Waste Matters: Exploring the Connection between Urban Bird Species and Solid Waste in Gujranwala

Waste Matters: Exploring the Connection between Urban Bird Species and Solid Waste in Gujranwala | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Waste Matters: Exploring the Connection between Urban Bird Species and Solid Waste in Gujranwala Ghulam Mustafa Rashid Mustafa, Abida Butt Abida, Abdul Qadir Qadir, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6205872/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Extensive urban development has caused habitat destruction for birds, limiting their foraging activities and forcing them to shift their natural diet to food from human sources. The study's objectives focused on the association of urban bird species with solid waste containers in the urban area of Gujranwala City. In total, 432 waste samples were collected from 54 sampling sites during the eight-day survey from 13th November 2014 to 20th November 2014. The percentage of solid waste products at various sampling sites was calculated. The relationships between avian abundance, diversity, richness and various solid waste components were analyzed using linear regression models and Pearson correlations. These statistical analyses were also used to examine relationship between avian functional ecology and solid waste components. The analysis showed that the sampling sites with more residents generated more solid waste. The solid waste mainly comprised of food waste from the urban area. Avian abundance, richness and diversity were significantly associated with variations in solid waste. Sampling sites with higher amount of organic waste supported greater number of urban exploiters species, while the sites with less food waste had lower diversity. These findings highlight the critical role of urban waste management in shaping avian community structure, emphasizing the need for sustainable urban planning to balance biodiversity conservation with urban expansion. Solid waste components Species richness Species diversity Urban ecosystems Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Introduction The unprecedented increase in urbanization led to a rise in human population growth in urban areas globally (Elmqvist et al. 2021 ). Urban expansion led to dynamic ecological changes by altering natural ecosystems rather than just the urban environment. (Lindenmayer et al., 2023 ). One of the essential facets of this urban transformation is providing supplementary food to wildlife, especially birds. In urban areas, waste containers installed in residential areas by waste management companies often become unintended food sources for avian species. (Maurice et al. 2022 ). These food sources, comprising major components of organic food waste, play a significant role in shaping the feeding behavior and composition of avian communities in urban areas (Yin et al. 2023 ). Solid waste generation in urban areas is increasing at faster rate than urban population growth and infra-structure expansion. Globally, recent projections showed that global municipal solid waste projection is expected to double by 2050, rising from 2.01 billion metric tons in 2016 to approximately 3.40 billion metric tons (World Bank, 2018). This trend is particularly evident in rapidly urbanizing regions such as South Asia and Sub – Saharan Africa, where waste generation is growing due to increased consumption and economic development. Without improving waste management strategies, many cities will face severe environmental and public health challenges (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012 ). Globally, approximately 3 million tonnes of waste are discarded daily, and this figure is projected to exceed 6 million tonnes per day by 2025 and surpass 11 million tonnes per day by 2100 (World Bank, 2018). The rapid increase in waste production is driven by urbanization, economic growth, and changing consumption patterns. Organic food waste, in particular, plays a complex role in urban ecological dynamics. While it provides a food source for certain urban wildlife species, including birds and scavengers, excessive waste accumulation can lead to environmental pollution, human-wildlife conflicts, and public health risks. Thus, managing food waste effectively is essential for balancing urban development with ecological sustainability. (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012 ; Hoornweg et al., 2013 ). The reliance of birds on human waste food sources raises several concerns in wildlife ecology. Nutritional imbalances can lead to health issues. Altered foraging behaviors may decrease their ability to find natural food, while increased competition around waste can result in aggression and stress. Additionally, birds become more vulnerable to predation and disease transmission in urban settings. These factors can disrupt local ecosystems and lead to conflicts with humans, complicating wildlife management efforts (Loss et al. 2015 ). In urban areas, birds benefit from an abundant and consistent food supply from waste, which significantly enhances their reproductive success. This access improves breeding frequency, chick survival, and overall health of breeding individuals (Stofberg et al. 2019 ). Reliance on supplementary and waste food in urban environments raises concerns about birds' long-term adaptability (Seress et al. 2020 ). Initially, supplementary food may provide benefits. However, long-term dependence can lead to changes in behavior, dietary preferences, and nutritional imbalances (Strandin et al. 2018 ). Increased competition and aggression among birds may arise from prolonged use of waste food (Romero-Vidal et al. 2023 ). Additionally, urban birds may shift to scavenging behaviors around waste containers instead of traditional feeding in natural habitats (Bernat-Ponce et al. 2022 ). Waste food often lacks balanced nutrients. This can result in deficiencies in essential macronutrients—proteins, fats, carbohydrates—and micronutrients—vitamins and minerals (Burt et al., 2021 ). The scale of bird feeding on human sources varies broadly across the countries. It reflects the association between urbanization, waste management practices and avian behaviour. Highly developed countries like the United Kingdom practice a meticulous waste management system in densely populated cities. Gulls and House crows adapted to rely on anthropogenic food sources in these cities (Fernandez-Juricic and Jokimäki 2001 ). Conversely, countries like India, which have poor waste management systems, presented a different scale of bird dependency on human-generated food sources (Suthar and Singh 2015 ). In Indian cities, bird species like House and Rock pigeon adeptly utilize food sources from open markets and waste disposal sites. Many studies on these bird species also showed an increased population when they feed on organic waste (Olea and Baglione, 2008 ; Torres-Mura et al. 2015 ; Saiyad et al. 2015 ). The adaptability behaviour of avian species to human-modified habitats emphasizes the importance of the relationship between urban development and avian fauna. This study focused on the association of urban bird species with solid waste containers in the metropolitan area of Gujranwala City. The study aims to quantify food waste in waste containers and evaluate the attraction of specific bird species to waste container sites. This research will provide practical recommendations for urban planning and waste management practices that foster avian–human coexistence. Material and methods Study Area The study was conducted in Gujranwala district (32°09′24.0”N 74°11′24”E, 226m elevation), Pakistan’s seventh most populous district, with a population of approximately 2.35 million and a growth rate of 2.77% (source: macrotrends.net). Situated in the Indus River’s alluvial plains, the city spans 240 km², bordered by the Chenab River to the north and the Ravi River to the south. The region has a hot, semi-arid climate, with winter temperatures dropping to 7°C (occasionally below freezing) and summer temperatures soaring to 45°C. Annual rainfall averages 102.26 cm, primarily during the monsoon season (80%), peaking in August (168mm) and reaching its lowest in November (5mm) (Wahla et al., 2019 ). As residential areas expand in the urban area of Gujranwala City, vegetation diversity decreases. Along roads and street margins, tree plantations are present, usually arranged in linear rows or small groups. Dense patches of tree plantation can be found within parks, gardens, industrial premises, hospitals, colleges, and schools. Selection of Sampling Sites In May and June 2014, we conducted a preliminary survey of the study area. This helped identify potential sampling points along the urban gradient. Each site was marked with a Garmin GPS to allow accurate relocation in future visits. We selected 18 sites to represent different urban areas, ensuring variations in human activity, waste generation, and habitat characteristics were included. This approach allowed us to assess how the availability of solid waste influences avian species composition, abundance, and diversity. By incorporating sites with different habitat conditions, we could better understand the relationship between urban bird communities and their dependence on food waste. Additionally, all selected sites were under the jurisdiction of the Gujranwala Waste Management Company (GWMC), ensuring consistency in waste management practices across the study area. (Finger 1). Bird observation Birds were counted at each sampling site within a 300-meter radius using the point count method (Morelli et al., 2022 ) in urban area (Finger 2). Observations lasted 10 minutes per site, excluding high-flying birds. A 10-minute observation period in point count surveys is widely regarded as sufficient for accurately assessing avian populations, as it balances detection efficiency with practicality, capturing most species present while minimizing diminishing returns from extended surveys (Carlton, 2004 ) . Surveys were conducted during clear skies, avoiding windy or rainy weather, from 3 to 4 p.m. until sunset to focus on resident birds returning to their nests (Lynch, 1995 ). Before the survey, bird species identification was practiced using Olympus 10*50 binoculars for accuracy. An expert took descriptive notes for later identification. All bird species encountered were classified into five guilds: granivores, frugivores, carnivores, insectivores, and omnivores. The percentage distribution of these guilds was calculated (Fraterrigo and Wiens 2005 ). Field guides, such as the Book of Indian Birds (Ali and Ripley 1983 ) and Birds of the Indian sub-continent (Grimmett et al. 2013 ), were used for species identification and creating a bird species checklist. Solid waste and avian diversity During this study, waste samples were collected from various waste containers near the sampling sites in urban areas (Finger 3). Eighteen sampling sites, each containing three waste containers, within the jurisdiction of Gujranwala Waste Management Company were selected for solid waste sampling. A total of 432 waste samples from waste containers were collected over an eight-day period. The bird censuses were conducted from 13th November 2014 to 20th November 2014, aligning with the waste sampling period to ensure direct comparability between avian abundance and solid waste availability at each site. All point counts were performed by the same trained researcher to maintain consistency in bird identification and minimize observer bias. Each site was surveyed once using a single 10-minute point count, providing a snapshot of the bird community; however, this is acknowledged as a limitation, as multiple counts per site would have offered a more comprehensive representation of species presence and activity. The same 18 sampling sites having three waste containers used for waste sampling were also used for avian surveys, ensuring a direct assessment of the relationship between avian communities and waste availability at each site. The collected waste samples were unloaded and analyzed in a controlled area at the Gujranwala Waste Management Company (GWMC) disposal site (see Fig. 2 ) to assess their composition. The waste composition analysis followed the ASTM-D5231-92 standard method, which entails manual sorting of solid waste samples to categorize and quantify the proportions of unprocessed materials (Ullah et al., 2022 ). This method systematically identifies components such as organic matter, plastics, and textiles within the waste dumping sites. Of the five avian feeding guilds, association between the omnivore avian guild and different components of solid waste was examined, as omnivore birds were the dominant avian species in urban habitats. Omnivore birds were recorded from the area near the solid waste container in the sampling site. Data analysis The percentage of solid waste components—including food waste, paper waste, textile waste, grass/wood waste, and miscellaneous waste—was calculated across sampling sites. Linear regression models and Pearson correlations were used to analyze relationships between these waste components and avian metrics such as species richness, abundance, and diversity. Species richness was defined as the total number of species per site, while diversity was measured using the Shannon–Wiener and Simpson’s Diversity Indices to incorporate species abundance and evenness. Additionally, the study explored the association between the omnivore feeding guild and the quantity of solid waste collected from urban sampling sites in Gujranwala. Before applying Pearson correlation, normality was tested using the Shapiro-Wilk test, linearity was assessed through scatter plots, and homoscedasticity was evaluated using residual plots. If any of these assumptions were violated, Spearman’s rank correlation was used as a non-parametric alternative. Linear regression models were applied to examine predictive relationships between avian diversity metrics and solid waste components. In contrast, Pearson correlation was used to quantify the strength and direction of associations without implying causation. To assess significant variations among groups, One-Way ANOVA was conducted. Diversity indices and all statistical tests were computed using R 4.4.3. Results Households and Waste Generation Solid waste generation at each sampling site was positively correlated with the number of households around waste containers. The highest volumes of solid waste were recorded at Faqir Pura, Freed Town, and Piplywala, which are densely populated areas. In contrast, sampling sites with fewer than 20 households (Kangni Wala, Khiali, Kotli Rustam, Liaqat Bagh, Nursery, and Railway Station) exhibited the lowest waste generation (Fig. 3). Significant positive correlations were observed between the number of households and total solid waste, as well as its components, including food waste, paper waste, textile waste, grass/wood waste, and miscellaneous waste. However, no significant relationship was found for plastic and leather/rubber waste (Appendix VII). Of the total solid waste 62% were the food waste that mainly comprised of vegetable and fruit scraps. In urban, omnivorous birds usually attract towards food waste poured in waste containers near residential areas. The rest of the 38% solid waste products were plastic (6%), paper (13%), leather/ rubber (5%), textile (4%), grass/wood (4%), and miscellaneous waste (6%) (mainly metals, ceramics, diapers, gravels) (Fig. 4). Species Composition of Birds Fourteen bird species belonging to 11 families and six orders were recorded in urban areas. The most abundant order was passeriform in the urban areas. The most prominent family was Corvidae , followed by Accipitridae and Sturnidae . The relative abundance of the species was associated with the feeding guild of the birds. Omnivore birds viz., C. splendens (19.23%), M. migran (13.02%), A tristis (7.40%) and A ginginianus (7.10%) constitute a significant abundance of urban fauna (Table 1). The bird species viz, M. alba, B. ibis, P. kramerai, and T. striata showed low relative abundance in the data. Relationship of diversity indices between avian fauna and solid waste Avian Diversity and Solid Waste Generation The analysis revealed significant relationships between solid waste quantities and avian community parameters in urban areas. Bird abundance also exhibited a moderate positive association, growing consistently with higher waste levels, though solid waste accounted for a smaller proportion of its variability (Fig. 5). Species richness showed the strongest positive correlation with solid waste, with the regression model indicating a clear increase in species numbers as waste quantities rose, explaining a substantial portion of the variation (Fig. 6). In contrast, species diversity demonstrated the weakest link to waste, with minimal variance explained, suggesting that factors beyond waste—such as habitat complexity or interspecies competition—play a larger role in shaping this metric (Fig. 7). These results highlight solid waste as a key driver of avian richness and abundance in cities but underscore the need to investigate additional ecological variables to fully understand urban bird diversity (Table 2). The table 2 also presents the statistical relationships between food waste quantities and three avian community parameters—abundance, species richness, and species diversity—in urban areas. Bird abundance shows a moderately strong positive correlation with food waste. The regression model indicates that as food waste increases, bird abundance also rises. This relationship is statistically significant, with food waste explaining a portion of the variation in abundance (Fig. 8). Species richness also exhibits a moderate positive correlation with food waste. The regression model suggests that higher food waste levels correspond to an increase in the number of species. This relationship is highly significant, and food waste accounts for the largest variation in species richness among the three parameters (Fig. 9). Species diversity have a moderately strong positive correlation with food waste. However, the regression model shows only a minimal increase in diversity with higher food waste levels. Despite being statistically significant, food waste explains the smallest portion of the variation in species diversity. These results indicate that while food waste influences urban bird communities, other ecological factors may also play a role in shaping these patterns (Fig. 10). No significant relationship was observed between avian abundance and other waste types, including paper, plastic, rubber/leather, grass/wood, and miscellaneous wastes (Appendix I, II, III). Species evenness showed no significant association with solid waste or its components (Appendix IV). Omnivorous Birds and Solid Waste Generation A statistically significant positive correlation between daily solid waste generation and avian abundance in urban ecosystems suggested that increased solid waste levels correspond to higher omnivore bird populations. This relationship indicates a potential ecological link between waste availability and avian community dynamics. (Fig.11; Table 2). The results revealed a statistically significant positive correlation between daily food waste generation and omnivorous bird abundance in urban areas. This relationship implying that greater food waste availability supports larger populations of adaptable species (Fig. 12). Moreover, from the non-organic wastes, paper waste also shows a positive relationship, though its influence is weaker compared to other waste types. Textile waste has the strongest effect, with a significant increase in bird numbers as waste levels rise. Grass and wood waste similarly contribute to bird abundance, explaining a substantial portion of the variation (Fig 13 (a), (b),(c), (d) and (e)). No significant association was found between omnivorous bird abundance and plastic, leather/rubber, and miscellaneous waste (Appendix V). Moreover, species richness, diversity, and evenness of omnivorous birds showed no significant correlation with any type of solid waste (Appendices VI, VII, and VIII). Discussion The study provides insights into the carrying capacity of urban habitats by examining how the availability of food waste influences avian abundance, species richness, and diversity. The significant correlations between solid waste components and bird community metrics suggest that urban environments with higher organic waste availability can support larger populations of urban-adapted bird species. However, this reliance on anthropogenic food sources may indicate an ecological imbalance, where the carrying capacity is artificially elevated due to human-generated resources rather than natural habitat quality. These findings contribute to understanding how urbanization alters habitat suitability and resource availability for birds. In Gujranwala, mismanagement in waste collection and transportation results in unmanaged waste containers that serve as foraging sites for birds. The present study found that kitchen waste accounted for over 60% of the waste collected from waste sites, and Mehra et al. ( 2017 ) suggest that it may serve as supplementary food for birds. Plaza et al. ( 2019 ) highlight that food waste in municipal containers constitutes a significant direct food source for urban wildlife, particularly opportunistic scavengers like birds. This waste provides readily accessible nutrients, reducing foraging effort for species adapted to human environments. By concentrating organic matter, waste containers create predictable feeding hotspots, shaping bird behavior and distribution in cities. This direct utilization of discarded food is a well-documented dynamic in urban ecology. Beyond the waste itself, Plaza et al. ( 2019 ) and Taylor et al. ( 2012 ) collectively underscore a less apparent but critical mechanism: food waste sustains invertebrates (e.g., insects) and small animals (e.g., rodents), which in turn become prey for birds. This secondary trophic layer amplifies the ecological impact of waste, supporting predatory and insectivorous bird species that do not directly scavenge human leftovers. For example, birds like sparrows or swallows may feed on flies breeding in waste, while raptors or corvids might target rodents attracted to the same sites. This indirect pathway illustrates a complex food web rooted in waste systems, demonstrating how urban infrastructure inadvertently sustains biodiversity through multi-species interactions. By separating these ideas, the analysis emphasizes that food waste’s ecological role extends beyond mere scavenging—it fosters a hidden network of resource flows that sustain diverse avian populations. The study shows that food availability is the main factor influencing bird populations. In urban areas, birds primarily forage at solid waste dumping sites. According to Mulualem et al. ( 2016 ) and Suhonen and Jokimäki ( 2019 ), many bird species need to tolerate and resist human disturbances to survive. House crows and Black kites are the most common birds in the city due to their behavioral flexibility towards human disturbance (Mazumdar et al. 2018 ). Navarro et al. ( 2019 ) noted that different bird species react differently to disturbances. As generalist feeders, scavengers eat various foods from human sources, including kitchen waste (Clucas and Marzluff, 2012 ). Birds often compete with each other for food at dumping sites, leading to fights and food stealing, and they develop alternative foraging strategies (Annorbah and Holbech, 2012 ). This behavior, known as kleptoparasitism, is common among House Crows and Black Kites (Mazumdar et al. 2018 ). The study investigated that many seed-eating birds, such as Rock Pigeons and House Sparrows thrive in urban area using food from anthropogenic sources. The success of seed-eating birds in urban areas, despite limited intact seeds in food waste, stems from their dietary flexibility: they exploit processed grains (e.g., bread, cereal) and spilled agricultural residues that mimic natural seed resources. Commercial waste, intentional feeding (e.g., birdseed), and urban infrastructure (shelter, water) further enhance their survival, reducing reliance on traditional seed sources. This adaptability aligns with studies showing granivores like Rock pigeons and House sparrows thrive by capitalizing on human-derived food analogs and ecological subsidies (Bhatt and Kumar, 2001 ; Fraterrigo and Wiens, 2005 ). The present study demonstrates an association between avian fauna and solid waste components in urban settlements, including paper, leather/rubber, and textiles. Urban birds are presumed to utilize garbage materials for nesting due to the limited availability of natural materials. Plastic bags, ropes, paper, and electric cables replace dry leaves and twigs by various bird species (Jagiello et al., 2019 ; Reif and Vermouzek, 2019 ). This speculation is supported by evidence of House Crow and Black Kite incorporating non-organic waste materials into their nests. These anthropogenic materials, alongside natural cotton, help regulate nest temperatures, ensuring optimal conditions for egg incubation and fledgling development (Townsend and Barker, 2014 ; Hanmer et al., 2017 ). The present study reveals that bird species, namely Black Drongo, Green Bee Eater , White Wagtail and Jangle Babbler were observed foraging near organic waste dumps, which provided them with insect larvae, maggots, and worms as alternative food sources (Batáry et al. 2010 ; Bateman and Fleming, 2012 ; Ali et al. 2014 ). This research shows that urban solid waste not only feeds birds directly or through insects and rodents but also disrupts natural ecosystems. The study further emphasize that the cities must prioritize sustainable waste management to reduce birds' dependence on human garbage while preserving their access to natural food and nesting materials. This balance is critical to protect avian populations, minimize ecological disruption, and ensure healthier urban ecosystems for both wildlife and people. Conclusions The findings of the study signify advancements in interdisciplinary research comprised of environmental science, ecology, and urban planning. The correlation between urban solid waste generation and avian fauna provided insight into how anthropogenic activities impacted urban ecosystem. These insights are pivotal for informing future research endeavors aimed at addressing pressing environmental challenges in urban areas. Firstly, the study's identification of strong associations between household density and solid waste volumes underscores the direct impact of urbanization on waste production. This study can guide the development of more targeted and efficient waste management strategies tailored to specific urban contexts. Future research could delve deeper into understanding how changes in waste management infrastructure, recycling initiatives, and public policies affect waste composition and overall environmental sustainability. Moreover, the study highlights the intricate relationships between avian abundance, species richness, and the quantity of solid waste generated. Particularly noteworthy is the observed increase in avian abundance with higher levels of food waste, indicating a reliance of urban bird populations on anthropogenic food resources. This prompts further investigation into the ecological consequences of urban waste on bird communities, including habitat preferences, foraging behaviors, and potential health impacts associated with consuming human-derived waste. Furthermore, the study investigates feeding guild dynamics, such as the significant correlation of omnivorous bird species with solid waste types like food and paper, offers insights into the ecological roles of different bird species in urban environments. Future research directions could explore how shifts in waste composition influence the distribution¸ reproductive success, migration patterns and behavior of avian feeding guilds, thereby contributing to a more nuanced understanding of urban biodiversity conservation. Declarations Author Contribution Ghulam Mustafa Rashid: Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Data curation. Abida Butt: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Conceptualization. Abdul Qadir: Visualization, Methodology, Formal analysis. Mirza Habib Ali: Writing – original draft, Validation, Investigation. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Ethics Declaration We confirm that consent was obtained from all individual participants included in this study. All participants were provided with a clear explanation of the study’s purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits, as well as their right to withdraw at any time without penalty. This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the Ethics Review Committee of the University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan and adhered to the principles outlined in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments . Funding Declaration Authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. 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Sci Rep 13:10255. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-37026-y Saiyad SK, Soni VC, Radadia B (2015) Urban resource utilization for feeding purpose by house crow (Corvus splendens). Int J Recent Sci Res 6:7933–7935 Seress G, Sándor K, Evans KL, Liker A (2020) Food availability limits avian reproduction in the city: An experimental study on great tits Parus major. J Anim Ecol 89:1570–1580. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13211 Stofberg M, Cunningham SJ, Sumasgutner P, Amar A (2019) Juggling a junk-food diet: responses of an urban bird to fluctuating anthropogenic-food availability. Urban Ecosyst 22:1019–1026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-019-00885-3 Strandin T, Babayan SA, Forbes KM (2018) Reviewing the effects of food provisioning on wildlife immunity. Philosophical Trans Royal Soc B: Biol Sci 373:20170088. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0088 Suhonen J, Jokimäki J (2019) Temporally Stable Species Occupancy Frequency Distribution and Abundance–Occupancy Relationship Patterns in Urban Wintering Bird Assemblages. Front Ecol Evol 7:129–150. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00129 Suthar S, Singh P (2015) Household solid waste generation and composition in different family size and socio-economic groups: A case study. Sustainable Cities Soc 14:56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2014.07.004 Taylor L, Taylor C, Davis A (2012) The impact of urbanisation on avian species: The inextricable link between people and birds. Urban Ecosyst 16:481–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-012-0283-y Torres-Mura JC, Lemus ML, Hertel F (2015) Plastic material in the diet of the turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) in the Atacama Desert, Chile. Wilson J Ornithol 127:134–138. https://doi.org/10.1676/14-107.1 Townsend AK, Barker CM (2014) Plastic and the nest entanglement of urban and agricultural crows. PLoS ONE 9(1):e88006. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088006 Ullah S, Bibi S, Ali S, Noman M, Rukh G, Nafees M, Hamidova E (2022) Analysis of municipal solid waste management in Afghanistan, current and future prospects: A Case Study of Kabul City. Appl Ecol Environ Res 20:2485–2507. https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2003_24852507 Wahla SS, Shirazi SA, Abbas S, Hussain MS, Lee S (2019) Spatial Patterns and Temporal Trends of Precipitation in the Punjab, Pakistan, 1981–2015. J Clim Res 14(3):159–169. https://doi.org/10.14383/cri.2019.14.3.159 Yin L, Wang C, Han W (2023) Food source characteristics and diversity of birds based on feeding behavior in residential areas of Beijing. Biodivers Sci 31(5):22473. https://doi.org/10.17520/biods.2022473 Tables Table 1: Taxonomic status and relative abundance of bird species identified during a survey in Nov. 2014. Scientific name Bird species Family Order Feeding Guilds N RA% Acridotheres ginginianus Bank Myna Sternidae Passeriformes Omnivore 24 7.10 Acridotheres tristis Common Myna Sternidae Passeriformes Omnivore 25 7.40 Bubulcus ibis Cattle egret Ardeidae Pelecaniformes Carnivore 8 2.37 Columba livia Rock Pigeon Columbia Columbiformes Granivore 17 5.03 Corvus splendens House Crow Corvidae Passeriformes Omnivore 65 19.23 Dicrurus macrocercus Black drongo Dicruridae Passeriformes Insectivore 26 7.69 Merops orientalis Small green bee eater Meropidae Coraciiformes Insectivore 17 5.03 Milvus migrans Black Kite Accipitridae Accipitriformes Omnivore 44 13.02 Motacilla alba White Wagtail Motacillidae Passeriformes Insectivore 4 1.18 Passer domesticus House Sparrow Passiridae Passeriformes Granivore 33 9.76 Psittacula krameri Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacidae Psittaciformes Frugivore 12 3.55 Pycnonotus cafer Red-vented Bulbul Picnonotidae Passeriformes Frugivore 28 8.28 Streptopelia senegalensis Laughing Dove Columbidea Columbiformes Granivore 22 6.51 Turdoides striata Jangle babbler Leiothrichidae Passeriformes Insectivore 13 3.85 Total 338 100 Table 2. Correlations and regression relationships between Avian Community Metrics (Abundance, Richness, Diversity, Omnivore Guild) and Urban Waste Components in Gujranwala, Pakistan Avian Parameter Waste Type Correlation (r) Regression Equation p-value R² (%) Abundance Food Waste 0.686 Abundance = 5.41 + 2.164 * Food waste (Kg/day) 0.034 25.14 Species Richness Food Waste 0.619 Richness = 1.27 + 0.92 * Food waste (Kg/day) 0.001 38.2 Species Diversity Food Waste 0.661 Diversity = 1.21 + 0.095 * Food waste (Kg/day) 0.001 18.99 Abundance Solid Waste 0.47 Abundance = 4.91 + 1.39 * Solid waste (Kg/day) 0.034 25.14 Species Richness Solid Waste 0.74 Richness = 0.49 + 0.65 * Solid waste (Kg/day) 0.001 43.05 Species Diversity Solid Waste 0.55 Diversity = 1.19 + 0.06 * Solid waste (Kg/day) 0.01 13.04 Omnivore Abundance Solid Waste 0.683 Abundance = -6.62 + 1.78 * Solid waste (Kg/day) 0.001 36.67 Food Waste 0.66 Abundance = -6.62 + 2.50 * Food waste (Kg/day) 0.006 20.6 Paper Waste 0.535 Abundance = 0.10 + 8.40 * Paper waste (Kg/day) 0.05 20.76 Textile Waste 0.625 Abundance = 3.82 + 18.11 * Textile waste (Kg/day) 0.001 38.54 Grass/Wood Waste 0.578 Abundance = 5.18 + 15.54 * Grass/Wood waste (Kg/day) 0.014 33.45 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Mustafa","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA50lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLACxgYJxv3Hmw8+YGA4QIKWhjPHkg1I0QJEN3LUJIjSIh929uHHnzssZBt7zrBV89TckeNnYH746AYeLYa3042lec9IGDez9x67zXPsmbFkA5uxcQ4+LbPTGKQZ2yQS23jOpd3mYTucuOEAD5s0AS3MP38CtfRI5JgV8/wjQou8dBqbBC9QywygFmbeNiK0GAC1WAO1GG/gOZYsObfvsLFkMwG/yAMddvNnW53sBvbmgx/efDssx8/e/PAxXlsOIHGYeEAkMx7lYFsakDiMPwioHgWjYBSMgpEJAPOpUI+PDiU5AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of the Punjab","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ghulam","middleName":"Mustafa Rashid","lastName":"Mustafa","suffix":""},{"id":434457717,"identity":"7c1fdb6c-b1fa-4cb0-a10e-8d2e3e0e61e6","order_by":1,"name":"Abida Butt Abida","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of the Punjab","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abida","middleName":"Butt","lastName":"Abida","suffix":""},{"id":434457718,"identity":"a16f4e3a-c367-42ca-8210-d6fd48e89eff","order_by":2,"name":"Abdul Qadir Qadir","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of the Punjab","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdul","middleName":"Qadir","lastName":"Qadir","suffix":""},{"id":434457719,"identity":"90d244f3-82d0-466b-ab52-2a69ce163ca6","order_by":3,"name":"Mirza Habib Ali Habib","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Pakistan Science Foundation","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mirza","middleName":"Habib Ali","lastName":"Habib","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-11 18:23:13","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6205872/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6205872/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":79631522,"identity":"135ff14a-60ee-404b-a5fb-fde928ce58e3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:23:10","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":570372,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocations of waste collection sites associated with various sampling sites of urban areas.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/7b378e0796a5be9bdd5d7127.jpeg"},{"id":79631515,"identity":"58132159-ea2c-4326-b730-6dcf85020a25","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:23:10","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":119711,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDepicting collection method of solid waste from different sampling sites in the city.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/f9404407f811c03f971ee586.png"},{"id":79631538,"identity":"2f2cb883-ef13-4df1-80fb-181383a017f9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:23:10","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":8292,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAmount of solid waste (Kg/day) generated by the No. of houses/sample site in various sampling sites in the urban area.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/5132cc75434c9ce27f0df6ca.png"},{"id":79631516,"identity":"c4ddaacc-b12f-4a3e-bfd4-638f604afdbe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:23:10","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23029,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentages of solid waste components generated from various sampling sites in the urban area.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/1d3e28cc1721d7a7095ead53.png"},{"id":79631519,"identity":"47ec6ea5-426e-4e1c-8030-393694a0fa14","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:23:10","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23643,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStatistically significant correlation between waste generation (Kg/day) and bird abundance, indicating that higher waste availability may positively impact avian population levels.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/cd8f935290a4797a67ac3315.jpeg"},{"id":79631529,"identity":"b839c71e-1653-46f2-9856-b796b5f9250e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:23:10","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24909,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA statistically significant correlation was observed between waste generation (Kg/day) \u0026nbsp;and avian species richness, suggesting that increased waste availability support higher number of bird species\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/2ba3f70c1f3d1badcdf2c9e1.jpeg"},{"id":79631521,"identity":"fa0c3dcc-2d34-4ac4-8a63-b4d544533df3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:23:10","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24445,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA statistically significant correlation was observed between waste generation (Kg/day) and avian diversity, suggesting that greater waste availability may enhance bird species diversity within ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/99fa0922497bfb05283625b0.jpeg"},{"id":79631544,"identity":"53e7926c-8010-4e4c-a54c-035fbf55b9b2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:23:11","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22970,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA statistically significant correlation was observed between food waste (kg/day) and avian abundance, suggesting that greater daily food waste availability may enhance bird population levels in urban ecosystem.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/a7a03bd85516a5e4f16c9743.jpeg"},{"id":79631526,"identity":"ab189065-2ff2-4353-a405-fb14da5bc365","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:23:10","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23735,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA statistically significant correlation was observed between \u003cem\u003efood waste\u003c/em\u003e generation (kg/day) and avian species richness, indicating that increased daily food waste availability may support a higher diversity of bird species in urban ecosystem.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/1d99746d73e08ef6184be118.jpeg"},{"id":79632876,"identity":"81d20057-ab70-4d3a-a90d-bb52f8b17ee4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:39:10","extension":"jpeg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23960,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA statistically significant correlation was observed between \u003cem\u003efood waste\u003c/em\u003e generation (kg/day) and bird species diversity, indicating that increased daily food waste availability may support a greater diversity of bird species in urban ecosystem.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/ceeb9dc915bc2e6b4de522c7.jpeg"},{"id":79631547,"identity":"9bf0950a-014d-4ea8-9119-8c59a806877a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:23:11","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":69403,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA statistically significant positive correlation links daily solid waste generation (kg/day) to omnivorous bird abundance, implying that greater waste availability positively influence avian abundance in urban ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/361d409de3580e88b87b4010.png"},{"id":79631541,"identity":"2badb2f1-6920-484a-85df-4f6c17ebc862","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:23:10","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":66222,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA statistically significant positive correlation between daily \u003cem\u003efood waste\u003c/em\u003e generation (kg/day) and avian abundance in urban ecosystems, indicating that increased food waste availability may enhance bird population levels.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/783ccb16cb06ebf9b910fe09.png"},{"id":79631535,"identity":"2e037d17-e538-4d1c-909e-3b9f1d1f5d2d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:23:10","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":196375,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA statistically significant positive correlation was observed between omnivore avian abundance and daily urban waste generation across five categories: (a) solid waste (image not available), (b) food waste (image not available), (c) paper waste, (d) textile waste, and (e) wood/grass waste (kg/day), suggesting that increased availability of these waste types may enhance bird population levels in urban ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"13c.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/60df2e3717908264b563108e.png"},{"id":80834849,"identity":"9c872f83-7c45-4ad3-b0f2-1b3a70fe23bb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-17 14:38:50","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2015150,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/710049f4-fe55-417c-bf27-e2d696330571.pdf"},{"id":79632056,"identity":"53182eaf-c247-4193-8a30-f55455d4158b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 03:31:10","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1260725,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"nonsignificantgraphs.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6205872/v1/bf522370f107aeebfac39937.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Waste Matters: Exploring the Connection between Urban Bird Species and Solid Waste in Gujranwala","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe unprecedented increase in urbanization led to a rise in human population growth in urban areas globally (Elmqvist et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Urban expansion led to dynamic ecological changes by altering natural ecosystems rather than just the urban environment. (Lindenmayer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). One of the essential facets of this urban transformation is providing supplementary food to wildlife, especially birds. In urban areas, waste containers installed in residential areas by waste management companies often become unintended food sources for avian species. (Maurice et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These food sources, comprising major components of organic food waste, play a significant role in shaping the feeding behavior and composition of avian communities in urban areas (Yin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Solid waste generation in urban areas is increasing at faster rate than urban population growth and infra-structure expansion. Globally, recent projections showed that global municipal solid waste projection is expected to double by 2050, rising from 2.01\u0026nbsp;billion metric tons in 2016 to approximately 3.40\u0026nbsp;billion metric tons (World Bank, 2018). This trend is particularly evident in rapidly urbanizing regions such as South Asia and Sub \u0026ndash; Saharan Africa, where waste generation is growing due to increased consumption and economic development. Without improving waste management strategies, many cities will face severe environmental and public health challenges (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Globally, approximately 3\u0026nbsp;million tonnes of waste are discarded daily, and this figure is projected to exceed 6\u0026nbsp;million tonnes per day by 2025 and surpass 11\u0026nbsp;million tonnes per day by 2100 (World Bank, 2018). The rapid increase in waste production is driven by urbanization, economic growth, and changing consumption patterns. Organic food waste, in particular, plays a complex role in urban ecological dynamics. While it provides a food source for certain urban wildlife species, including birds and scavengers, excessive waste accumulation can lead to environmental pollution, human-wildlife conflicts, and public health risks. Thus, managing food waste effectively is essential for balancing urban development with ecological sustainability. (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Hoornweg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe reliance of birds on human waste food sources raises several concerns in wildlife ecology. Nutritional imbalances can lead to health issues. Altered foraging behaviors may decrease their ability to find natural food, while increased competition around waste can result in aggression and stress. Additionally, birds become more vulnerable to predation and disease transmission in urban settings. These factors can disrupt local ecosystems and lead to conflicts with humans, complicating wildlife management efforts (Loss et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In urban areas, birds benefit from an abundant and consistent food supply from waste, which significantly enhances their reproductive success. This access improves breeding frequency, chick survival, and overall health of breeding individuals (Stofberg et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReliance on supplementary and waste food in urban environments raises concerns about birds' long-term adaptability (Seress et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Initially, supplementary food may provide benefits. However, long-term dependence can lead to changes in behavior, dietary preferences, and nutritional imbalances (Strandin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Increased competition and aggression among birds may arise from prolonged use of waste food (Romero-Vidal et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, urban birds may shift to scavenging behaviors around waste containers instead of traditional feeding in natural habitats (Bernat-Ponce et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Waste food often lacks balanced nutrients. This can result in deficiencies in essential macronutrients\u0026mdash;proteins, fats, carbohydrates\u0026mdash;and micronutrients\u0026mdash;vitamins and minerals (Burt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe scale of bird feeding on human sources varies broadly across the countries. It reflects the association between urbanization, waste management practices and avian behaviour. Highly developed countries like the United Kingdom practice a meticulous waste management system in densely populated cities. Gulls and House crows adapted to rely on anthropogenic food sources in these cities (Fernandez-Juricic and Jokim\u0026auml;ki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, countries like India, which have poor waste management systems, presented a different scale of bird dependency on human-generated food sources (Suthar and Singh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In Indian cities, bird species like House and Rock pigeon adeptly utilize food sources from open markets and waste disposal sites. Many studies on these bird species also showed an increased population when they feed on organic waste (Olea and Baglione, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Torres-Mura et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Saiyad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The adaptability behaviour of avian species to human-modified habitats emphasizes the importance of the relationship between urban development and avian fauna.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study focused on the association of urban bird species with solid waste containers in the metropolitan area of Gujranwala City. The study aims to quantify food waste in waste containers and evaluate the attraction of specific bird species to waste container sites. This research will provide practical recommendations for urban planning and waste management practices that foster avian\u0026ndash;human coexistence.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Gujranwala district (32\u0026deg;09\u0026prime;24.0\u0026rdquo;N 74\u0026deg;11\u0026prime;24\u0026rdquo;E, 226m elevation), Pakistan\u0026rsquo;s seventh most populous district, with a population of approximately 2.35\u0026nbsp;million and a growth rate of 2.77% (source: macrotrends.net). Situated in the Indus River\u0026rsquo;s alluvial plains, the city spans 240 km\u0026sup2;, bordered by the Chenab River to the north and the Ravi River to the south. The region has a hot, semi-arid climate, with winter temperatures dropping to 7\u0026deg;C (occasionally below freezing) and summer temperatures soaring to 45\u0026deg;C. Annual rainfall averages 102.26 cm, primarily during the monsoon season (80%), peaking in August (168mm) and reaching its lowest in November (5mm) (Wahla et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs residential areas expand in the urban area of Gujranwala City, vegetation diversity decreases. Along roads and street margins, tree plantations are present, usually arranged in linear rows or small groups. Dense patches of tree plantation can be found within parks, gardens, industrial premises, hospitals, colleges, and schools.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSelection of Sampling Sites\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn May and June 2014, we conducted a preliminary survey of the study area. This helped identify potential sampling points along the urban gradient. Each site was marked with a Garmin GPS to allow accurate relocation in future visits. We selected 18 sites to represent different urban areas, ensuring variations in human activity, waste generation, and habitat characteristics were included. This approach allowed us to assess how the availability of solid waste influences avian species composition, abundance, and diversity. By incorporating sites with different habitat conditions, we could better understand the relationship between urban bird communities and their dependence on food waste. Additionally, all selected sites were under the jurisdiction of the Gujranwala Waste Management Company (GWMC), ensuring consistency in waste management practices across the study area. (Finger 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBird observation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBirds were counted at each sampling site within a 300-meter radius using the point count method (Morelli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) in urban area (Finger 2). Observations lasted 10 minutes per site, excluding high-flying birds. A 10-minute observation period in point count surveys is widely regarded as sufficient for accurately assessing avian populations, as it balances detection efficiency with practicality, capturing most species present while minimizing diminishing returns from extended surveys (Carlton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e. Surveys were conducted during clear skies, avoiding windy or rainy weather, from 3 to 4 p.m. until sunset to focus on resident birds returning to their nests (Lynch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). Before the survey, bird species identification was practiced using Olympus 10*50 binoculars for accuracy. An expert took descriptive notes for later identification. All bird species encountered were classified into five guilds: granivores, frugivores, carnivores, insectivores, and omnivores. The percentage distribution of these guilds was calculated (Fraterrigo and Wiens \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Field guides, such as the Book of Indian Birds (Ali and Ripley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e) and Birds of the Indian sub-continent (Grimmett et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), were used for species identification and creating a bird species checklist.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSolid waste and avian diversity\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring this study, waste samples were collected from various waste containers near the sampling sites in urban areas (Finger 3). Eighteen sampling sites, each containing three waste containers, within the jurisdiction of Gujranwala Waste Management Company were selected for solid waste sampling. A total of 432 waste samples from waste containers were collected over an eight-day period. The bird censuses were conducted from 13th November 2014 to 20th November 2014, aligning with the waste sampling period to ensure direct comparability between avian abundance and solid waste availability at each site. All point counts were performed by the same trained researcher to maintain consistency in bird identification and minimize observer bias. Each site was surveyed once using a single 10-minute point count, providing a snapshot of the bird community; however, this is acknowledged as a limitation, as multiple counts per site would have offered a more comprehensive representation of species presence and activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe same 18 sampling sites having three waste containers used for waste sampling were also used for avian surveys, ensuring a direct assessment of the relationship between avian communities and waste availability at each site. The collected waste samples were unloaded and analyzed in a controlled area at the Gujranwala Waste Management Company (GWMC) disposal site (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) to assess their composition. The waste composition analysis followed the ASTM-D5231-92 standard method, which entails manual sorting of solid waste samples to categorize and quantify the proportions of unprocessed materials (Ullah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This method systematically identifies components such as organic matter, plastics, and textiles within the waste dumping sites. Of the five avian feeding guilds, association between the omnivore avian guild and different components of solid waste was examined, as omnivore birds were the dominant avian species in urban habitats. Omnivore birds were recorded from the area near the solid waste container in the sampling site.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe percentage of solid waste components\u0026mdash;including food waste, paper waste, textile waste, grass/wood waste, and miscellaneous waste\u0026mdash;was calculated across sampling sites. Linear regression models and Pearson correlations were used to analyze relationships between these waste components and avian metrics such as species richness, abundance, and diversity. Species richness was defined as the total number of species per site, while diversity was measured using the Shannon\u0026ndash;Wiener and Simpson\u0026rsquo;s Diversity Indices to incorporate species abundance and evenness. Additionally, the study explored the association between the omnivore feeding guild and the quantity of solid waste collected from urban sampling sites in Gujranwala. Before applying Pearson correlation, normality was tested using the Shapiro-Wilk test, linearity was assessed through scatter plots, and homoscedasticity was evaluated using residual plots. If any of these assumptions were violated, Spearman\u0026rsquo;s rank correlation was used as a non-parametric alternative. Linear regression models were applied to examine predictive relationships between avian diversity metrics and solid waste components. In contrast, Pearson correlation was used to quantify the strength and direction of associations without implying causation. To assess significant variations among groups, One-Way ANOVA was conducted. Diversity indices and all statistical tests were computed using R 4.4.3.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHouseholds and Waste Generation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSolid waste generation at each sampling site was positively correlated with the number of households around waste containers. The highest volumes of solid waste were recorded at Faqir Pura, Freed Town, and Piplywala, which are densely populated areas. In contrast, sampling sites with fewer than 20 households (Kangni Wala, Khiali, Kotli Rustam, Liaqat Bagh, Nursery, and Railway Station) exhibited the lowest waste generation (Fig. 3). Significant positive correlations were observed between the number of households and total solid waste, as well as its components, including food waste, paper waste, textile waste, grass/wood waste, and miscellaneous waste. However, no significant relationship was found for plastic and leather/rubber waste (Appendix VII).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOf the total solid waste 62% were the food waste that mainly comprised of vegetable and fruit scraps. In urban, omnivorous birds usually attract towards food waste poured in waste containers near residential areas. The rest of the 38% solid waste products were plastic (6%), paper (13%), leather/ rubber (5%), textile (4%), grass/wood (4%), and miscellaneous waste (6%) (mainly metals, ceramics, diapers, gravels) (Fig. 4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3 id=\"_Toc120871354\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;Species Composition of Birds\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFourteen bird species belonging to 11 families and six orders were recorded in urban areas. The most abundant order was passeriform in the urban areas. The most prominent family was \u003cem\u003eCorvidae\u003c/em\u003e, followed by \u003cem\u003eAccipitridae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSturnidae\u003c/em\u003e. The relative abundance of the species was associated with the feeding guild of the birds. Omnivore birds viz., \u003cem\u003eC. splendens\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(19.23%), \u003cem\u003eM. migran\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(13.02%), \u003cem\u003eA tristis\u003c/em\u003e (7.40%) and \u003cem\u003eA ginginianus\u003c/em\u003e (7.10%) constitute a significant abundance of urban fauna (Table 1). The bird species viz, \u003cem\u003eM.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ealba, B. ibis, P. kramerai,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eT. striata\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eshowed low relative abundance in the data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3 id=\"_Toc120871355\"\u003eRelationship of diversity indices between avian fauna and solid waste\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAvian Diversity and Solid Waste Generation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis revealed significant relationships between solid waste quantities and avian community parameters in urban areas. Bird abundance also exhibited a moderate positive association, growing consistently with higher waste levels, though solid waste accounted for a smaller proportion of its variability (Fig. 5). Species richness showed the strongest positive correlation with solid waste, with the regression model indicating a clear increase in species numbers as waste quantities rose, explaining a substantial portion of the variation (Fig. 6). In contrast, species diversity demonstrated the weakest link to waste, with minimal variance explained, suggesting that factors beyond waste\u0026mdash;such as habitat complexity or interspecies competition\u0026mdash;play a larger role in shaping this metric (Fig. 7). These results highlight solid waste as a key driver of avian richness and abundance in cities but underscore the need to investigate additional ecological variables to fully understand urban bird diversity (Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe table 2 also presents the statistical relationships between food waste quantities and three avian community parameters\u0026mdash;abundance, species richness, and species diversity\u0026mdash;in urban areas. Bird abundance shows a moderately strong positive correlation with food waste. The regression model indicates that as food waste increases, bird abundance also rises. This relationship is statistically significant, with food waste explaining a portion of the variation in abundance (Fig. 8). Species richness also exhibits a moderate positive correlation with food waste. The regression model suggests that higher food waste levels correspond to an increase in the number of species. This relationship is highly significant, and food waste accounts for the largest variation in species richness among the three parameters (Fig. 9). Species diversity have a moderately strong positive correlation with food waste. However, the regression model shows only a minimal increase in diversity with higher food waste levels. Despite being statistically significant, food waste explains the smallest portion of the variation in species diversity. These results indicate that while food waste influences urban bird communities, other ecological factors may also play a role in shaping these patterns (Fig. 10). No significant relationship was observed between avian abundance and other waste types, including paper, plastic, rubber/leather, grass/wood, and miscellaneous wastes (Appendix I, II, III). Species evenness showed no significant association with solid waste or its components (Appendix IV).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eOmnivorous Birds and Solid Waste Generation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA statistically significant positive correlation between daily solid waste generation and avian abundance in urban ecosystems suggested that increased solid waste levels correspond to higher omnivore bird populations. This relationship indicates a potential ecological link between waste availability and avian community dynamics. (Fig.11; Table 2). The results revealed a statistically significant positive correlation between daily food waste generation and omnivorous bird abundance in urban areas. This relationship implying that greater food waste availability supports larger populations of adaptable species (Fig. 12). Moreover, from the non-organic wastes, paper waste also shows a positive relationship, though its influence is weaker compared to other waste types. Textile waste has the strongest effect, with a significant increase in bird numbers as waste levels rise. Grass and wood waste similarly contribute to bird abundance, explaining a substantial portion of the variation (Fig 13 (a), (b),(c), (d) and (e)). No significant association was found between omnivorous bird abundance and plastic, leather/rubber, and miscellaneous waste (Appendix V). Moreover, species richness, diversity, and evenness of omnivorous birds showed no significant correlation with any type of solid waste (Appendices VI, VII, and VIII).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study provides insights into the carrying capacity of urban habitats by examining how the availability of food waste influences avian abundance, species richness, and diversity. The significant correlations between solid waste components and bird community metrics suggest that urban environments with higher organic waste availability can support larger populations of urban-adapted bird species. However, this reliance on anthropogenic food sources may indicate an ecological imbalance, where the carrying capacity is artificially elevated due to human-generated resources rather than natural habitat quality. These findings contribute to understanding how urbanization alters habitat suitability and resource availability for birds. In Gujranwala, mismanagement in waste collection and transportation results in unmanaged waste containers that serve as foraging sites for birds. The present study found that kitchen waste accounted for over 60% of the waste collected from waste sites, and Mehra et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) suggest that it may serve as supplementary food for birds. Plaza et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) highlight that food waste in municipal containers constitutes a significant direct food source for urban wildlife, particularly opportunistic scavengers like birds. This waste provides readily accessible nutrients, reducing foraging effort for species adapted to human environments. By concentrating organic matter, waste containers create predictable feeding hotspots, shaping bird behavior and distribution in cities. This direct utilization of discarded food is a well-documented dynamic in urban ecology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond the waste itself, Plaza et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and Taylor et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) collectively underscore a less apparent but critical mechanism: food waste sustains invertebrates (e.g., insects) and small animals (e.g., rodents), which in turn become prey for birds. This secondary trophic layer amplifies the ecological impact of waste, supporting predatory and insectivorous bird species that do not directly scavenge human leftovers. For example, birds like sparrows or swallows may feed on flies breeding in waste, while raptors or corvids might target rodents attracted to the same sites. This indirect pathway illustrates a complex food web rooted in waste systems, demonstrating how urban infrastructure inadvertently sustains biodiversity through multi-species interactions. By separating these ideas, the analysis emphasizes that food waste\u0026rsquo;s ecological role extends beyond mere scavenging\u0026mdash;it fosters a hidden network of resource flows that sustain diverse avian populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study shows that food availability is the main factor influencing bird populations. In urban areas, birds primarily forage at solid waste dumping sites. According to Mulualem et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and Suhonen and Jokim\u0026auml;ki (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), many bird species need to tolerate and resist human disturbances to survive. House crows and Black kites are the most common birds in the city due to their behavioral flexibility towards human disturbance (Mazumdar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e ). Navarro et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) noted that different bird species react differently to disturbances. As generalist feeders, scavengers eat various foods from human sources, including kitchen waste (Clucas and Marzluff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Birds often compete with each other for food at dumping sites, leading to fights and food stealing, and they develop alternative foraging strategies (Annorbah and Holbech, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). This behavior, known as kleptoparasitism, is common among House Crows and Black Kites (Mazumdar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study investigated that many seed-eating birds, such as Rock Pigeons and House Sparrows thrive in urban area using food from anthropogenic sources. The success of seed-eating birds in urban areas, despite limited intact seeds in food waste, stems from their dietary flexibility: they exploit processed grains (e.g., bread, cereal) and spilled agricultural residues that mimic natural seed resources. Commercial waste, intentional feeding (e.g., birdseed), and urban infrastructure (shelter, water) further enhance their survival, reducing reliance on traditional seed sources. This adaptability aligns with studies showing granivores like Rock pigeons and House sparrows thrive by capitalizing on human-derived food analogs and ecological subsidies (Bhatt and Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Fraterrigo and Wiens, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study demonstrates an association between avian fauna and solid waste components in urban settlements, including paper, leather/rubber, and textiles. Urban birds are presumed to utilize garbage materials for nesting due to the limited availability of natural materials. Plastic bags, ropes, paper, and electric cables replace dry leaves and twigs by various bird species (Jagiello et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Reif and Vermouzek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This speculation is supported by evidence of House Crow and Black Kite incorporating non-organic waste materials into their nests. These anthropogenic materials, alongside natural cotton, help regulate nest temperatures, ensuring optimal conditions for egg incubation and fledgling development (Townsend and Barker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Hanmer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study reveals that bird species, namely \u003cem\u003eBlack Drongo, Green Bee Eater\u003c/em\u003e, White Wagtail and Jangle Babbler were observed foraging near organic waste dumps, which provided them with insect larvae, maggots, and worms as alternative food sources (Bat\u0026aacute;ry et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Bateman and Fleming, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Ali et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This research shows that urban solid waste not only feeds birds directly or through insects and rodents but also disrupts natural ecosystems. The study further emphasize that the cities must prioritize sustainable waste management to reduce birds' dependence on human garbage while preserving their access to natural food and nesting materials. This balance is critical to protect avian populations, minimize ecological disruption, and ensure healthier urban ecosystems for both wildlife and people.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of the study signify advancements in interdisciplinary research comprised of environmental science, ecology, and urban planning. The correlation between urban solid waste generation and avian fauna provided insight into how anthropogenic activities impacted urban ecosystem. These insights are pivotal for informing future research endeavors aimed at addressing pressing environmental challenges in urban areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirstly, the study's identification of strong associations between household density and solid waste volumes underscores the direct impact of urbanization on waste production. This study can guide the development of more targeted and efficient waste management strategies tailored to specific urban contexts. Future research could delve deeper into understanding how changes in waste management infrastructure, recycling initiatives, and public policies affect waste composition and overall environmental sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the study highlights the intricate relationships between avian abundance, species richness, and the quantity of solid waste generated. Particularly noteworthy is the observed increase in avian abundance with higher levels of food waste, indicating a reliance of urban bird populations on anthropogenic food resources. This prompts further investigation into the ecological consequences of urban waste on bird communities, including habitat preferences, foraging behaviors, and potential health impacts associated with consuming human-derived waste.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the study investigates feeding guild dynamics, such as the significant correlation of omnivorous bird species with solid waste types like food and paper, offers insights into the ecological roles of different bird species in urban environments. Future research directions could explore how shifts in waste composition influence the distribution\u0026cedil; reproductive success, migration patterns and behavior of avian feeding guilds, thereby contributing to a more nuanced understanding of urban biodiversity conservation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGhulam Mustafa Rashid: Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing, Investigation, Data curation. Abida Butt: Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing, Supervision, Conceptualization. Abdul Qadir: Visualization, Methodology, Formal analysis. Mirza Habib Ali: Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Validation, Investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of competing interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWe confirm that consent was obtained from all individual participants included in this study. All participants were provided with a clear explanation of the study\u0026rsquo;s purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits, as well as their right to withdraw at any time without penalty. This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Review Committee of the University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eand adhered to the principles outlined in the \u003cstrong\u003e1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe thank the officials of GWMC (Gujranwala Waste Management Company) for their cooperation in our solid waste sampling and physical classification of solid waste components.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAli S, Ripley SD (1983) Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. 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Biodivers Sci 31(5):22473. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.17520/biods.2022473\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.17520/biods.2022473\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1: Taxonomic status and relative abundance of bird species identified during a survey in Nov. 2014.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"103%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eScientific name\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBird species\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFamily\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOrder\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFeeding Guilds\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eN\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRA%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcridotheres ginginianus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBank Myna\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSternidae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePasseriformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOmnivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcridotheres tristis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon Myna\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSternidae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePasseriformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOmnivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBubulcus ibis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCattle egret\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eArdeidae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePelecaniformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarnivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColumba livia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRock Pigeon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColumbia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColumbiformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGranivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCorvus splendens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHouse Crow\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCorvidae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePasseriformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOmnivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDicrurus macrocercus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlack drongo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDicruridae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePasseriformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInsectivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMerops orientalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSmall green bee eater\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeropidae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCoraciiformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInsectivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMilvus migrans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlack Kite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAccipitridae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAccipitriformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOmnivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMotacilla alba\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhite Wagtail\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMotacillidae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePasseriformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInsectivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePasser \u0026nbsp;domesticus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHouse Sparrow\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePassiridae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePasseriformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGranivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePsittacula krameri\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRose-ringed Parakeet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePsittacidae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePsittaciformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrugivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePycnonotus cafer\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRed-vented Bulbul\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePicnonotidae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePasseriformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrugivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStreptopelia senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLaughing Dove\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColumbidea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColumbiformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGranivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTurdoides striata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJangle babbler\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeiothrichidae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePasseriformes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInsectivore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e338\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2. \u003cem\u003eCorrelations and regression relationships between Avian Community Metrics (Abundance, Richness, Diversity, Omnivore Guild) and Urban Waste Components in Gujranwala, Pakistan\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"918\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvian Parameter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWaste Type\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorrelation (r)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegression Equation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2; (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbundance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood Waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.686\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbundance = 5.41 + 2.164 * Food waste (Kg/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies Richness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood Waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.619\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRichness = 1.27 + 0.92 * Food waste (Kg/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies Diversity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood Waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.661\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiversity = 1.21 + 0.095 * Food waste (Kg/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbundance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSolid Waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbundance = 4.91 + 1.39 * Solid waste (Kg/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies Richness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSolid Waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRichness = 0.49 + 0.65 * Solid waste (Kg/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies Diversity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSolid Waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiversity = 1.19 + 0.06 * Solid waste (Kg/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOmnivore Abundance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSolid Waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.683\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbundance = -6.62 + 1.78 * Solid waste (Kg/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood Waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbundance = -6.62 + 2.50 * Food waste (Kg/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePaper Waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.535\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbundance = 0.10 + 8.40 * Paper waste (Kg/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTextile Waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.625\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbundance = 3.82 + 18.11 * Textile waste (Kg/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrass/Wood Waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.578\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbundance = 5.18 + 15.54 * Grass/Wood waste (Kg/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Solid waste components, Species richness, Species diversity, Urban ecosystems","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6205872/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6205872/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eExtensive urban development has caused habitat destruction for birds, limiting their foraging activities and forcing them to shift their natural diet to food from human sources. The study's objectives focused on the association of urban bird species with solid waste containers in the urban area of Gujranwala City. In total, 432 waste samples were collected from 54 sampling sites during the eight-day survey from 13th November 2014 to 20th November 2014. The percentage of solid waste products at various sampling sites was calculated. The relationships between avian abundance, diversity, richness and various solid waste components were analyzed using linear regression models and Pearson correlations. These statistical analyses were also used to examine relationship between avian functional ecology and solid waste components. The analysis showed that the sampling sites with more residents generated more solid waste. The solid waste mainly comprised of food waste from the urban area. Avian abundance, richness and diversity were significantly associated with variations in solid waste. Sampling sites with higher amount of organic waste supported greater number of urban exploiters species, while the sites with less food waste had lower diversity. These findings highlight the critical role of urban waste management in shaping avian community structure, emphasizing the need for sustainable urban planning to balance biodiversity conservation with urban expansion.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Waste Matters: Exploring the Connection between Urban Bird Species and Solid Waste in Gujranwala","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-01 03:23:04","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6205872/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e264485a-6fbb-4224-8cb5-3fe384be8800","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 1st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-04-17T14:38:15+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-01 03:23:04","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6205872","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6205872","identity":"rs-6205872","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}