recorded. MC showed a increase of 4% ±0.5% with respect to the CS. SBC showed a 5%±0.5% increase with respect to the CS. NMC showed a 16%±0.5% increase of strength with respect to the CS and NSBC showed a huge increase in strength of 19%±0.5% with respect to the CS. Additives showed an increase in flexural strength of the beam due to the micro fibres present in the concrete due to cellulose and nano fibres present in NC prepared from MC and SBC (Cheah et al. 2011, Pavlíková et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eSEM analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe microstructure of the concrete is assessed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) pictures. However, there are still issues because the available techniques are labor-intensive, semi-automated, and only suitable for certain concrete specimens at specific magnifications (Bangaru et al. 2022). For scanning electron microscopy, a secondary electron detector (SED) provides images with a resolution that is not reliant on the material. SED images offer the highest resolution topographical information and enable visualization of the inelastically scattered electrons generated near the sample surface. SEM image of MC purchased from market Fig.\u0026nbsp;9\u003cb\u003e(a)\u003c/b\u003e is shown at 500 micrometer scale and SBC prepared from sugarcane bagasse Fig.\u0026nbsp;9\u003cb\u003e(b)\u003c/b\u003e is shown to see microfibers surface morphology. In Fig.\u0026nbsp;9\u003cb\u003e(a)\u003c/b\u003e MC having a crystalline nature is shown whereas in Fig.\u0026nbsp;9\u003cb\u003e(b)\u003c/b\u003e the microfibres are shown which are different from MC. Fibers in SBC bond with cement easily due to the less crystalline nature and result in increase in mechanical properties of the cement than the MC. MC and SBC both celluloses are then converted into nano cellulose and then the nano cellulose is added in concrete. NMC and NSBC mixed in concrete is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;9\u003cb\u003e(c)\u003c/b\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;9\u003cb\u003e(d)\u003c/b\u003e respectively. Gaps are shown in the yellow rectangle when NMC was used whereas those gaps disappear when we used NSBC. NSBC fills the gaps between the cement particles to show a better bonding in the microstructure of concrete giving better durability and enhanced mechanical properties than NMC (Sofla et al. 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe experimental study gave the following conclusions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe use of MC, SBC, NMC, and NSBC enhanced the mechanical properties of concrete. When 0.5 percent cement was replaced by these fibres, tensile strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength increased.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFTIR spectra were used to determine the successful conversion of raw material into cellulose by removing the hemicelluloses and lignin from the raw material. XRD graph showed the less crystalline nature of SBC than the MC. SEM images showed the crystalline nature of MC and the fibrous nature of SBC. The mixing of NC prepared from MC and SBC at the micrometer level, between the concrete and NCs was also shown by the SEM images.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eParticle size analyzer machine data showed the size of the NMC converted from MC and NSBC converted from SBC. Both the NCs were found within the range of less than 100 nanometers. The NMC used showed better results than the MC and SBC due to the size of the fibers in nanometers. In contrast, lab-prepared NSBC provided the best results in terms of mechanical properties and durability.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eProviding an eco-friendly solution for the environment and reducing carbon emissions by reducing cement consumption and lowering the carbon footprint on the environment.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Sajal Agarwal. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Sajal Agarwal and Ankur Gaur and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eA\u0026iuml;tcin PC (2000) Cements of yesterday and today: Concrete of tomorrow. \u003cem\u003eCem Concr Res\u003c/em\u003e 30:1349\u0026ndash;1359.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eQureshi, Tanvir, and Abir Al-Tabbaa. \u0026quot;Self-Healing Concrete and cementitious materials.\u0026quot; \u003cem\u003eAdvanced functional materials\u003c/em\u003e (2020): 191.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSandak A (2023) Engineered living materials for sustainable and resilient architecture. \u003cem\u003eNat Rev Mater\u003c/em\u003e 8:357\u0026ndash;359.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLehne J, Preston F (2018) Making concrete change: Innovation in low-carbon cement and concrete.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSantos RF, Ribeiro JCL, de Carvalho JMF, Magalh\u0026atilde;es WLE, Pedroti LG, Nalon GH, de Lima GES (2021) Nanofibrillated cellulose and its applications in cement-based composites: A review. \u003cem\u003eConstr Build Mater\u003c/em\u003e 288:123122.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCarrillo J, Lizarazo-Marriaga J, Lamus F (2020) Properties of steel fiber reinforced concrete using either industrial or recycled fibers from waste tires. \u003cem\u003eFibers Polym\u003c/em\u003e 21:2055\u0026ndash;2067. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12221-020-1076-1.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShi C, Wu Z, Cao Z, Ling TC, Zheng J (2018) Performance of mortar prepared with recycled concrete aggregate enhanced by CO₂ and pozzolan slurry. \u003cem\u003eCem Concr Compos\u003c/em\u003e 86:130\u0026ndash;138. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChandrappa R, Das DB (2024) Hazardous waste. 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Cem Concr Res 116:81-88.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBangaru SS, Wang C, Zhou X, Hassan M (2022) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image segmentation for microstructure analysis of concrete using U-net convolutional neural network. Autom Constr 144:104602.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSofla MRK, Brown RJ, Tsuzuki T, Rainey TJ (2016) A comparison of cellulose nanocrystals and cellulose nanofibres extracted from bagasse using acid and ball milling methods. Adv Nat Sci: Nanoscience Nanotechnol 7(3):035004.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKumar A, Kumar V, Singh B (2021) Cellulosic and hemicellulosic fractions of sugarcane bagasse: Potential, challenges and future perspective. Int J Biol Macromol 169:564-582.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"cellulose","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"cels","sideBox":"Learn more about [Cellulose](https://www.springer.com/journal/10570)","snPcode":"10570","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10570/3","title":"Cellulose","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Sustainable, Cellulose, Nanocellulose, Concrete, Cement","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7468279/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7468279/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis research focuses on the need for strong urban infrastructures in the Indian subcontinent by incorporating eco-friendly additives into concrete. Market-available cellulose and Sugarcane bagasse cellulose both are added into the concrete to check the improvement of durability and enhancement in mechanical properties of concrete and for comparison between the other additives. Celluloses are further converted to a more advanced form that is nanocellulose and added to the concrete. It has been discovered that the utilization of nanomaterials in cement concrete, either as a partial substitution for binder or as a filler material which resulted in a significant improvement in the mechanical properties and durability characteristics of cementitious composites. FTIR spectra and XRD showed the authenticity of the cellulose prepared was of good quality. PSA of nano-cellulose is also shown to verify the size of nano fibres is in the range of less than 100 nanometres.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Impact of cellulose and nanocellulose obtained from Sugarcane Bagasse on mechanical properties and durability of concrete","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-11 16:38:23","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7468279/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-09-22T15:32:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-22T15:24:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-08-31T07:11:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Cellulose","date":"2025-08-27T06:07:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"cellulose","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"cels","sideBox":"Learn more about [Cellulose](https://www.springer.com/journal/10570)","snPcode":"10570","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10570/3","title":"Cellulose","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f06218b8-58e5-4f4e-bdc6-e27c176fd88b","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 11th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-19T11:23:45+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-11 16:38:23","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7468279","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7468279","identity":"rs-7468279","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}