Strengthening Global Rice Germplasm Sharing: Insights from the INGER Platform

Strengthening Global Rice Germplasm Sharing: Insights from the INGER Platform | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Short Report Strengthening Global Rice Germplasm Sharing: Insights from the INGER Platform Jiayu Fan, Ramaiah Venuprasad, Siqi Xia, Zeyuan Yang, Xiaoming Zheng, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7477756/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 16 Dec, 2025 Read the published version in Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Plant genetic resources (PGR) constitute a strategic asset in mitigating climate change and ensuring global food security. Current international germplasm-sharing mechanisms predominantly emphasize the distribution and utilization of improved varieties, while institutional frameworks for accessing genebank holdings and pre-breeding lines remain underdeveloped. This gap has resulted in limited exploitation of genetic diversity and constrained potential for upstream breeding innovation. As a prominent multilateral mechanism, the International Network for the Genetic Evaluation of Rice (INGER) has expanded multi-environment trials to over 80 countries and facilitated the release of more than 1,120 varieties. However, with agricultural modernization and digitalization, INGER’s operations reflect structural challenges—including fragmented legal regimes, divergent regulatory and phytosanitary requirements, inadequate upstream resource-sharing mechanisms, and chronic underfunding. These impediments are not unique to INGER but indicative of broader institutional barriers in global rice germplasm exchange. Concurrently, emerging innovations—such as CGIAR’s GreenPass initiative, the regional Seeds Without Borders agreement, and proposed revisions to the Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA) enabling “direct use” of genebank materials—suggest pathways to overcome these bottlenecks. Using INGER as a central case study, this research examines the architecture of germplasm distribution and identifies key institutional constraints, while comparing governance models across multilateral and sovereign systems. We propose and design an integrated mechanism that incorporates genebank accessions, pre-breeding lines, and improved germplasm into a cohesive sharing platform. This full-spectrum system aims to contribute to a more efficient, resilient, and equitable global framework for germplasm exchange. Rice germplasm resources INGER Sharing mechanism Sustainable agricultural development Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 INTRODUCTION Since the 20th century, the global population explosion, accelerating climate change, and rising food demand have posed serious challenges to the sustainable development of agriculture. PGR are fundamental to crop breeding and agricultural innovation, playing a critical role in improving yields, enhancing resilience, and ensuring food security (Bretting, 2018 ). Among the various mechanisms promoting the international sharing of plant genetic resources-such as the CGIAR genebank platfrom and the multilateral system under the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)-INGER stands out as one of the most exemplary success stories. Since its establishment in 1975, INGER has extended its multi-environment testing platform to over 80 countries worldwide, facilitating the release of more than 1,120 rice varieties (López Noriega et al., 2013 ). It has thus emerged as a multilateral cooperation platform that combines scientific rigor with institutional influence. INGER is a successful case that offers valuable insight into the structural strengths and inherent limitations of the current international germplasm exchange system. It has demonstrated notable effectiveness in distributing improved germplasm (tested and registered elite lines), yet there remains no clearly defined global mechanism for distributing either pre-breeding lines (intermediate materials with target traits under development) or traditional genebank materials (wild relatives, landraces, and early-stage genetic resources). The absence of a mechanism for the distribution of these two categories of upstream resources reflects a long-standing structural bottleneck in the global crop germplasm circulation system and hinders efforts to address climate challenges and meet the growing demand for novel traits. Currently, the sharing of genetic resources and the operation of related platforms are constrained by multiple institutional barriers, including financial pressures, complex phytosanitary procedures, and the fragmented implementation of access and benefit-sharing (ABS) mechanisms under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and ITPGRFA frameworks (Smith et al., 2021 ).These limitations are systemic, and INGER is only a microcosm of the broader structural bottlenecks within the global germplasm exchange system. In the face of these systemic barriers, the international community is gradually introducing a series of institutional innovations. Led by the CGIAR Genebank Platform, GreenPass is developing transparent, standardized plant health certification processes to ensure the safe and rapid movement of germplasm across borders (Kumar et al., 2020 ). The regional-level "Seeds Without Borders" initiative has also been implemented in South Asia. This initiative effectively accelerates the circulation of good varieties among Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and other countries by mutually recognizing varietal registrations among countries with similar ecological zones (IRRI & SAARC, 2018). In the ongoing negotiations under the ITPGRFA, proposals have been tabled to allow, for the first time, the direct use of genebank materials for food and agriculture purposes, subject to agreed terms and conditions. While not yet formally adopted, this measure—if implemented—would remove a long-standing barrier and create institutional space for the sharing of upstream genetic resources (FAO, 2025 ). During this transitional period, INGER should be seen not only as a model of past success, but also as a strategic anchor for shaping the next generation of global germplasm distribution systems. In this context, the paper argues that future germplasm-sharing platforms must move beyond the conventional model and adopt an integrated mechanism encompassing the entire germplasm value chain. This framework should incorporate genebank materials, pre-breeding lines, and improved varieties, supported by clearly defined procedures for distribution, evaluation, and feedback. Using INGER as a case study, the paper examines current operational challenges in germplasm exchange through institutional comparison, empirical analysis, and policy review. It then proposes a model for sustainable, efficient, and equitable international sharing—one that both builds on past experiences and anticipates the governance requirements of a risk-prone agricultural future. Materials and Methods 1. Data Sources and Literature Review This study draws upon three complementary sources of data and evidence. Institutional and academic literature: To establish an analytical framework, we conducted a comprehensive review of peer-reviewed literature, international policy documents, and technical reports related to the governance, circulation, and legal regulation of PGR. Public datasets and official statistics: We collected and compiled germplasm distribution data from official websites and annual reports of major institutions including INGER, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), and national genebanks such as the China National Crop Genebank. Varietal releases were documented through reviews of national catalogues and IRRI/INGER databases to identify varieties with INGER lineage or SMTA-registered exchange status. 2. Analytical Framework and Approach A qualitative-comparative design was adopted to capture institutional asymmetries and the performance dynamics of germplasm sharing systems. The approach integrated descriptive statistics, typological comparison, and institutional mapping, structured into the following modules: Module 1 – Longitudinal Distribution Trends: Mapping temporal variation in INGER's annual germplasm exchange volumes and global varietal releases (1985–2020), using compiled annual reports and seed flow datasets. Module 2 – Typological Governance Comparison: Classifying germplasm-sharing institutions into four governance archetypes (global platform, shared genebank, regional cooperative, sovereign national) based on legal structure, operational scope, and data system maturity. See Table 3 for classification criteria. Module 3 – Cross-national Varietal Impact Assessment: Calculating the contribution rate of INGER-derived varieties in India, China, and the Philippines using national cultivar release catalogues and varietal lineage data. Module 4 – Legal Participation and Policy Alignment Analysis: Correlating countries' participation in SMTA, ITPGRFA, and the Nagoya Protocol with germplasm release delays, national regulatory barriers, and interoperability metrics. Descriptive statistics and data visualization were conducted using standard software (GraphPad Prism 9.5). Geospatial and network analyses employed specialized tools (Datawrapper, RAWGraphs 2.0). Result 1. Typologies and Governance Logics of Rice Germplasm Sharing Systems 1.1. Global Landscape of Rice Germplasm Conservation and Exchange Since the 20th century, global efforts to conserve and share PGR have expanded rapidly. By 2021, an estimated 7.4 million samples were conserved in 1,750 genebanks, though more than 90% of exchanges still occur domestically. International circulation relies primarily on the ITPGRFA’s Multilateral System, where 76.5% of distributions involve cross-border transfers (FAO, 2021; FAO, 2023). Despite this progress, coordination across multilateral, national, and regional models remains limited, and the volume of international distribution has declined in recent years (CGIAR Genebank Platform, 2020) (Fjg. 1). Rice, as a global staple crop, has a relatively well-established system for germplasm conservation and exchange. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) serves as a key international platform, conserving over 130,000 rice accessions, including cultivated, upland, and wild types (IRRI, 2022). Among national genebanks, China National Rice Research Institute (CNRRI) maintains approximately 86,000 rice accessions, while National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), India holds more than 110,000, making these institutions the core nodes of global rice germplasm conservation (NBPGR, 2021; CNRRI, 2020). In terms of composition, landraces account for about 35% of conserved rice resources, while breeding lines and modern cultivars represent 17%, and other materials (e.g., mutants, recombinant populations) around 45%. Wild rice remains underrepresented, constituting less than 2% of total holdings (IRRI, 2022). .Although the composition of rice germplasm resources varies, their practical application in the global sharing system demonstrates the complementary value of different types of germplasm. In practice, these three types of germplasm offer complementary value. Genebank materials provide the genetic foundation of modern varieties, contributing an estimated 45–77% of their genetic composition (Anglin et al., 2018). Pre-breeding lines bridge wild relatives and modern cultivars, as shown in Vietnam where crosses of O. rufipogon and O. nivara with IRRI 154 produced farmer-selected lines such as Nông Dân 1 and 2 with superior yield and quality (Sharma et al., 2025). Improved germplasm continues to deliver direct production value, with varieties such as IR64 becoming globally dominant (Villanueva et al., 2021). Table 1 summarizes the distinct roles, challenges, and governance issues associated with each category. Table 1 Comparison of Different Types of Rice Germplasm Resources Dimension Genebank Materials Pre-breeding Lines Improved Germplasm Example O. Rufipogon (SUB1 source) IRRI "Green Super Rice" lines IR64 variety Traits High diversity, rare alleles Target traits, partial background Stable agronomic traits Value Climate adaptation gene pool Bridges trait gaps Direct production use Sharing CGIAR genebanks (SMTA/PIC) Research collaborations INGER network Legal Issues Nagoya Protocol restrictions IPR uncertainties Variety protection disputes Phytosanitary Strict quarantine Certification needed Repeated testing Improvements Digital Sequence Information (DSI) Regional alliances Seeds Without Borders initiative Despite the scale of conservation and distribution systems, global circulation remains constrained by legal complexity, uneven technical capacity, and financial fragility. Enhancing mechanisms to improve the international mobility and utilization efficiency of germplasm—while safeguarding native diversity—remains a critical task for future governance. It was against this backdrop that INGER was established, marking the first systematic attempt to close this gap through a coordinated, multilateral platform for rice germplasm sharing. 1.2. INGER A Key Force in Sharing Global Rice Germplasm Resources 1.2.1. Mechanism Building and Institutional Innovation As the core global platform for rice germplasm sharing, INGER has, since its establishment in 1975, played a pivotal role in facilitating the worldwide flow of rice genetic resources through the construction of multilateral cooperation mechanisms. To support its expanding geographic reach, INGER institutionalized its evaluation processes through a standardized global nursery network. Since the late 1990s, this system has grown to include nine specialized nurseries. Key examples such as the International Irrigated Rice Observation Nursery (IIRON), the International Rice Bacterial Blight Nursery (IRBBN), the International Rice Blast and Bacterial Pathogen Nursery (IRBPHN), and the International Rice Salinity and Soil Tolerance Nursery (IRSSTN) have facilitated multi-environmental stress testing using a unified 0–9 resistance scale (Chaudhary et al., 1998; Singh et al., 2013). This network, which also includes nurseries targeting drought, heat, and cold tolerance, solidified INGER's role in climate-resilient breeding (IRRI, 2013) and established it as a core tool for reproducible varietal evaluation (Table 2). Table 2 Improved Varieties and Promotion Regions by INGER (1978–2014) Category Cultivar Name Primary Resistance Promotion Regions Release year IIRON ANGKE Disease Resistance Indonesia 201 BATANG GADIS Blast Resistance Indonesia 2001 BONDOYUDO Pest Resistance Indonesia 2000 CELEBES Salinity Tolerance Asia, Coastal Areas 2000 CIMELATI Salinity Tolerance South Asia 2001 IRBBN BRRI dhan84 Bacterial blight Bangladesh 2014 Inpari 30 Ciherang Sub1 Bacterial blight, Submergence Indonesia 2013 Inpara 4 Bacterial blight Indonesia 2010 Inpara 5 Bacterial blight Indonesia 2010 Improved Samba Mahsuri (RP Bio-226) Bacterial blight (Xa21, xa13, xa5) India 2008 IRBPHN MILYANG 46 Brown planthopper Korea, China 1981 IR36 Brown planthopper Southeast Asia 1978 BRRI dhan29 Brown planthopper Bangladesh 1994 MTU 1010 Brown planthopper India 2001 Inpari 30 Ciherang Sub1 Brown planthopper Indonesia 2013 IRSSTN IR 59443-B-7-3-2 Salinity tolerance Asia, Coastal Areas 1986 Inpari 34 Salin Agritan Salinity tolerance Indonesia (coastal) 2011 Inpari 35 Salin Agritan Salinity tolerance Indonesia (coastal) 2011 BRRI dhan 47 Salinity tolerance (Saltol) Bangladesh (coastal) 2007 Table 3 Typological Comparison of Germplasm Governance Models Governance Type Global Platform Model Shared Genebank Model Regional Shared Model Sovereign National Model Representative Institution INGER IRG AfricaRice China's National Genebank Sharing Mechanism Multilateral system + SMTA CGIAR framework + SMTA Regional mechanism + SMTA National regulatory approval system Geographic Coverage(country) 74 90+ 20+ Primarily domestic Digital Information System Digital Object Identifier (DOI) registration + feedback loop DOI system supported Partial DOI application No global interoperability Functional Model Coordination–Use Sharing–Management Distribution–Regeneration Preservation–Control Germplasm Type Coverage Improved lines, pre-breeding lines Traditional materials Improved lines, Traditional materials By 2015, INGER had distributed 55,550 breeding entries to more than 600 research institutes in 85 countries, of which over 1,100 were directly released as varieties in 74 countries (Hettel, 2015), significantly enriching global rice genetic diversity (Fig. 2). In terms of institutional innovation, INGER has constructed an integrated operational mechanism of “collaborative network–legal framework–benefit-sharing.” First, through strategic cooperation with National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES), it established a transnational collaborative network covering the entire breeding chain (Padolina et al., 2009). Second, it innovatively aligned with the Multilateral System (MLS) of the ITPGRFA, adopting the SMTA to ensure the legality and compliance of cross-border germplasm exchange (FAO, 2004). Finally, through non-monetary benefit-sharing approaches such as technical training and collaborative breeding, INGER created a sustainable cycle of “resources–capacity–outcomes.” This innovative framework has been recognized by the FAO as a “model case of multilateral cooperation in plant genetic resources” (FAO, 2016). Along the germplasm value chain, INGER has effectively bridged the continuum from genebank conservation to commercial varietal release. At the upstream stage, INGER provided a preliminary screening platform for wild rice germplasm (e.g., Oryza nivara ), whose blast resistance genes were successfully introgressed into cultivated rice through INGER-supported evaluations and collaborations, becoming a critical source of resistance for multiple breeding programs (Singh, 2015). At the pre-breeding stage, the NERICA series—developed through interspecific hybridization between African rice ( O. glaberrima ) and Asian rice ( O. sativa )—was promoted on a large scale across West Africa, substantially enhancing smallholder farmers’ food production capacity. The breeding value of INGER materials is further demonstrated by the fact that, between 2011 and 2015, South Korea identified 21 japonica breeding parents from 1,826 INGER entries (Kim et al., 2019); in the Philippines and India, 50% and 43% of rice varieties, respectively, carry INGER lineage (Hettel, 2015). 1.2.2. Sustainability Challenges and Institutional Tensions Despite its remarkable achievements, INGER has in recent years encountered severe sustainability challenges. On the one hand, core financial support has continued to contract: since 2015, IRRI’s unrestricted funding has declined by 12.3% annually, causing the volume of INGER distributions to drop sharply from a peak of 18,500 entries to just 8,000–9,000 entries per year (IRRI, 2021) (Fig. 3). On the other hand, institutional divergences under ABS legal frameworks have widened, with countries displaying significant differences in entry permits, contractual texts, and implementation standards. This fragmentation has increasingly compelled INGER to shift toward bilateral collaboration models as a means of coping with the high transaction costs of cross-border germplasm exchange (López Noriega et al., 2013). While this strategy has improved compliance and efficiency in the short term, it has also objectively undermined the openness of the multilateral system, particularly disadvantaging developing countries with weaker resource access in their efforts to address climate change and emerging pests and diseases (Halewood et al., 2020). From institutional design to practical operation, the trajectory of INGER reflects not only a successful international germplasm-sharing mechanism but also reveals the complex tensions and negotiations that global agricultural cooperation faces at the intersections of financial support, legal harmonization, and technological innovation. 1.3. Synergistic Mechanisms Between Global and Regional Gene Banks These global-level dynamics are further manifested in regional platforms such as AfricaRice, which functions as a pivotal regional hub within the CGIAR system, coordinating rice research and development across more than 30 sub-Saharan African countries. Through strategic collaboration with INGER’s multilateral germplasm sharing mechanism, AfricaRice implemented variety testing and promotion programs across 12 West African countries. These efforts led to the dissemination of 86 improved rice varieties, achieving a cumulative planting area of 1.2 million hectares (Diagne et al., 2013; AfricaRice, 2019). However, the composition of its germplasm distribution reveals significant structural imbalances. According to Halewood et al. (2020), traditional landraces account for over 90% of AfricaRice's distributed germplasm, while breeding/research materials constitute less than 10%, with crop wild relatives and improved varieties being negligible. This stands in stark contrast to the overall CGIAR system distribution (50% traditional varieties, 24% breeding materials, 13% crop wild relatives), reflecting a trend toward specialization in regional germplasm utilization. This distribution pattern highlights deep-seated contradictions in germplasm circulation: while some demands can achieve just-in-time matching, systematic gaps persist, primarily due to regulatory constraints, inadequate technical capacity, and limited access to upstream resources. This supply-demand imbalance essentially reflects dual deficiencies in connectivity and delivery efficiency within the global germplasm value chain. Therefore, establishing an integrated platform like INGER could provide an institutional solution to these challenges. By creating a bidirectional coordination mechanism that combines demand-driven and supply-push approaches to systematically link three key modules—improved lines, pre-breeding materials, and traditional resources—such an architecture would not only enhance matching accuracy but, more importantly, establish a positive feedback loop for breeding support systems, ultimately strengthening the resilience of global agricultural breeding systems 1.4. The Role of Sovereign Genetic Resource Systems: Insights from China's National Genebank Global germplasm governance, building upon regional collaboration, is fundamentally underpinned by the robust functioning of sovereign national systems. China holds a strategic position in global germplasm governance, conserving nearly 100,000 rice accessions by 2023, including over 80,000 cultivated varieties and more than 10,000 wild resources (CAAS, 2023). Its system spans local varieties, genebank materials, and pre-breeding lines, forming a comprehensive spectrum that underpins national breeding innovation and positions China as a key nexus between sovereign protection and global sharing. Domestically, the China Crop Germplasm Resources Information System demonstrates strong operational capacity, distributing large volumes of accessions annually. Yet barriers persist in international exchange. China has not joined the ITPGRFA nor adopted the SMTA, leading to complex application procedures and limited benefit-sharing (Chen et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021). Weak incentive structures have also encouraged a trend toward “germplasm privatization,” further hindering open exchange (Zhang & Liu, 2021). Against this backdrop, INGER has functioned as a critical bridge. Since joining in 1981, China has actively participated in INGER’s trial networks, enabling domestic germplasm to enter international evaluation systems. Through INGER, China has introduced tens of thousands of accessions, shared hundreds of lines abroad, and released dozens of conventional and hybrid varieties, contributing millions of hectares of cultivation and substantial yield and economic gains (Tang et al., 2002). For countries that have not joined the ITPGRFA, such as Laos and Viet Nam in Asia, New Zealand in Oceania, Mexico in the Americas, and Belarus in Europe, INGER serves as a legal interface that balances compliance with technical collaboration(López Noriega et al., 2013; Halewood et al., 2020).. 1.5. Globally institutional frameworks play a decisive role in the efficiency of germplasm resource circulation. Although germplasm governance today encompasses diverse institutional models, it remains structurally fragmented. International and national genebanks excel in long-term conservation but lack effective mechanisms for distribution, while regional institutions focus on varietal deployment yet contribute little to upstream innovation. This division of functions severely constrains coordination across platforms (Table 3). Despite diverse institutional models, germplasm governance remains fragmented: international and national genebanks focus on conservation with limited distribution, while regional institutions emphasize varietal deployment but contribute little upstream. This division hampers coordination. Evidence shows persistent inefficiencies—Digital Object Identifier (DOI) adoption in CGIAR genebanks is below 40%, 70% of breeders in non-SMTA countries face approval delays over six months, and ambiguities between the ITPGRFA and Nagoya Protocol deepen compliance uncertainty (Brink & van Hintum, 2020; Westengen et al., 2018; López Noriega et al., 2013). It is precisely within this fragmented and inefficient landscape that the value of integrated mechanisms becomes evident. INGER, for instance, stands out by bridging both vertical and horizontal governance gaps: it integrates the full germplasm value chain through multi-location trials and actively partners with sovereign and regional systems, as seen in initiatives like INGER-Africa. This dual role not only positions it as a model of multilateral cooperation but also as a potential architecture for aligning disparate governance systems. Yet even such innovative platforms face persistent structural challenges. 2. Systemic Challenges in Rice Germplasm Circulation 2.1. Legal and Structural Barriers to Equitable Germplasm Access As one of the few rice germplasm-sharing mechanisms under the ITPGRFA, INGER has long struggled with compliance barriers. In Africa, implementation of the SMTA is frequently delayed by additional phytosanitary and import requirements, and similar suspensions have occurred in the Philippines and Brazil (CGIAR, 2022; PhilRice, 2017; IRRI, 2017). A broader survey confirms the scale of the problem: in non-SMTA countries, 70% of researchers reported approval delays exceeding six months (Westengen et al., 2018). Together, these cases highlight how fragmented national procedures continue to undermine multilateral platforms (López Noriega et al., 2013). Institutional inequality compounds these barriers. Although Africa and Europe have similar numbers of treaty members, low-income countries remain underrepresented and often lack budgets or technical capacity to maintain compliance systems, forcing them to shoulder disproportionate costs (FAO, 2021; Halewood et al., 2018). Beyond these barriers lies a structural gap: the global system prioritizes improved lines while neglecting wild relatives and landraces, limiting the ability to mobilize novel traits for climate resilience. Recent developments, however, signal a shift. The Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022), incorporated into the 10th ITPGRFA Governing Body session, explicitly calls for the sustainable use of traditional resources, opening new space for their cross-border circulation (FAO, 2023). In this evolving context, INGER is no longer just a channel for improved rice lines but increasingly serves as an institutional backbone of germplasm governance. By combining the SMTA framework with multilocation trials and partnerships across national and regional systems, it provides a potential model for integrated governance in other crops. 2.2. Phytosanitary Regulations and Cross-Border Clearance Challenges In global rice germplasm exchange, phytosanitary measures are essential safeguards but also a major bottleneck. On the INGER platform, IRRI bears the cost of a 20-step process, yet incompatibilities among national standards frequently delay distribution (IRRI, 2015; Kumar et al., 2021). Risks of inadequate quarantine are evident—for example, the introduction of a new brown planthopper biotype in the Philippines caused severe yield losses (PhilRice, 2017). Existing standards such as ISPM-36 and ISPM-38, designed for bulk commercial seeds, are ill-suited to the small samples of genebank materials. This excludes many wild relatives, landraces, and pre-breeding lines while favoring improved varieties, reinforcing systemic bias. Even within CGIAR, no unified quarantine framework exists, leaving centers dependent on their National Plant Protection Organization (NPPO) and further raising costs (FAO, 2020). Quarantine has thus become a structural barrier across all platforms. Emerging initiatives such as the GreenPass certification system offer a promising pathway, introducing harmonized, research-oriented standards tailored to small-scale germplasm exchange. 2.3 Funding Shrinkage and Weakening Multilateral Cooperation Since the early 2000s, INGER has faced mounting financial pressures as IRRI’s unrestricted funding base declined sharply—from over half of its budget in the late 1990s to just 6.4% by 2019 (IRRI, 2008; IRRI, 2019). Donor agencies such as United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), once important institutional supporters, have redirected resources toward bilateral, performance-driven programs, leaving fewer discretionary funds for global public goods like INGER. Shrinking core support has forced INGER to contract its international trial network, particularly in low-income regions, and limited its capacity for timely evaluations and data management. This erosion of multilateral capacity risks fragmenting global breeding collaboration and disproportionately harms countries with weak national systems (López Noriega et al., 2013). The fragility of this funding model was further exposed when USAID withdrew support in 2025, compelling genebanks to scale back operations and compromising seed health (Crop Trust, 2022; Reuters, 2025). These developments highlight a structural challenge: without stable, long-term financing, the sustainable and equitable circulation of germplasm cannot be secured. Future platforms must enhance the precision of cross-border flows, strengthen operational sustainability, and reinforce multilateral mechanisms in an increasingly fragmented funding landscape. 3. Rebuild the INGER global rice germplasm resource sharing system 3.1. Optimizing Germplasm Access and Benefit-Sharing Mechanisms To ensure equitable and efficient access to rice germplasm, future reforms must focus on building a coherent and interoperable ABS framework. Current fragmentation between the ITPGRFA’s Multilateral System and the Nagoya Protocol has created legal uncertainty and delayed distribution (López Noriega et al., 2013). The revision of the SMTA—agreed in 2025 and scheduled to enter into force in July 2026—offers an important opportunity to resolve these barriers by introducing clearer provisions for non-commercial research and emergency use (FAO, 2025). Building on this momentum, four complementary measures are recommended: Strengthen legal clarity through revised SMTA and regional initiatives. The inclusion of clauses such as PAPGREN’s proposed “Direct Use” reflects the needs of countries relying on immediate deployment for food security. Adopt a unified ABS template under Article 13.2(h). Modeled on the SMTA, such a template would bridge multilateral and bilateral regimes, reduce transaction costs, and streamline approvals for Annex I crops like rice. Enhance traceability and transparency through Global Information System on Plant Genetic Resources (GLIS) and DOIs. Linking DOIs with digital sequence information (DSI) and material flow records would enable a centralized monitoring system, improving trust and equitable benefit-sharing (Louafi & Welch, 2021). Establish a fast-track approval mechanism for research use. Standardized SMTA implementation rules and expedited clearance for non-commercial germplasm would reconcile ABS requirements with the urgent needs of global agricultural research. These measures would help secure a legally robust, transparent, and research-responsive system for germplasm circulation—ensuring that INGER and related platforms remain effective pillars of global food security. 3.2. Institutional Innovation and Collaborative Pathways: Building a Three-Dimensional System for Efficient Germplasm Exchange 3.2.1. Technical Foundation: Standardizing Resistance Evaluation through Scientific Nurseries In response to the procedural complexity and fragmented standards of conventional quarantine systems, INGER has developed a functional alternative through its multi-environment nursery network. This framework not only accelerates adaptability screening but also provides scientific evidence of seed health to recipient countries, reducing the need for redundant quarantine checks. Such assessments are especially effective for pre-breeding lines and select improved varieties, functioning as a "scientific trust" mechanism that complements traditional quarantine. For instance, varieties like BRRI dhan 84, Inpari 30, and IR36—with well-documented resistance profiles—have been directly adopted by multiple countries. This "platform-based pre-evaluation" offers credible grounds for quarantine exemptions and has helped establish a shared database for germplasm health—laying the technical foundation for broader institutional mutual recognition. 3.2.2. Regional Breakthrough: Legal Equivalence in the Seeds Without Borders (SWB) Mechanism SWB initiative, jointly led by IRRI and the South Asia Regional Agricultural Centre (ISARC), provides a regional fast-track protocol aimed at simplifying seed registration and circulation across ecologically similar countries. By standardizing material transfer agreements (MTA/SMTA), recognizing shared varietal evaluation data, and using unified templates, the mechanism enables direct registration and rapid dissemination of varieties already approved in one member country—without requiring redundant trials (Pandey et al., 2019). SWB currently includes India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, the Philippines, and Fiji, and is gradually expanding to cover additional crops beyond rice. SWB's strength lies in dismantling institutional barriers among quarantine, certification, and seed registration systems—particularly in INGER’s operational regions across South and Southeast Asia. It offers regulatory harmonization and expedited approval for pre-breeding and candidate lines distributed through INGER, minimizing delays caused by divergent national laws (Gauchan et al., 2019). Beyond its practical efficiency, SWB demonstrates a new pathway toward global harmonization via regional consensus. The mechanism has been recognized in international forums as a key complementary tool for implementing International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) and ITPGRFA (Singh et al., 2015). Looking forward, INGER and affiliated trial platforms could adopt the SWB framework as a formal entry point for South–South cooperation in germplasm exchange, enhancing INGER’s role in regional and global seed governance and offering a model for replication in other ecological zones (ISARC, 2024). 3.2.3. Global Coordination: Building the Green-Pass Quarantine Pathway Green-Pass is a plant health certification system spearheaded by CGIAR’s Germplasm Health Units (GHUs), designed to enable pre-border compliance for globally circulated germplasm. Drawing from SWB’s regional experience, GreenPass extends the concept of mutual recognition through a third-party certification system tailored to global exchange. At its core, the mechanism integrates molecular diagnostics, pest risk assessments, sanitation treatments, compliant packaging, and official declarations—thereby offering a scientifically validated and transparent quarantine assurance protocol (CGIAR, 2023). Unlike existing commercial seed standards such as ISPM-36 and ISPM-38, GreenPass is optimized for small-batch, non-commercial research material—such as genebank samples, pre-breeding lines, and candidate cultivars. Certified materials can enter fast-track quarantine channels, undergoing only the minimum required checks before release, significantly reducing time delays in transboundary movement. This system holds particular relevance for INGER. As a global multilateral platform for rice germplasm sharing, INGER primarily distributes non-commercial genetic resources that fall squarely within GreenPass’s focus. Leveraging this certification mechanism, INGER can establish a stable, trustworthy, and efficient quarantine route, enhancing the acceptance of its materials in international regulatory contexts and ensuring timely delivery to end-users ahead of critical planting seasons. 3.3. Construct a Sustainable Financial Guarantee System The fragility of current financial support remains a critical constraint in global germplasm sharing. To enhance long-term resilience, future rice germplasm platforms should adopt a three-tiered financial architecture. This framework combines: Core public suppor; Membership-based value-added revenues and Innovative financing streams (Table 4) Table 4 Proposed Multi-Tiered Finance Framework for Global Germplasm Sharing Platforms Funding Tier Source Channels Primary Objectives Examples Core Operations CGIAR membership, national earmarked funding, Crop Trust Germplasm distribution, trial infrastructure, data sharing Global Crop Diversity Trust Strategic Support Regional networks, multilateral partners Long-term breeding cooperation, resource evaluation Latin American FLAR model Value-Added Revenue Private sector subscriptions, customized technical services, JBV Precision testing, advanced analytics, co-development IRRI JBV model, Dutch genebank practice Membership-based access fees (tiered for public/private) Preferential access to germplasm, data packages, technical input IRRI HRDC model (Hybrid Rice Development Consortium) Innovative Finance Climate funds, green bonds, carbon trading, philanthropic grants DSI management, regional resilience, capacity building Africa Carbon Credit Pilot, Gates Foundation To optimize financial efficiency, platforms should prioritize high-value germplasm by applying AI-assisted trait analysis and predictive modeling, thereby improving the return on evaluation investments (Louafi & Welch, 2021). Trial designs should also adopt regionalized and demand-driven models to minimize duplication and increase ecological relevance. Lessons from advanced genebank systems—such as metadata-based decision-making in the Dutch Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands (CGN)—offer useful insights for entry selection, seed multiplication, and resource allocation. These measures outline a flexible and scalable financial architecture that supports both the operational stability of rice germplasm platforms and the broader goals of climate-resilient, innovation-driven crop systems. Discussion This study employs INGER as a central case to examine both the transformational potential and structural limitations of the current global germplasm exchange system. By comparing three dominant operational models—multilateral sharing mechanisms, regional collaborative platforms, and sovereign national systems—we identify persistent barriers such as policy fragmentation, restrictive phytosanitary protocols, chronic underfunding, and slow digital integration. These constraints collectively undermine the efficiency, equity, and adaptive capacity of global germplasm flows. To address these challenges, we propose an integrated germplasm value-chain platform that brings together improved lines, pre-breeding materials, and traditional genetic resources under a unified governance structure (Fig. 4 ). Operating through a bidirectional mechanism, the platform enables genebanks and research institutions to proactively distribute novel and climate-adaptive diversity. A key innovation of this framework lies in its emphasis on interoperability across legal systems, digital infrastructures, and multi-location evaluation networks, thereby effectively linking sovereign, regional, and global scales. This architecture not only improves the precision and efficiency of germplasm matching and utilization but also establishes an adaptive innovation system capable of responding to emerging pests, diseases, and climatic pressures. Furthermore, it offers a scalable paradigm for the sustainable management of genetic resources as global public goods, strengthening open science and multilateral cooperation in agricultural research. While this study focuses on institutional and operational design, future empirical research should prioritize quantifying the economic and ecological benefits of such an integrated system—particularly under scenarios of climate disruption and food system shocks. Further investigation is also needed to refine governance incentives that align national interests with global public goods, ensuring that future germplasm exchange fosters both innovation and equity. Conclusions This study demonstrates that INGER has been highly effective in promoting rice germplasm utilization, enhancing productivity, and strengthening system adaptability, while providing valuable lessons for global germplasm governance. Yet its performance also reveals persistent systemic barriers: legal fragmentation across ABS frameworks, costly and inconsistent phytosanitary procedures, and chronic funding instability have collectively limited its openness and weakened its multilateral capacity. Bridging these challenges requires a full value-chain governance model that integrates improved lines, pre-breeding materials, and traditional germplasm into a unified system of distribution, evaluation, and feedback. Such a model should be supported by transparent operational protocols, multi-environment testing networks, and stronger digital infrastructure to ensure both efficiency and equity in germplasm utilization. More broadly, INGER serves as an instructive case of global public goods provision in agricultural science. Its experience offers profound insights into institutional design for managing complex global commons—particularly under climate change and food security pressures—and illustrates how multilateral scientific cooperation can be structured to enhance resilience, fairness, and innovation. Lessons derived from INGER’s governance innovations and constraints carry significant theoretical and practical implications for international collaboration across multiple technological and environmental domains. Looking ahead, sustainable global germplasm sharing will depend on coordinated advances across policy, technology, and institutional frameworks. Reducing regulatory fragmentation, streamlining cross-border phytosanitary protocols, diversifying funding mechanisms, and embedding innovative tools such as GreenPass and Seeds Without Borders will be essential. By building on its historical achievements while addressing these structural constraints, INGER can evolve not only as a model of multilateral cooperation but also as a strategic institutional anchor for constructing the next generation of sustainable, efficient, and equitable global germplasm systems. Declarations Acknowledgements We are grateful to express sincere gratitude to Hongsheng Zhang, Yunlong Lu, Youlin Peng for helping in revising this article. Author Contributions All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Jiayu Fan, Zeyuan Yang, and Siqi Xia. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Jiayu Fan. Ramaiah Venuprasad, Xiaoming Zheng, and Fan Chen provided professional review and feedback. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript and approved the final version. Funding This work was supported by the Project of Hainan Province Science and Technology Special Fund (ZDYF2022XDNY260), the Project of Sanya Yazhou Bay Science and Technology City (SCKJ-JYRC-2023-47 and SKJC-2023-02-001), the Nanfan special project, CAAS(YBXM2403), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2021YFD1200101), the Project of Hainan Province Nature and Science Fund (2021JJLH0075), National Natural Science Foundation of China (32261143465 , 32350710198) , and the Project of Hainan Province Science and Technology Innovation (KJRC2023A01), the Hainan Province International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Talent and Exchange Project (Foreign Expert Program) Plan(G20241024007E ). 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08:08:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7477756/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7477756/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-025-02666-8","type":"published","date":"2025-12-16T15:58:00+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":90885126,"identity":"dc699283-1282-412e-b083-0f07b6a51863","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-09 10:02:40","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26403,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLong-Term Trends in Germplasm Distribution by CGIAR Genebanks (1980–2020)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7477756/v1/0a076245f6be4bd9a602ef4a.png"},{"id":90883561,"identity":"c381d091-8d7d-422c-88dc-936f4f797269","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-09 09:54:40","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":157001,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eINGER rice breeding pathways and characterisation of regional distribution of germplasm resources\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7477756/v1/dc0f16f4944e4b056f31d34f.png"},{"id":90885128,"identity":"2573bb52-811d-4fd3-94a4-d2632fb52fe2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-09 10:02:40","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":120007,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCoverage and quantity of INGER rice germplasm resources (1985-2020)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7477756/v1/8c6644ffcfbc097f71810c42.png"},{"id":90885133,"identity":"b0117b9b-7bf5-4c79-bc6e-f9014b9b6b36","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-09 10:02:40","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":325766,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eArchitecture for a Global Germplasm Value-Chain Platform\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7477756/v1/8189f1a61bc726ea590401a0.png"},{"id":98814949,"identity":"6ea60125-4494-406f-8019-f97e69a06b78","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 16:13:06","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1337977,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7477756/v1/85b843ad-4e16-4722-aec1-4e3ef9460501.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Strengthening Global Rice Germplasm Sharing: Insights from the INGER Platform","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eSince the 20th century, the global population explosion, accelerating climate change, and rising food demand have posed serious challenges to the sustainable development of agriculture. PGR are fundamental to crop breeding and agricultural innovation, playing a critical role in improving yields, enhancing resilience, and ensuring food security (Bretting, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Among the various mechanisms promoting the international sharing of plant genetic resources-such as the CGIAR genebank platfrom and the multilateral system under the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)-INGER stands out as one of the most exemplary success stories. Since its establishment in 1975, INGER has extended its multi-environment testing platform to over 80 countries worldwide, facilitating the release of more than 1,120 rice varieties (L\u0026oacute;pez Noriega et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). It has thus emerged as a multilateral cooperation platform that combines scientific rigor with institutional influence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eINGER is a successful case that offers valuable insight into the structural strengths and inherent limitations of the current international germplasm exchange system. It has demonstrated notable effectiveness in distributing improved germplasm (tested and registered elite lines), yet there remains no clearly defined global mechanism for distributing either pre-breeding lines (intermediate materials with target traits under development) or traditional genebank materials (wild relatives, landraces, and early-stage genetic resources). The absence of a mechanism for the distribution of these two categories of upstream resources reflects a long-standing structural bottleneck in the global crop germplasm circulation system and hinders efforts to address climate challenges and meet the growing demand for novel traits.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCurrently, the sharing of genetic resources and the operation of related platforms are constrained by multiple institutional barriers, including financial pressures, complex phytosanitary procedures, and the fragmented implementation of access and benefit-sharing (ABS) mechanisms under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and ITPGRFA frameworks (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).These limitations are systemic, and INGER is only a microcosm of the broader structural bottlenecks within the global germplasm exchange system.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the face of these systemic barriers, the international community is gradually introducing a series of institutional innovations. Led by the CGIAR Genebank Platform, GreenPass is developing transparent, standardized plant health certification processes to ensure the safe and rapid movement of germplasm across borders (Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The regional-level \"Seeds Without Borders\" initiative has also been implemented in South Asia. This initiative effectively accelerates the circulation of good varieties among Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and other countries by mutually recognizing varietal registrations among countries with similar ecological zones (IRRI \u0026amp; SAARC, 2018). In the ongoing negotiations under the ITPGRFA, proposals have been tabled to allow, for the first time, the direct use of genebank materials for food and agriculture purposes, subject to agreed terms and conditions. While not yet formally adopted, this measure\u0026mdash;if implemented\u0026mdash;would remove a long-standing barrier and create institutional space for the sharing of upstream genetic resources (FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring this transitional period, INGER should be seen not only as a model of past success, but also as a strategic anchor for shaping the next generation of global germplasm distribution systems. In this context, the paper argues that future germplasm-sharing platforms must move beyond the conventional model and adopt an integrated mechanism encompassing the entire germplasm value chain. This framework should incorporate genebank materials, pre-breeding lines, and improved varieties, supported by clearly defined procedures for distribution, evaluation, and feedback. Using INGER as a case study, the paper examines current operational challenges in germplasm exchange through institutional comparison, empirical analysis, and policy review. It then proposes a model for sustainable, efficient, and equitable international sharing\u0026mdash;one that both builds on past experiences and anticipates the governance requirements of a risk-prone agricultural future.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003ch3\u003e1. Data Sources and Literature Review\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study draws upon three complementary sources of data and evidence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstitutional and academic literature: To establish an analytical framework, we conducted a comprehensive review of peer-reviewed literature, international policy documents, and technical reports related to the governance, circulation, and legal regulation of PGR.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePublic datasets and official statistics: We collected and compiled germplasm distribution data from official websites and annual reports of major institutions including INGER, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), and national genebanks such as the China National Crop Genebank.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVarietal releases were documented through reviews of national catalogues and IRRI/INGER databases to identify varieties with INGER lineage or SMTA-registered exchange status.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2. Analytical Framework and Approach\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA qualitative-comparative design was adopted to capture institutional asymmetries and the performance dynamics of germplasm sharing systems. The approach integrated descriptive statistics, typological comparison, and institutional mapping, structured into the following modules:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eModule 1 \u0026ndash; Longitudinal Distribution Trends:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMapping temporal variation in INGER\u0026apos;s annual germplasm exchange volumes and global varietal releases (1985\u0026ndash;2020), using compiled annual reports and seed flow datasets.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eModule 2 \u0026ndash; Typological Governance Comparison:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClassifying germplasm-sharing institutions into four governance archetypes (global platform, shared genebank, regional cooperative, sovereign national) based on legal structure, operational scope, and data system maturity. See Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e for classification criteria.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eModule 3 \u0026ndash; Cross-national Varietal Impact Assessment:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCalculating the contribution rate of INGER-derived varieties in India, China, and the Philippines using national cultivar release catalogues and varietal lineage data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eModule 4 \u0026ndash; Legal Participation and Policy Alignment Analysis:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrelating countries\u0026apos; participation in SMTA, ITPGRFA, and the Nagoya Protocol with germplasm release delays, national regulatory barriers, and interoperability metrics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics and data visualization were conducted using standard software (GraphPad Prism 9.5). Geospatial and network analyses employed specialized tools (Datawrapper, RAWGraphs 2.0).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Result","content":"\u003cp\u003e1. Typologies and Governance Logics of Rice Germplasm Sharing Systems\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.1. Global Landscape of Rice Germplasm Conservation and Exchange\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSince the 20th century, global efforts to conserve and share PGR have expanded rapidly. By 2021, an estimated 7.4\u0026nbsp;million samples were conserved in 1,750 genebanks, though more than 90% of exchanges still occur domestically. International circulation relies primarily on the ITPGRFA\u0026rsquo;s Multilateral System, where 76.5% of distributions involve cross-border transfers (FAO, 2021; FAO, 2023). Despite this progress, coordination across multilateral, national, and regional models remains limited, and the volume of international distribution has declined in recent years (CGIAR Genebank Platform, 2020) (Fjg. 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRice, as a global staple crop, has a relatively well-established system for germplasm conservation and exchange. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) serves as a key international platform, conserving over 130,000 rice accessions, including cultivated, upland, and wild types (IRRI, 2022). Among national genebanks, China National Rice Research Institute (CNRRI) maintains approximately 86,000 rice accessions, while National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), India holds more than 110,000, making these institutions the core nodes of global rice germplasm conservation (NBPGR, 2021; CNRRI, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn terms of composition, landraces account for about 35% of conserved rice resources, while breeding lines and modern cultivars represent 17%, and other materials (e.g., mutants, recombinant populations) around 45%. Wild rice remains underrepresented, constituting less than 2% of total holdings (IRRI, 2022). .Although the composition of rice germplasm resources varies, their practical application in the global sharing system demonstrates the complementary value of different types of germplasm. In practice, these three types of germplasm offer complementary value. Genebank materials provide the genetic foundation of modern varieties, contributing an estimated 45\u0026ndash;77% of their genetic composition (Anglin et al., 2018). Pre-breeding lines bridge wild relatives and modern cultivars, as shown in Vietnam where crosses of \u003cem\u003eO. rufipogon\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eO. nivara\u003c/em\u003e with IRRI 154 produced farmer-selected lines such as N\u0026ocirc;ng D\u0026acirc;n 1 and 2 with superior yield and quality (Sharma et al., 2025). Improved germplasm continues to deliver direct production value, with varieties such as IR64 becoming globally dominant (Villanueva et al., 2021). Table 1 summarizes the distinct roles, challenges, and governance issues associated with each category.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComparison of Different Types of Rice Germplasm Resources\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003eDimension\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003eGenebank Materials\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003ePre-breeding Lines\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003eImproved Germplasm\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eExample\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eO. Rufipogon\u003c/em\u003e (SUB1 source)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIRRI \u0026quot;Green Super Rice\u0026quot; lines\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIR64 variety\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eTraits\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eHigh diversity, rare alleles\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eTarget traits, partial background\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eStable agronomic traits\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eValue\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eClimate adaptation gene pool\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBridges trait gaps\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eDirect production use\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eSharing\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eCGIAR genebanks (SMTA/PIC)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eResearch collaborations\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eINGER network\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eLegal Issues\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eNagoya Protocol restrictions\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIPR uncertainties\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eVariety protection disputes\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003ePhytosanitary\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eStrict quarantine\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eCertification needed\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eRepeated testing\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eImprovements\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eDigital Sequence Information (DSI)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eRegional alliances\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eSeeds Without Borders initiative\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the scale of conservation and distribution systems, global circulation remains constrained by legal complexity, uneven technical capacity, and financial fragility. Enhancing mechanisms to improve the international mobility and utilization efficiency of germplasm\u0026mdash;while safeguarding native diversity\u0026mdash;remains a critical task for future governance. It was against this backdrop that INGER was established, marking the first systematic attempt to close this gap through a coordinated, multilateral platform for rice germplasm sharing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2. INGER A Key Force in Sharing Global Rice Germplasm Resources\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2.1. Mechanism Building and Institutional Innovation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs the core global platform for rice germplasm sharing, INGER has, since its establishment in 1975, played a pivotal role in facilitating the worldwide flow of rice genetic resources through the construction of multilateral cooperation mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo support its expanding geographic reach, INGER institutionalized its evaluation processes through a standardized global nursery network. Since the late 1990s, this system has grown to include nine specialized nurseries. Key examples such as the International Irrigated Rice Observation Nursery (IIRON), the International Rice Bacterial Blight Nursery (IRBBN), the International Rice Blast and Bacterial Pathogen Nursery (IRBPHN), and the International Rice Salinity and Soil Tolerance Nursery (IRSSTN) have facilitated multi-environmental stress testing using a unified 0\u0026ndash;9 resistance scale (Chaudhary et al., 1998; Singh et al., 2013). This network, which also includes nurseries targeting drought, heat, and cold tolerance, solidified INGER\u0026apos;s role in climate-resilient breeding (IRRI, 2013) and established it as a core tool for reproducible varietal evaluation (Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImproved Varieties and Promotion Regions by INGER (1978\u0026ndash;2014)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003eCategory\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003eCultivar Name\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003ePrimary Resistance\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003ePromotion Regions\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003eRelease year\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIIRON\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eANGKE\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eDisease Resistance\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIndonesia\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e201\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBATANG GADIS\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBlast Resistance\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIndonesia\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2001\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBONDOYUDO\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003ePest Resistance\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIndonesia\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2000\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eCELEBES\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eSalinity Tolerance\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eAsia, Coastal Areas\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2000\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eCIMELATI\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eSalinity Tolerance\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eSouth Asia\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2001\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIRBBN\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBRRI dhan84\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBacterial blight\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBangladesh\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2014\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eInpari 30 Ciherang Sub1\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBacterial blight, Submergence\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIndonesia\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2013\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eInpara 4\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBacterial blight\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIndonesia\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2010\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eInpara 5\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBacterial blight\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIndonesia\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2010\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eImproved Samba Mahsuri (RP Bio-226)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBacterial blight (Xa21, xa13, xa5)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIndia\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2008\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIRBPHN\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eMILYANG 46\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBrown planthopper\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eKorea, China\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e1981\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIR36\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBrown planthopper\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eSoutheast Asia\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e1978\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBRRI dhan29\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBrown planthopper\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBangladesh\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e1994\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eMTU 1010\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBrown planthopper\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIndia\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2001\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eInpari 30 Ciherang Sub1\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBrown planthopper\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIndonesia\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2013\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIRSSTN\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIR 59443-B-7-3-2\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eSalinity tolerance\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eAsia, Coastal Areas\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e1986\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eInpari 34 Salin Agritan\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eSalinity tolerance\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIndonesia (coastal)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2011\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eInpari 35 Salin Agritan\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eSalinity tolerance\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIndonesia (coastal)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2011\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBRRI dhan 47\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eSalinity tolerance (Saltol)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eBangladesh (coastal)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e2007\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003ctable border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTypological Comparison of Germplasm Governance Models\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGovernance Type\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGlobal Platform Model\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShared Genebank Model\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegional Shared Model\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSovereign National Model\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRepresentative Institution\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eINGER\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIRG\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfricaRice\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChina\u0026apos;s National Genebank\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSharing Mechanism\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMultilateral system\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SMTA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCGIAR framework\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SMTA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegional mechanism\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SMTA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNational regulatory approval system\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeographic Coverage(country)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimarily domestic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDigital Information System\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDigital Object Identifier (DOI) registration\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;feedback loop\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDOI system supported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePartial DOI application\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo global interoperability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFunctional Model\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoordination\u0026ndash;Use\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSharing\u0026ndash;Management\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDistribution\u0026ndash;Regeneration\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePreservation\u0026ndash;Control\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGermplasm Type Coverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImproved lines, pre-breeding lines\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTraditional materials\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImproved lines,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTraditional materials\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy 2015, INGER had distributed 55,550 breeding entries to more than 600 research institutes in 85 countries, of which over 1,100 were directly released as varieties in 74 countries (Hettel, 2015), significantly enriching global rice genetic diversity (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn terms of institutional innovation, INGER has constructed an integrated operational mechanism of \u0026ldquo;collaborative network\u0026ndash;legal framework\u0026ndash;benefit-sharing.\u0026rdquo; First, through strategic cooperation with National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES), it established a transnational collaborative network covering the entire breeding chain (Padolina et al., 2009). Second, it innovatively aligned with the Multilateral System (MLS) of the ITPGRFA, adopting the SMTA to ensure the legality and compliance of cross-border germplasm exchange (FAO, 2004). Finally, through non-monetary benefit-sharing approaches such as technical training and collaborative breeding, INGER created a sustainable cycle of \u0026ldquo;resources\u0026ndash;capacity\u0026ndash;outcomes.\u0026rdquo; This innovative framework has been recognized by the FAO as a \u0026ldquo;model case of multilateral cooperation in plant genetic resources\u0026rdquo; (FAO, 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlong the germplasm value chain, INGER has effectively bridged the continuum from genebank conservation to commercial varietal release. At the upstream stage, INGER provided a preliminary screening platform for wild rice germplasm (e.g., \u003cem\u003eOryza nivara\u003c/em\u003e), whose blast resistance genes were successfully introgressed into cultivated rice through INGER-supported evaluations and collaborations, becoming a critical source of resistance for multiple breeding programs (Singh, 2015). At the pre-breeding stage, the NERICA series\u0026mdash;developed through interspecific hybridization between African rice (\u003cem\u003eO. glaberrima\u003c/em\u003e) and Asian rice (\u003cem\u003eO. sativa\u003c/em\u003e)\u0026mdash;was promoted on a large scale across West Africa, substantially enhancing smallholder farmers\u0026rsquo; food production capacity. The breeding value of INGER materials is further demonstrated by the fact that, between 2011 and 2015, South Korea identified 21 japonica breeding parents from 1,826 INGER entries (Kim et al., 2019); in the Philippines and India, 50% and 43% of rice varieties, respectively, carry INGER lineage (Hettel, 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2.2. Sustainability Challenges and Institutional Tensions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite its remarkable achievements, INGER has in recent years encountered severe sustainability challenges. On the one hand, core financial support has continued to contract: since 2015, IRRI\u0026rsquo;s unrestricted funding has declined by 12.3% annually, causing the volume of INGER distributions to drop sharply from a peak of 18,500 entries to just 8,000\u0026ndash;9,000 entries per year (IRRI, 2021) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). On the other hand, institutional divergences under ABS legal frameworks have widened, with countries displaying significant differences in entry permits, contractual texts, and implementation standards. This fragmentation has increasingly compelled INGER to shift toward bilateral collaboration models as a means of coping with the high transaction costs of cross-border germplasm exchange (L\u0026oacute;pez Noriega et al., 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile this strategy has improved compliance and efficiency in the short term, it has also objectively undermined the openness of the multilateral system, particularly disadvantaging developing countries with weaker resource access in their efforts to address climate change and emerging pests and diseases (Halewood et al., 2020). From institutional design to practical operation, the trajectory of INGER reflects not only a successful international germplasm-sharing mechanism but also reveals the complex tensions and negotiations that global agricultural cooperation faces at the intersections of financial support, legal harmonization, and technological innovation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.3. Synergistic Mechanisms Between Global and Regional Gene Banks\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese global-level dynamics are further manifested in regional platforms such as AfricaRice, which functions as a pivotal regional hub within the CGIAR system, coordinating rice research and development across more than 30 sub-Saharan African countries. Through strategic collaboration with INGER\u0026rsquo;s multilateral germplasm sharing mechanism, AfricaRice implemented variety testing and promotion programs across 12 West African countries. These efforts led to the dissemination of 86 improved rice varieties, achieving a cumulative planting area of 1.2\u0026nbsp;million hectares (Diagne et al., 2013; AfricaRice, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, the composition of its germplasm distribution reveals significant structural imbalances. According to Halewood et al. (2020), traditional landraces account for over 90% of AfricaRice\u0026apos;s distributed germplasm, while breeding/research materials constitute less than 10%, with crop wild relatives and improved varieties being negligible. This stands in stark contrast to the overall CGIAR system distribution (50% traditional varieties, 24% breeding materials, 13% crop wild relatives), reflecting a trend toward specialization in regional germplasm utilization. This distribution pattern highlights deep-seated contradictions in germplasm circulation: while some demands can achieve just-in-time matching, systematic gaps persist, primarily due to regulatory constraints, inadequate technical capacity, and limited access to upstream resources. This supply-demand imbalance essentially reflects dual deficiencies in connectivity and delivery efficiency within the global germplasm value chain.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTherefore, establishing an integrated platform like INGER could provide an institutional solution to these challenges. By creating a bidirectional coordination mechanism that combines demand-driven and supply-push approaches to systematically link three key modules\u0026mdash;improved lines, pre-breeding materials, and traditional resources\u0026mdash;such an architecture would not only enhance matching accuracy but, more importantly, establish a positive feedback loop for breeding support systems, ultimately strengthening the resilience of global agricultural breeding systems\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.4. The Role of Sovereign Genetic Resource Systems: Insights from China\u0026apos;s National Genebank\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGlobal germplasm governance, building upon regional collaboration, is fundamentally underpinned by the robust functioning of sovereign national systems. China holds a strategic position in global germplasm governance, conserving nearly 100,000 rice accessions by 2023, including over 80,000 cultivated varieties and more than 10,000 wild resources (CAAS, 2023). Its system spans local varieties, genebank materials, and pre-breeding lines, forming a comprehensive spectrum that underpins national breeding innovation and positions China as a key nexus between sovereign protection and global sharing. Domestically, the China Crop Germplasm Resources Information System demonstrates strong operational capacity, distributing large volumes of accessions annually.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYet barriers persist in international exchange. China has not joined the ITPGRFA nor adopted the SMTA, leading to complex application procedures and limited benefit-sharing (Chen et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021). Weak incentive structures have also encouraged a trend toward \u0026ldquo;germplasm privatization,\u0026rdquo; further hindering open exchange (Zhang \u0026amp; Liu, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAgainst this backdrop, INGER has functioned as a critical bridge. Since joining in 1981, China has actively participated in INGER\u0026rsquo;s trial networks, enabling domestic germplasm to enter international evaluation systems. Through INGER, China has introduced tens of thousands of accessions, shared hundreds of lines abroad, and released dozens of conventional and hybrid varieties, contributing millions of hectares of cultivation and substantial yield and economic gains (Tang et al., 2002). For countries that have not joined the ITPGRFA, such as Laos and Viet Nam in Asia, New Zealand in Oceania, Mexico in the Americas, and Belarus in Europe, INGER serves as a legal interface that balances compliance with technical collaboration(L\u0026oacute;pez Noriega et al., 2013; Halewood et al., 2020)..\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.5. Globally institutional frameworks play a decisive role in the efficiency of germplasm resource circulation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough germplasm governance today encompasses diverse institutional models, it remains structurally fragmented. International and national genebanks excel in long-term conservation but lack effective mechanisms for distribution, while regional institutions focus on varietal deployment yet contribute little to upstream innovation. This division of functions severely constrains coordination across platforms (Table\u0026nbsp;3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite diverse institutional models, germplasm governance remains fragmented: international and national genebanks focus on conservation with limited distribution, while regional institutions emphasize varietal deployment but contribute little upstream. This division hampers coordination. Evidence shows persistent inefficiencies\u0026mdash;Digital Object Identifier (DOI) adoption in CGIAR genebanks is below 40%, 70% of breeders in non-SMTA countries face approval delays over six months, and ambiguities between the ITPGRFA and Nagoya Protocol deepen compliance uncertainty (Brink \u0026amp; van Hintum, 2020; Westengen et al., 2018; L\u0026oacute;pez Noriega et al., 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is precisely within this fragmented and inefficient landscape that the value of integrated mechanisms becomes evident. INGER, for instance, stands out by bridging both vertical and horizontal governance gaps: it integrates the full germplasm value chain through multi-location trials and actively partners with sovereign and regional systems, as seen in initiatives like INGER-Africa. This dual role not only positions it as a model of multilateral cooperation but also as a potential architecture for aligning disparate governance systems. Yet even such innovative platforms face persistent structural challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2. Systemic Challenges in Rice Germplasm Circulation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.1. Legal and Structural Barriers to Equitable Germplasm Access\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs one of the few rice germplasm-sharing mechanisms under the ITPGRFA, INGER has long struggled with compliance barriers. In Africa, implementation of the SMTA is frequently delayed by additional phytosanitary and import requirements, and similar suspensions have occurred in the Philippines and Brazil (CGIAR, 2022; PhilRice, 2017; IRRI, 2017). A broader survey confirms the scale of the problem: in non-SMTA countries, 70% of researchers reported approval delays exceeding six months (Westengen et al., 2018). Together, these cases highlight how fragmented national procedures continue to undermine multilateral platforms (L\u0026oacute;pez Noriega et al., 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstitutional inequality compounds these barriers. Although Africa and Europe have similar numbers of treaty members, low-income countries remain underrepresented and often lack budgets or technical capacity to maintain compliance systems, forcing them to shoulder disproportionate costs (FAO, 2021; Halewood et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeyond these barriers lies a structural gap: the global system prioritizes improved lines while neglecting wild relatives and landraces, limiting the ability to mobilize novel traits for climate resilience. Recent developments, however, signal a shift. The Kunming\u0026ndash;Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022), incorporated into the 10th ITPGRFA Governing Body session, explicitly calls for the sustainable use of traditional resources, opening new space for their cross-border circulation (FAO, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this evolving context, INGER is no longer just a channel for improved rice lines but increasingly serves as an institutional backbone of germplasm governance. By combining the SMTA framework with multilocation trials and partnerships across national and regional systems, it provides a potential model for integrated governance in other crops.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.2. Phytosanitary Regulations and Cross-Border Clearance Challenges\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn global rice germplasm exchange, phytosanitary measures are essential safeguards but also a major bottleneck. On the INGER platform, IRRI bears the cost of a 20-step process, yet incompatibilities among national standards frequently delay distribution (IRRI, 2015; Kumar et al., 2021). Risks of inadequate quarantine are evident\u0026mdash;for example, the introduction of a new brown planthopper biotype in the Philippines caused severe yield losses (PhilRice, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExisting standards such as ISPM-36 and ISPM-38, designed for bulk commercial seeds, are ill-suited to the small samples of genebank materials. This excludes many wild relatives, landraces, and pre-breeding lines while favoring improved varieties, reinforcing systemic bias. Even within CGIAR, no unified quarantine framework exists, leaving centers dependent on their National Plant Protection Organization (NPPO) and further raising costs (FAO, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuarantine has thus become a structural barrier across all platforms. Emerging initiatives such as the GreenPass certification system offer a promising pathway, introducing harmonized, research-oriented standards tailored to small-scale germplasm exchange.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.3 Funding Shrinkage and Weakening Multilateral Cooperation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSince the early 2000s, INGER has faced mounting financial pressures as IRRI\u0026rsquo;s unrestricted funding base declined sharply\u0026mdash;from over half of its budget in the late 1990s to just 6.4% by 2019 (IRRI, 2008; IRRI, 2019). Donor agencies such as United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), once important institutional supporters, have redirected resources toward bilateral, performance-driven programs, leaving fewer discretionary funds for global public goods like INGER.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrinking core support has forced INGER to contract its international trial network, particularly in low-income regions, and limited its capacity for timely evaluations and data management. This erosion of multilateral capacity risks fragmenting global breeding collaboration and disproportionately harms countries with weak national systems (L\u0026oacute;pez Noriega et al., 2013). The fragility of this funding model was further exposed when USAID withdrew support in 2025, compelling genebanks to scale back operations and compromising seed health (Crop Trust, 2022; Reuters, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese developments highlight a structural challenge: without stable, long-term financing, the sustainable and equitable circulation of germplasm cannot be secured. Future platforms must enhance the precision of cross-border flows, strengthen operational sustainability, and reinforce multilateral mechanisms in an increasingly fragmented funding landscape.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3. Rebuild the INGER global rice germplasm resource sharing system\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.1. Optimizing Germplasm Access and Benefit-Sharing Mechanisms\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo ensure equitable and efficient access to rice germplasm, future reforms must focus on building a coherent and interoperable ABS framework. Current fragmentation between the ITPGRFA\u0026rsquo;s Multilateral System and the Nagoya Protocol has created legal uncertainty and delayed distribution (L\u0026oacute;pez Noriega et al., 2013). The revision of the SMTA\u0026mdash;agreed in 2025 and scheduled to enter into force in July 2026\u0026mdash;offers an important opportunity to resolve these barriers by introducing clearer provisions for non-commercial research and emergency use (FAO, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBuilding on this momentum, four complementary measures are recommended:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStrengthen legal clarity through revised SMTA and regional initiatives. The inclusion of clauses such as PAPGREN\u0026rsquo;s proposed \u0026ldquo;Direct Use\u0026rdquo; reflects the needs of countries relying on immediate deployment for food security.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAdopt a unified ABS template under Article 13.2(h). Modeled on the SMTA, such a template would bridge multilateral and bilateral regimes, reduce transaction costs, and streamline approvals for Annex I crops like rice.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEnhance traceability and transparency through Global Information System on Plant Genetic Resources (GLIS) and DOIs. Linking DOIs with digital sequence information (DSI) and material flow records would enable a centralized monitoring system, improving trust and equitable benefit-sharing (Louafi \u0026amp; Welch, 2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEstablish a fast-track approval mechanism for research use. Standardized SMTA implementation rules and expedited clearance for non-commercial germplasm would reconcile ABS requirements with the urgent needs of global agricultural research.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese measures would help secure a legally robust, transparent, and research-responsive system for germplasm circulation\u0026mdash;ensuring that INGER and related platforms remain effective pillars of global food security.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.2. Institutional Innovation and Collaborative Pathways: Building a Three-Dimensional System for Efficient Germplasm Exchange\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.2.1. Technical Foundation: Standardizing Resistance Evaluation through Scientific Nurseries\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn response to the procedural complexity and fragmented standards of conventional quarantine systems, INGER has developed a functional alternative through its multi-environment nursery network. This framework not only accelerates adaptability screening but also provides scientific evidence of seed health to recipient countries, reducing the need for redundant quarantine checks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSuch assessments are especially effective for pre-breeding lines and select improved varieties, functioning as a \u0026quot;scientific trust\u0026quot; mechanism that complements traditional quarantine. For instance, varieties like BRRI dhan 84, Inpari 30, and IR36\u0026mdash;with well-documented resistance profiles\u0026mdash;have been directly adopted by multiple countries. This \u0026quot;platform-based pre-evaluation\u0026quot; offers credible grounds for quarantine exemptions and has helped establish a shared database for germplasm health\u0026mdash;laying the technical foundation for broader institutional mutual recognition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.2.2. Regional Breakthrough: Legal Equivalence in the Seeds Without Borders (SWB) Mechanism\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSWB initiative, jointly led by IRRI and the South Asia Regional Agricultural Centre (ISARC), provides a regional fast-track protocol aimed at simplifying seed registration and circulation across ecologically similar countries. By standardizing material transfer agreements (MTA/SMTA), recognizing shared varietal evaluation data, and using unified templates, the mechanism enables direct registration and rapid dissemination of varieties already approved in one member country\u0026mdash;without requiring redundant trials (Pandey et al., 2019). SWB currently includes India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, the Philippines, and Fiji, and is gradually expanding to cover additional crops beyond rice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSWB\u0026apos;s strength lies in dismantling institutional barriers among quarantine, certification, and seed registration systems\u0026mdash;particularly in INGER\u0026rsquo;s operational regions across South and Southeast Asia. It offers regulatory harmonization and expedited approval for pre-breeding and candidate lines distributed through INGER, minimizing delays caused by divergent national laws (Gauchan et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeyond its practical efficiency, SWB demonstrates a new pathway toward global harmonization via regional consensus. The mechanism has been recognized in international forums as a key complementary tool for implementing International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) and ITPGRFA (Singh et al., 2015). Looking forward, INGER and affiliated trial platforms could adopt the SWB framework as a formal entry point for South\u0026ndash;South cooperation in germplasm exchange, enhancing INGER\u0026rsquo;s role in regional and global seed governance and offering a model for replication in other ecological zones (ISARC, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.2.3. Global Coordination: Building the Green-Pass Quarantine Pathway\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGreen-Pass is a plant health certification system spearheaded by CGIAR\u0026rsquo;s Germplasm Health Units (GHUs), designed to enable pre-border compliance for globally circulated germplasm. Drawing from SWB\u0026rsquo;s regional experience, GreenPass extends the concept of mutual recognition through a third-party certification system tailored to global exchange. At its core, the mechanism integrates molecular diagnostics, pest risk assessments, sanitation treatments, compliant packaging, and official declarations\u0026mdash;thereby offering a scientifically validated and transparent quarantine assurance protocol (CGIAR, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnlike existing commercial seed standards such as ISPM-36 and ISPM-38, GreenPass is optimized for small-batch, non-commercial research material\u0026mdash;such as genebank samples, pre-breeding lines, and candidate cultivars. Certified materials can enter fast-track quarantine channels, undergoing only the minimum required checks before release, significantly reducing time delays in transboundary movement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis system holds particular relevance for INGER. As a global multilateral platform for rice germplasm sharing, INGER primarily distributes non-commercial genetic resources that fall squarely within GreenPass\u0026rsquo;s focus. Leveraging this certification mechanism, INGER can establish a stable, trustworthy, and efficient quarantine route, enhancing the acceptance of its materials in international regulatory contexts and ensuring timely delivery to end-users ahead of critical planting seasons.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.3. Construct a Sustainable Financial Guarantee System\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe fragility of current financial support remains a critical constraint in global germplasm sharing. To enhance long-term resilience, future rice germplasm platforms should adopt a three-tiered financial architecture. This framework combines: Core public suppor; Membership-based value-added revenues and Innovative financing streams (Table 4)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable 4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProposed Multi-Tiered Finance Framework for Global Germplasm Sharing Platforms\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003eFunding Tier\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003eSource Channels\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003ePrimary Objectives\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003eExamples\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eCore Operations\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eCGIAR membership, national earmarked funding, Crop Trust\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eGermplasm distribution, trial infrastructure, data sharing\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eGlobal Crop Diversity Trust\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eStrategic Support\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eRegional networks, multilateral partners\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eLong-term breeding cooperation, resource evaluation\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eLatin American FLAR model\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003eValue-Added Revenue\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003ePrivate sector subscriptions, customized technical services, JBV\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003ePrecision testing, advanced analytics, co-development\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIRRI JBV model, Dutch genebank practice\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eMembership-based access fees (tiered for public/private)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003ePreferential access to germplasm, data packages, technical input\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eIRRI HRDC model (Hybrid Rice Development Consortium)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eInnovative Finance\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eClimate funds, green bonds, carbon trading, philanthropic grants\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eDSI management, regional resilience, capacity building\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003eAfrica Carbon Credit Pilot, Gates Foundation\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo optimize financial efficiency, platforms should prioritize high-value germplasm by applying AI-assisted trait analysis and predictive modeling, thereby improving the return on evaluation investments (Louafi \u0026amp; Welch, 2021). Trial designs should also adopt regionalized and demand-driven models to minimize duplication and increase ecological relevance. Lessons from advanced genebank systems\u0026mdash;such as metadata-based decision-making in the Dutch Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands (CGN)\u0026mdash;offer useful insights for entry selection, seed multiplication, and resource allocation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese measures outline a flexible and scalable financial architecture that supports both the operational stability of rice germplasm platforms and the broader goals of climate-resilient, innovation-driven crop systems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employs INGER as a central case to examine both the transformational potential and structural limitations of the current global germplasm exchange system. By comparing three dominant operational models\u0026mdash;multilateral sharing mechanisms, regional collaborative platforms, and sovereign national systems\u0026mdash;we identify persistent barriers such as policy fragmentation, restrictive phytosanitary protocols, chronic underfunding, and slow digital integration. These constraints collectively undermine the efficiency, equity, and adaptive capacity of global germplasm flows.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo address these challenges, we propose an integrated germplasm value-chain platform that brings together improved lines, pre-breeding materials, and traditional genetic resources under a unified governance structure (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Operating through a bidirectional mechanism, the platform enables genebanks and research institutions to proactively distribute novel and climate-adaptive diversity. A key innovation of this framework lies in its emphasis on interoperability across legal systems, digital infrastructures, and multi-location evaluation networks, thereby effectively linking sovereign, regional, and global scales.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis architecture not only improves the precision and efficiency of germplasm matching and utilization but also establishes an adaptive innovation system capable of responding to emerging pests, diseases, and climatic pressures. Furthermore, it offers a scalable paradigm for the sustainable management of genetic resources as global public goods, strengthening open science and multilateral cooperation in agricultural research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile this study focuses on institutional and operational design, future empirical research should prioritize quantifying the economic and ecological benefits of such an integrated system\u0026mdash;particularly under scenarios of climate disruption and food system shocks. Further investigation is also needed to refine governance incentives that align national interests with global public goods, ensuring that future germplasm exchange fosters both innovation and equity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that INGER has been highly effective in promoting rice germplasm utilization, enhancing productivity, and strengthening system adaptability, while providing valuable lessons for global germplasm governance. Yet its performance also reveals persistent systemic barriers: legal fragmentation across ABS frameworks, costly and inconsistent phytosanitary procedures, and chronic funding instability have collectively limited its openness and weakened its multilateral capacity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBridging these challenges requires a full value-chain governance model that integrates improved lines, pre-breeding materials, and traditional germplasm into a unified system of distribution, evaluation, and feedback. Such a model should be supported by transparent operational protocols, multi-environment testing networks, and stronger digital infrastructure to ensure both efficiency and equity in germplasm utilization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMore broadly, INGER serves as an instructive case of global public goods provision in agricultural science. Its experience offers profound insights into institutional design for managing complex global commons\u0026mdash;particularly under climate change and food security pressures\u0026mdash;and illustrates how multilateral scientific cooperation can be structured to enhance resilience, fairness, and innovation. Lessons derived from INGER\u0026rsquo;s governance innovations and constraints carry significant theoretical and practical implications for international collaboration across multiple technological and environmental domains.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLooking ahead, sustainable global germplasm sharing will depend on coordinated advances across policy, technology, and institutional frameworks. Reducing regulatory fragmentation, streamlining cross-border phytosanitary protocols, diversifying funding mechanisms, and embedding innovative tools such as GreenPass and Seeds Without Borders will be essential. By building on its historical achievements while addressing these structural constraints, INGER can evolve not only as a model of multilateral cooperation but also as a strategic institutional anchor for constructing the next generation of sustainable, efficient, and equitable global germplasm systems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe are grateful to express sincere gratitude to Hongsheng Zhang, Yunlong Lu, Youlin Peng for helping in revising this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eMaterial preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Jiayu Fan, Zeyuan Yang, and Siqi Xia.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe first draft of the manuscript was written by Jiayu Fan. Ramaiah Venuprasad, Xiaoming Zheng, and Fan Chen provided professional review and feedback.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eAll authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript and approved the final version.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThis work was supported by the Project of Hainan Province Science and Technology Special Fund (ZDYF2022XDNY260), the Project of Sanya Yazhou Bay Science and Technology City (SCKJ-JYRC-2023-47 and SKJC-2023-02-001), the Nanfan special project, CAAS(YBXM2403), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2021YFD1200101), the Project of Hainan Province Nature and Science Fund (2021JJLH0075), National Natural Science Foundation of China (32261143465\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e32350710198)\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eand the Project of Hainan Province Science and Technology Innovation (KJRC2023A01), the Hainan Province International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Talent and Exchange Project (Foreign Expert Program) Plan(G20241024007E ).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data used in this study are primarily derived from publicly available sources, including institutional evaluation reports, statistical data from the China National Crop Genebank, and relevant literature.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAfrica Rice Center (WARDA). 2006. 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Scientific Data, 3, 160018. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.18\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYamamoto, A. (2020). Synergy between CBD/Nagoya Protocol and ITPGRFA on access and benefit-sharing on plant genetic resources. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 482, 012003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/482/1/012003 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, J., Pan, D., Fan, Z., Yu, H., Jiang, L., Lv, S., Sun, B., Chen, W., Mao, X., Liu, Q., \u0026amp; Li, C. (2022). Characterization of wild rice accessions (Oryza rufipogon griff.) in Guangdong and Hainan provinces China and construction of a wild rice core collection. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13, 999454. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.999454\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, J., \u0026amp; Liu, Q. (2021). Incentive mechanisms in crop germplasm utilization: A policy review. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 68(12), 3045\u0026ndash;3053. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-021-01162-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZohrabian, A., Traxler, G., Caudill, S., \u0026amp; Smale, M. (2003). Valuing pre-commercial genetic resources: A maximum entropy approach. Biotechnology and Genetic Resource Policies, Brief 9. International Food Policy Research Institute.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"genetic-resources-and-crop-evolution","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"gres","sideBox":"Learn more about [Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution](https://www.springer.com/journal/10722)","snPcode":"10722","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10722/3","title":"Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Rice germplasm resources, INGER, Sharing mechanism, Sustainable agricultural development","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7477756/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7477756/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePlant genetic resources (PGR) constitute a strategic asset in mitigating climate change and ensuring global food security. Current international germplasm-sharing mechanisms predominantly emphasize the distribution and utilization of improved varieties, while institutional frameworks for accessing genebank holdings and pre-breeding lines remain underdeveloped. This gap has resulted in limited exploitation of genetic diversity and constrained potential for upstream breeding innovation. As a prominent multilateral mechanism, the International Network for the Genetic Evaluation of Rice (INGER) has expanded multi-environment trials to over 80 countries and facilitated the release of more than 1,120 varieties. However, with agricultural modernization and digitalization, INGER\u0026rsquo;s operations reflect structural challenges\u0026mdash;including fragmented legal regimes, divergent regulatory and phytosanitary requirements, inadequate upstream resource-sharing mechanisms, and chronic underfunding. These impediments are not unique to INGER but indicative of broader institutional barriers in global rice germplasm exchange. Concurrently, emerging innovations\u0026mdash;such as CGIAR\u0026rsquo;s GreenPass initiative, the regional Seeds Without Borders agreement, and proposed revisions to the Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA) enabling \u0026ldquo;direct use\u0026rdquo; of genebank materials\u0026mdash;suggest pathways to overcome these bottlenecks. Using INGER as a central case study, this research examines the architecture of germplasm distribution and identifies key institutional constraints, while comparing governance models across multilateral and sovereign systems. We propose and design an integrated mechanism that incorporates genebank accessions, pre-breeding lines, and improved germplasm into a cohesive sharing platform. This full-spectrum system aims to contribute to a more efficient, resilient, and equitable global framework for germplasm exchange.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Strengthening Global Rice Germplasm Sharing: Insights from the INGER Platform","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-09 09:54:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7477756/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-09-26T11:39:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-10T00:42:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"188592045927930517828800176604819890951","date":"2025-09-03T09:02:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"235360919141818338324696015382470619738","date":"2025-09-01T11:14:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"39252015234627163422742755030510326896","date":"2025-09-01T06:03:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-01T06:00:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-08-30T12:48:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-08-30T12:46:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution","date":"2025-08-28T07:54:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"genetic-resources-and-crop-evolution","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"gres","sideBox":"Learn more about [Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution](https://www.springer.com/journal/10722)","snPcode":"10722","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10722/3","title":"Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0d915bea-025f-418f-94a7-d9b0e3f1c790","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 9th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-22T16:08:49+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7477756","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-025-02666-8","journal":{"identity":"genetic-resources-and-crop-evolution","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution"},"publishedOn":"2025-12-16 15:58:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"December 16th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-09 09:54:36","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s10722-025-02666-8","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-025-02666-8","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7477756","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7477756","identity":"rs-7477756","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}