Path Analysis of Psychological Resilience as a Mediator in the Relationship Between Physical Activity and Depressive Symptoms in University Students

Path Analysis of Psychological Resilience as a Mediator in the Relationship Between Physical Activity and Depressive Symptoms in University Students | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Path Analysis of Psychological Resilience as a Mediator in the Relationship Between Physical Activity and Depressive Symptoms in University Students Zhihui Xu, Haiyue Liu, Jianwei YU, Zixian Wang, Shufan Li, Yuzhang Li This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6742511/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 29 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in BMC Psychology → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background This study aims to examine the relationship between physical activity, psychological resilience, and depressive symptoms, specifically investigating the effects of exercise intensity, duration, and frequency on depressive symptoms and the individual subcomponents of psychological resilience. Methods A total of 1,156 university students were recruited from a university in Shanghai through convenience sampling. Data were gathered using the Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS-3), Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), and Beck Depression Inventory-Ⅱ (BDI-Ⅱ). Statistical analyses, including one-way ANOVA, correlation analysis, regression analysis, and mediation analysis, were conducted to analyze the data. Results Significant correlations were found between PARS-3, CD-RISC, and BDI-Ⅱ. Depressive symptoms in university students showed significant negative correlations with CD-RISC (r=-0.357, P < 0.001), resilience (r=-0.346, P < 0.001), strength (r=-0.349, P < 0.001), and optimism (r=-0.280, P < 0.001). PARS-3 was significantly negatively correlated with depressive symptoms (r=-0.121, P < 0.001), and positively correlated with CD-RISC (r = 0.191, P < 0.001), resilience (r = 0.183, P < 0.001), strength (r = 0.180, P < 0.001), and optimism (r = 0.169, P < 0.001). Exercise intensity was positively correlated with CD-RISC (r = 0.148, P < 0.001), resilience (r = 0.150, P < 0.001), strength (r = 0.150, P < 0.001), and optimism (r = 0.115, P < 0.001). Exercise duration was positively correlated with CD-RISC (r = 0.169, P < 0.001), resilience (r = 0.159, P < 0.001), strength (r = 0.167, P < 0.001), and optimism (r = 0.149, P < 0.001). Exercise frequency showed significant positive correlations with CD-RISC (r = 0.206, P < 0.001), resilience (r = 0.180, P < 0.001), strength (r = 0.219, P < 0.001), and optimism (r = 0.192, P < 0.001). Exercise intensity was negatively correlated with BDI-Ⅱ (r=-0.086, P < 0.001), exercise duration was negatively correlated with BDI-Ⅱ (r=-0.095, P < 0.001), and PARS-3 was negatively correlated with BDI-Ⅱ (r=-0.121, P < 0.001). Additionally, the subdimensions of CD-RISC partially mediated the relationship between PARS-3 and depressive symptoms, with the direct effect reaching 48.89%. The effect of mediation 1 was 26.67%, and mediation 2 accounted for 22.22%. Conclusion CD-RISC partially mediates the relationship between PARS-3 and depressive symptoms among university students. Lower PARS-3 levels are associated with higher depressive symptom scores and lower CD-RISC scores. This effect is closely linked to exercise intensity, duration, and frequency, demonstrating a significant "dose-response" relationship. It is recommended to implement appropriate exercise interventions based on the severity of symptoms. Universities should encourage students to engage in more high-intensity, long-duration, and frequent PARS-3 exercises to prevent and alleviate depressive symptoms in university students. CD-RISC PARS-3 university students depressive symptoms Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Depression is a mood disorder characterized primarily by symptoms such as persistent low mood, diminished interest, and anhedonia [ 1 ] . University students are particularly susceptible to depression due to academic pressures, changes in their living environments, lifestyle alterations, and employment-related stress, with a depression prevalence rate reaching 31.88% [ 2 ] . Depression among university students not only affects their social functioning and academic performance [ 3 ] , but can also have a detrimental impact on physical health [ 4 ] . Prolonged depressive states may lead to diminished mood, loss of interest, dropout awareness [ 5 ] , suicidal ideation [ 6 ] , and even suicidal behavior [ 7 ] . Psychological resilience [ 8 ] (as measured by the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale, CD-RISC) refers to an individual's ability to rapidly recover and adapt when faced with adversity, stress, and challenges. It includes emotional regulation, self-efficacy, and problem-solving abilities [ 9 ] . CD-RISC enables individuals to effectively manage life's adversities, thereby mitigating the effects of negative emotions. Existing studies have demonstrated that CD-RISC is negatively correlated with depressive symptoms. Individuals with higher CD-RISC levels are more likely to respond to stress in a constructive manner, demonstrating greater resilience to depression [ 10 ] . This suggests that CD-RISC could be an important factor in alleviating depressive symptoms. Furthermore, some studies have indicated that CD-RISC, as an individual's ability to cope with stress and challenges, may play a mediating role between physical activity (Physical Activity Rating Scale, PARS-3) and depressive symptoms. PARS-3 is one of the important non-pharmacological interventions for depression treatment, demonstrating good antidepressant effects [ 11 ] . Regular participation in PARS-3 helps reduce the incidence of depression and improves existing depressive symptoms [ 12 ] . PARS-3 can improve mental health through various mechanisms, including promoting the release of neurochemicals such as endorphins and dopamine [ 13 ] , which have profound effects on alleviating depressive symptoms [ 14 ] . Cross-sectional studies have found a close relationship between PARS-3, CD-RISC, and depressive symptoms. PARS-3 not only enhances physical fitness but also improves emotional state, boosts self-efficacy, and thereby strengthens CD-RISC [ 15 ] . This enhanced CD-RISC, in turn, helps individuals better cope with life’s pressures and alleviates depressive symptoms [ 16 ] . A review of previous studies reveals that the mediating role of CD-RISC in the relationship between PARS-3 and depressive symptoms shows variability. Li Rui [ 17 ] reported that CD-RISC fully mediates the relationship between PARS-3 and depression, while studies by Zhang Wenzhe [ 18 ] and Chen Songcai [ 19 ] suggest that CD-RISC partially mediates this relationship. How does CD-RISC function as a mediator in the relationship between PARS-3 and depressive symptoms? How does the relationship between CD-RISC and depressive symptoms differ at varying levels of depression? How do various exercise regimens influence CD-RISC and depressive symptoms? Building upon previous research, this study further explores the relationship between PARS-3, depressive symptoms, and CD-RISC, with a focus on the mediating role of CD-RISC and its subdimensions in the association between PARS-3 and depressive symptoms. It also evaluates the accuracy of the PARS-3 intervention. This study seeks to provide valuable insights for future longitudinal research on depressive symptoms in university students, offer guidance for clinical identification and targeted interventions, and establish theoretical foundations for researchers and university administrators. Participants and Methods 1.1 Participants The sample size was calculated using the formula n = 400 × Q / P (where P is the prevalence rate, and Q = 1 - P). According to a previous meta-analysis, the depression prevalence rate among university students is approximately 31.38% [ 2 ] , resulting in a minimum required sample size of n ≈ 875. A convenience sampling method was used to recruit participants from a university located in the Songjiang District of Shanghai. Inclusion criteria: 1. Aged 18–25 years; 2. Clear consciousness, sufficient comprehension ability, and the ability to complete the questionnaire independently or with the help of an investigator; 3. No history of mental disorders, and not currently taking barbiturates, benzodiazepines, or chloral hydrate. Exclusion criteria: 1. Non-university students; 2. Students not majoring in physical education. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shanghai University of Sport (Ethical Registration Number: 102772024RT108). 1.2 Testing Procedure Before participants filled out the questionnaire, the investigator read the instructions aloud, explained the items, clarified that the data collected would be used solely for scientific research, emphasized the importance of truthful, independent, and voluntary responses, and informed participants of their right to withdraw at any time. All participants read and filled in the informed consent form before filling in the questionnaire. During the process, participants were reminded to answer carefully according to the instructions. After completion, the investigator checked for missing items and illogical responses, and ensured data completeness, accuracy, and authenticity through re-filling or correction. A total of 160 invalid questionnaires were excluded, including 25 with inconsistent answers, 42 completed in less than 3 minutes, and 93 with outliers exceeding ± 3 standard deviations. In total, 1156 valid questionnaires (87.84%) were included. As shown in Fig. 1 . 1.2 Research Instruments 1.2.1 General Information Questionnaire This questionnaire collects basic information such as age, gender, height, weight, family background, exercise history, and lifestyle of the participants. 1.2.2 Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) The CD-RISC [ 8 ] consists of 25 items distributed across three dimensions: optimism (4 items), strength (8 items), and resilience (13 items). The scale employs a 5-point rating system, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always), with a total score of 100. Higher scores reflect greater resilience, as they are positively correlated with the overall CD-RISC score. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the scale in this study was 0.91. 1.2.3 Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS-3) This study utilized the Chinese version of the PARS-3 scale, as revised by Liang Deqing et al., primarily reflecting the participants' physical activity levels over the past month. The scale evaluates physical activity across three dimensions: intensity, duration, and frequency. Intensity and frequency are rated on a scale from 1 to 5, with corresponding scores ranging from 1 to 5, while the duration is rated from 1 to 5, with scores ranging from 0 to 4. The PARS-3 classification criteria are as follows: 0–19 points represent low physical activity; 20–42 points represent moderate physical activity; and ≥ 43 points represent high physical activity. The scale has demonstrated good reliability and validity in assessing the physical activity levels of Chinese university students [ 20 ] . 1.2.4 Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) The BDI-II is one of the most widely used self-report tools for screening depressive symptoms and assessing the severity of depression, specifically evaluating symptoms over the past two weeks. It uses a 4-level scoring system from 0 to 3, with scores ranging from 0–13 indicating no depressive symptoms, 14–19 indicating mild depression, 20–28 indicating moderate depression, and ≥ 29 indicating severe depression. The internal consistency coefficient of the BDI-II in this study was 0.948 [ 21 – 24 ] . 1.3 Data Processing The collected questionnaires were thoroughly reviewed. Invalid and incomplete questionnaires were excluded, and the remaining data were coded and entered according to a pre-established coding scheme. The data were initially processed in Excel, then imported into SPSS 26.0 for further analysis and processing. Graphs were generated using GraphPad Prism 10 and OriginPro 2024b software. For statistical analysis, continuous variables that followed a normal distribution were described as mean ± standard deviation. Comparisons between groups were performed using independent samples t-tests, with results presented to three decimal places. Categorical variables were compared using chi-square analysis. One-way ANOVA was used to analyze the differences in depressive symptoms, university students' PARS-3, and CD-RISC. Post-hoc multiple comparisons were conducted using one-way ANOVA. Pearson correlation analysis [ 25 ] was employed to examine the relationships among BDI, PARS-3, CD-RISC, and other variables. Mediation analysis was conducted using Model 4 of the PROCESS 4.0 macro to examine the roles of PARS-3, resilience, strength, optimism, and depressive symptoms, with all variables standardized prior to modeling. All statistical inferences were performed using two-tailed tests, with a significance threshold set at α = 0.05. P-values < 0.05, < 0.01, and < 0.001 were denoted by "*", "**", and "***", respectively, indicating statistically significant differences. Results 2.1 Demographic Characteristics of College Students Descriptive statistics (see Table 1 ) show that 1,156 college students were included in the study, with 194 students displaying depressive symptoms. The results revealed significant differences between the normal and depressive symptom groups in smoking, alcohol consumption, and being an only child (P 0.05). Table 1 Basic Characteristics Variable Normal Group (N = 962) Depressive Symptoms Group (N = 194) Statistical Test Gender X²=0.074,P = 0.786 Male 357 74 Female 605 120 Height (cm) 168.03 ± 13.882 167.06 ± 20.753 t = 63.388,P = 0.292 Weight (kg) 67.19 ± 24.181 70.42 ± 25.933 t = 121.107,P = 0.654 Age (years) 20.17 ± 2.061 20.26 ± 1.939 t = 15.919,P = 0.598 International Student X²=0.098,P = 0.754 Yes 54 12 No 908 182 Smoking Status X²=9.824,P = 0.002 Yes 58 24 No 903 170 Alcohol Consumption X²=10.805,P = 0.001 Yes 22 13 No 939 180 Only Child X²=8.357,P = 0.004 Yes 579 95 No 383 99 Single-Parent Family X²=2.699,P = 0.1 Yes 117 32 No 845 163 2.2 Relationship between CD-RISC and Depressive Symptoms in College Students The results, presented in Fig. 2, show that based on BDI-II scores, college students were classified into those with depressive symptoms and normal students. Statistically significant differences were found between the two groups in CD-RISC (t = 10.388, P < 0.001), resilience (t = 9.816, P < 0.001), strength (t = 10.361, P < 0.001), and optimism (t = 8.392, P < 0.001). Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between BDI-II and CD-RISC, as well as its subdimensions. The correlation analysis results, illustrated in Fig. 3 , showed significant negative correlations between BDI-II and college students' CD-RISC (r = -0.357, P < 0.001), resilience (r = -0.346, P < 0.001), strength (r = -0.349, P < 0.001), and optimism (r = -0.280, P < 0.001). 2.3 Relationship between College Students' PARS-3, CD-RISC, and BDI-II As shown in Fig. 3 , a statistically significant difference was observed in PARS-3 scores between the depressive symptom group and the normal student group (t = 5.547, P < 0.001). The correlation analysis results (shown in Fig. 3 ) indicated a significant negative correlation between PARS-3 and BDI-II scores (r = -0.121, P < 0.001). PARS-3 was significantly positively correlated with CD-RISC (r = 0.191, P < 0.001), resilience (r = 0.183, P < 0.001), strength (r = 0.180, P < 0.001), and optimism (r = 0.169, P < 0.001). 2.4 Mediating Path of CD-RISC between PARS-3 and BDI Based on the interrelationships between PARS-3, BDI, resilience, strength, and optimism, the total PARS-3 score was used as the independent variable, BDI score as the dependent variable, and smoking, alcohol consumption, and being an only child as moderating variables. The mediating effects of resilience, strength, and optimism were analyzed using Model 4 in PROCESS. The results (Table 2 ) show that regression model 1 testing revealed F = 17.094, P < 0.01, indicating that the regression model was statistically significant (t = -4.135, P < 0.001), and PARS-3 negatively predicted BDI-II. Regression model 2 testing revealed F = 56.603, P < 0.001, indicating that the regression model was statistically significant (t = -2.942, P < 0.01), and the three subdimensions of CD-RISC negatively predicted BDI-II. Regression model 3 testing revealed F = 43.542, P < 0.001, indicating that the regression model was statistically significant (t = -1.982, P < 0.05), and both PARS-3 and the three subdimensions of CD-RISC negatively predicted BDI-II. However, optimism in the subdimensions of Model 2 and Model 3 did not significantly predict BDI-II (t = -0.233, P > 0.05), (t = -0.152, P > 0.05), as shown in Table 2 . Table 2. Regression of PARS-3 on Depressive Symptoms Regression Equation Fit Indices Significance of Regression Coefficients Model R R² Adjusted R² F Regression Coefficient Standardized Regression Coefficient t Model 1 0.121 0.015 0.014 17.094 ** -0.042 -0.121 -4.135 *** Model 2 0.358 0.128 0.126 56.603 *** -0.140 -0.173 -2.942 ** -0.252 -0.188 -2.933 ** -0.027 -0.010 -0.233 Model 3 0.363 0.131 0.128 43.542 *** -0.019 -0.055 -1.982 * -0.136 -0.168 -2.850 ** -0.249 -0.186 -2.897 ** -0.017 -0.007 -0.152 Note: "*" indicates a significant difference (p < 0.05), "**" indicates a highly significant difference (p < 0.01), and "***" indicates a very highly significant difference (p < 0.001). Model 1 is the regression analysis of Total PARS-3 predicting BDI-II. Model 2 is the regression analysis of the three subdimensions of CD-RISC predicting BDI-II. Model 3 is the regression analysis of Total PARS-3 and the three subdimensions of CD-RISC predicting BDI-II. To explore the underlying mechanism of the significant positive effect of PARS-3 on BDI, resilience, strength, and optimism were introduced as mediators into the structural equation model. Mediation effects were tested using Model 4 in the SPSS macro program PROCESS, with mediation in the path between X and Y verified using the Bootstrap method provided by Hayes. The mediation path between the X and Y variables is shown in (Fig. 4 ). According to Table 3 , the bootstrap 95% confidence interval for the mediation effect of X on Y, including resilience, strength, and optimism, does not contain 0. This indicates that X not only exerts a direct mediation effect on Y, but also mediates the effect of Y through resilience. The direct effect (-0.02), the first mediation effect (0.01), and the second mediation effect (0.01) account for 40%, 20%, and 20%, respectively, of the total effect (0.05). Table 3 Mediation Effect Test Effect Size Se LLCI ULCI Effect Proportion Effect Type -0.045 0.009 -0.0641 -0.0251 / Direct Effect -0.022 0.009 -0.0409 -0.0033 48.89% Mediation Effect 1 -0.012 0.005 -0.0223 -0.0036 26.67% Mediation Effect 2 -0.010 0.005 -0.0209 0.0000 22.22% Mediation Effect 3 -0.001 0.003 -0.0058 0.0046 2.22% 2.5 The Relationship Between CD-RISC and Depression Severity Levels in University Students After confirming the correlation between CD-RISC and depressive symptoms in college students, we further classified the levels of depressive symptoms to explore the relationship between CD-RISC and different levels of depressive symptoms among college students. If the homogeneity of variance test yields a corresponding P-value greater than the set significance level (e.g., P > 0.05), the results of the LSD (Least Significant Difference) method were focused on; if P < 0.05, the results of Tamhane’s T2 were observed. The results indicated that the CD-RISC scores and its sub-dimensions among college students with different levels of depressive symptoms were statistically significant, as shown in Table 4 . Table 4 Comparison of CD-RISC Scores Among College Students with Different Levels of Depressive Symptoms Variable Overall Situation (1156) Depressive Symptom Grouping Comparison between groups Post Hoc Comparisons Low(n = 96) Moderate(n = 63) High(n = 35) F(χ2) P Low VS Moderate Low VS High Moderate VS High Total Score 60.29 ± 18.72 51.06 ± 13.30 45.78 ± 15.79 44.17 ± 17.38 37.872 <0.001 0.168 0.209 0.998 Resilience 30.76 ± 10.36 26.05 ± 7.77 22.56 ± 8.55 22.94 ± 10.03 34.070 <0.001 0.059 0.479 1.000 Strength 20.13 ± 6.26 0.56 ± 0.553 15.71 ± 5.61 14.31 ± 5.34 37.622 <0.001 0.644 0.077 0.644 Optimism 9.40 ± 3.21 8.08 ± 2.42 7.51 ± 3.07 6.91 ± 3.49 24.812 <0.001 0.761 0.370 0.955 2.6 The Relationship Between Different Exercise Intensity, Duration, Frequency, and CD-RISC and BDI-II We found that resilience, strength, and optimism mediate the relationship between PARS-3 and BDI-II. To further explore the impact of different exercise components on CD-RISC and BDI-II, we examined the correlation between exercise intensity, duration, frequency, and these variables. Exercise intensity showed a significant positive correlation with CD-RISC (r = 0.148, P < 0.001), resilience (r = 0.150, P < 0.001), strength (r = 0.150, P < 0.001), and optimism (r = 0.115, P < 0.001). Exercise duration was significantly positively correlated with CD-RISC (r = 0.169, P < 0.001), resilience (r = 0.159, P < 0.001), strength (r = 0.167, P < 0.001), and optimism (r = 0.149, P < 0.001). Exercise frequency showed significant positive correlations with CD-RISC (r = 0.206, P < 0.001), resilience (r = 0.180, P < 0.001), strength (r = 0.219, P < 0.001), and optimism (r = 0.192, P < 0.001). Exercise intensity was significantly negatively correlated with BDI-II (r = -0.086, P < 0.001), and both exercise duration (r = -0.095, P < 0.001) and PARS-3 (r = -0.121, P < 0.001) were significantly negatively correlated with BDI-II. See Annex1(Table 5 ). A one-way ANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of different exercise intensities, durations, and frequencies on CD-RISC and BDI-II. After confirming normal distribution and homogeneity of variance, if the p-value for the homogeneity of variance test exceeds the set significance level (e.g., P > 0.05), the results of the LSD (Least Significant Difference) test will be considered; if P < 0.05, the Tamhane’s T2 results will be evaluated. One-way ANOVA revealed that high-intensity exercise significantly resulted in lower depression scores compared to low-intensity exercise. The results showed that exercise intensity significantly affected BDI-II (F = 5.553, P < 0.001). Post-hoc comparisons revealed that high-intensity exercise had a more substantial impact on depression symptoms than low-intensity exercise. See Annex2(Table 6). One-way ANOVA demonstrated that different exercise durations produced varying effects on depression symptoms and CD-RISC scores. Exercise duration significantly influenced BDI-II (F = 5.566, P < 0.01), CD-RISC (F = 17.946, P < 0.01), resilience (r = 15.161, P < 0.001), strength (r = 18.667, P < 0.001), and optimism (r = 13.440, P < 0.001). Longer exercise durations were associated with lower depression scores and higher CD-RISC scores. See Annex3(Table 7). Different exercise frequencies had varying effects on depression symptoms and CD-RISC scores. Exercise frequency was found to have a significant effect on BDI-II (F = 8.741, P < 0.01), CD-RISC (F = 22.295, P < 0.01), resilience (r = 27.372, P < 0.001), strength (r = 15.353, P < 0.001), and optimism (r = 21.712, P < 0.001). Higher exercise frequencies were associated with lower depression scores and higher CD-RISC scores. See Annex4(Table 8). Discussion This study further confirms the positive effects of PARS-3 on depression symptoms, with a strong relationship between PARS-3, CD-RISC, and depression symptoms. PARS-3 is negatively correlated with depression symptoms, while CD-RISC is positively correlated with depression symptoms, and PARS-3 is positively correlated with CD-RISC. These findings align with previous research [ 26 ] , where the positive correlation between PARS-3 and depression symptoms is attributed to a combination of physiological, psychological, and social factors [ 27 ] , all of which work in synergy to improve emotional well-being and enhance mental health. PARS-3 plays a role in regulating the balance of brain neurotransmitters, including increasing the secretion of serotonin and dopamine [ 28 ] . Serotonin is known to regulate mood and improve sleep quality, thereby boosting an individual's ability to manage stress in response to negative events [ 29 ] .This study also highlighted the positive relationship between physical exercise and CD-RISC, and more research is increasingly focusing on how PARS-3 impacts CD-RISC. The inherent characteristics of sportsmanship, such as perseverance and resilience, encourage individuals to develop a more optimistic and positive outlook as they engage in PARS-3. The group dynamic perspective suggests that collective environments can regulate individual emotions. In such environments, it is easier for individuals to communicate and share experiences with others, receive support from peers, or learn more effective exercise methods from them, ultimately improving an individual's capacity to handle stress and enhancing CD-RISC [ 26 ] .CD-RISC, in turn, is negatively correlated with depression symptoms. Adolescents with higher CD-RISC scores are better equipped to adjust their mindset and respond proactively to challenges like academic pressure and interpersonal issues, which can reduce the likelihood of depression symptoms [ 30 ] . The study also reveals that CD-RISC plays a partial mediating role in the effect of PARS-3 on depression symptoms. The paper further investigates the role of CD-RISC subdimensions in the relationship between PARS-3 and depression symptoms. PARS-3 promotes CD-RISC, and positive CD-RISC, in turn, influences depression symptoms. Previous studies [ 31 ] have indicated that regular participation in PARS-3 fosters healthy behaviors. This positive cycle boosts CD-RISC, health values, and other associated traits, reducing psychological stress and cultivating a healthier, more positive worldview.In the present study, we used PARS-3 as the independent variable, depression symptoms as the dependent variable, and the three subdimensions of CD-RISC as mediators, with smoking, drinking, and being an only child as moderators, to derive a mediation model. Our findings suggest that CD-RISC subdimensions partially mediate the relationship between PARS-3 and depression symptoms. The direct effect was 48.89%, the first mediation effect was 26.67%, and the second mediation effect was 22.22%. This may be due to the fact that individuals with resilience and strength often exhibit a positive and determined attitude, which enables them to effectively cope with stress and adversity, reducing the likelihood of psychological depression and fostering peer interactions [ 19 ] .However, the third mediation effect was not significant, and it was also observed that the optimism dimension did not significantly predict BDI-II in Models 2 and 3, lacking statistical significance. This may be because optimism primarily reflects an individual's capacity to have hope and expectation for the future. The optimism dimension includes four items, such as "I can achieve the goals I set for myself." From a conceptual standpoint, these items reflect an individual’s ability to manage situations under specific circumstances, and the scores seem to align more with stable personality traits. Changing an individual’s personality traits through a certain level of exercise may be challenging [ 26 ] , and it is unlikely to significantly impact the emotional issues being addressed at the moment. This study demonstrates that higher intensity, longer duration, and greater frequency of exercise result in better improvements in depression symptoms among university students and are associated with higher CD-RISC scores. We examined the differences and correlations between exercise intensity, duration, frequency, CD-RISC, and BDI, based on the three key components of exercise. The findings showed that intensity, duration, and frequency all exhibit significant differences and positive correlations with CD-RISC, which aligns with prior research. BEEBE [ 32 ] also found that exercise intensity, frequency, and duration are positively correlated with depression symptoms. According to animal model theories of depression, exercise can effectively reduce oxidative stress and enhance antioxidant capacity, leading to molecular and physiological changes both peripherally and centrally, which help regulate body functions and improve emotional health.The study highlights that higher exercise intensity results in greater improvements in depression symptoms and CD-RISC. Additionally, exercise intensity was found to be correlated with depression symptoms. The effects of different exercise intensities on depression outcomes vary [ 33 ] . KVAM's study also demonstrated that high-intensity aerobic exercise is more effective in improving depression symptoms in patients [ 34 ] . PARS-3 facilitates the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, all of which play a crucial role in mood regulation [ 35 ] . Exercise also enhances CD-RISC, primarily by strengthening both internal and external protective factors, thereby reducing negative emotions and supporting a high level of resilience for internal self-regulation [ 36 ] .Furthermore, the study found that longer exercise durations yielded better results for depression symptoms and CD-RISC. The correlation between longer durations and both depression symptoms and CD-RISC indicates that longer periods of exercise produce better outcomes. This is consistent with WHO guidelines, which recommend starting with three weekly sessions of 20–30 minutes each, gradually increasing to the recommended 150 minutes. Krogh's analysis [ 37 ] indicated that over 150 minutes of aerobic exercise per week significantly improves depression symptoms. One reason for this may be that prolonged exercise reduces inflammation and improves endocrine function, which plays a positive role in alleviating depression symptoms [ 38 ] . Regarding exercise frequency, the study found that higher frequencies of exercise had the most positive effects on both CD-RISC and depression symptoms, followed by moderate and low frequencies. Additionally, exercise frequency was correlated with both PARS-3 and depression symptoms. This finding is consistent with Zhang Wei's research [ 39 ] , which suggests that exercise frequency correlates with individual depression symptoms. High neuroticism is a marker of psychological vulnerability, making individuals more susceptible to depression when experiencing major life stressors [ 40 ] . Exercise frequency can modulate the relationship between the number of negative life events and high neuroticism, meaning individuals with higher exercise frequency demonstrate better mental health when facing the same negative life events, alleviating depression symptoms [ 41 ] . Another potential explanation is that PARS-3 influences neuroticism by 2–4%, and exercise promotes the release of β-endorphins and brain-derived neurotrophic factors, which helps maintain positive moods and stabilize neuroticism [ 42 ] . Limitations and Future Directions This study employed a cross-sectional design, which limits causal inference. More longitudinal studies are needed in the future to further explore the relationships between PARS-3, CD-RISC, and depressive symptoms, as well as the effect sizes of these relationships. Additionally, the study's moderation and correlation variable design was limited. Future research should also consider the impact of multifactorial variables, such as social interaction and support, on the relationship and prediction of CD-RISC and depressive symptoms. This study only assessed the levels, intensity, duration, and frequency of PARS-3 and CD-RISC through self-report questionnaires, which may introduce subjective bias. Future research could explore a wider range of exercise forms and use objective measurement tools, such as heart rate monitors and accelerometers, to more accurately assess physical activity. Additionally, employing EEG diagnostics and other methods could provide more precise evaluations of depressive symptoms. The PARS-3 habits of university students and their psychological health are inevitably influenced by the social environment at the time. Therefore, whether the findings of this study can be generalized to other populations remains to be further analyzed and compared. Conclusion and Suggestions University students' participation in physical activity, depressive symptoms, and psychological resilience are closely related. The more physical activity they engage in, the lower their depressive symptoms and the higher their psychological resilience, with higher scores in the sub-dimensions of CD-RISC. We also found that the mechanisms for improving depressive symptoms and psychological resilience differ, offering new insights into improving the health conditions of individuals with depressive symptoms. Moreover, we found that physical activity, depressive symptoms, and factors such as exercise intensity, duration, and frequency are closely related, exhibiting a certain "dose-response effect." High-intensity, long-duration, and high-frequency exercise are key areas for future longitudinal research. In university settings, it is recommended to encourage students to engage in more high-intensity, long-duration, and frequent physical activities, as this may play a significant role in preventing and alleviating depressive symptoms and improving psychological resilience. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shanghai University of Sport (Ethical Registration Number: 102772024RT108). Consent for publication All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript. We affirm that all authors( Zhihui Xu, Haiyue Liu，Jianwei YU，Zixian Wang，Shufan Li，Yuzhang Li)have agreed to the submission of this manuscript to your journal and consent to its publication upon acceptance. Availability of data and materials All data and materials used in this study were generated and collected independently by the authors' team. Raw data, analysis codes, and experimental materials are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Competing interests There are no conflicts of interest in this research article. Funding No Authors' contributions Zhihui Xu and Yuzhang Li contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Haiyue Liu , Shufan Li and Jianwei YU. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Zixian Wang, all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. Acknowledgements We would like to thank all the authors for their technical support and assistance and all the participants. Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shanghai University of Sport (Ethical Registration Number: 102772024RT108). Our study complied with the Declaration of Helsinki in this regard. Details are provided in the attachment. All participants read and filled in the informed consent form before filling in the questionnaire. Clinical trial number: not applicable. Data availability The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Consent for publication not applicable. Our cross-sectional survey did not compromise the anonymity of identifying images or other personal or clinical details of participants, including statements that patients agreed to make. References COMPTON W M, CONWAY K P, STINSON F S, et al. 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Physical Therapy, 2014. DUNN A L, TRIVEDI M H, O'NEAL H A. Physical activity dose-response effects on outcomes of depression and anxiety [J]. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(6 Suppl):S587–97. discussion 609 – 10. SONG Hongjing,He Fang,Liu, Wei, et al. relationship between hope trait, resilience and depressive mood in adolescents with depression. [J]. J Clin Psychiatry. 2023;33(06):482–5. SARKAR M. Psychological resilience in sport performers: a review of stressors and protective factors [J]. J Sports Sci. 2014;32(15):1419–34. BEEBE L H, TIAN L, MORRIS N, et al. Effects of exercise on mental and physical health parameters of persons with schizophrenia [J]. Issues Ment Health Nurs. 2005;26(6):661–76. LI B, JIANG W HANSS, et al. Influence of moderate-to-high intensity physical activity on depression levels: a study based on a health survey of Chinese university students [J]. BMC Public Health. 2024;24(1):1–11. KVAM S, KLEPPE C L, NORDHUS I H, et al. Exercise as a treatment for depression: a meta-analysis [J]. J Affect Disord. 2016;202:67–86. EYRE H A PAPPSE, BAUNE B T. Treating depression and depression-like behavior with physical activity: an immune perspective [J]. Front Psychiatry. 2013;4:3. Liu Ling xin. The Influence of Yoga Training Intervention on Female College Students' Emotional Regulation, Psychological Resilience and Well - being [D]. Southwest Jiaotong University; 2020. CRAFT L L, PERNA F M. The benefits of exercise for the clinically depressed [J]. Prim care companion J Clin psychiatry. 2004;6(3):104. MARTIN M, HANNA M, SABINE K C-H, et al. Relationship between Resilience, Psychological Distress and Physical Activity in Cancer Patients: A Cross-Sectional Observation Study [J]. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(4):e0154496. Zhang Wei N, Xingmeng Z, Xinyao, et al. The Relationship among Negative Life Events, Neuroticism, Exercise Frequency and Depressive Symptoms in Freshmen [J]. Chin Mental Health J. 2024;38(11):996–1002. STRUIJS S Y, LAMERS F, SPINHOVEN P et al. The predictive specificity of psychological vulnerability markers for the course of affective disorders [J]. J Psychiatr Res, 2018: 10–7. CHENG LIAOY, X., CHEN, W., PENG X. The influence of physical exercise on adolescent personality traits: The mediating role of peer relationship and the moderating role of parent–child relationship. [J] Front Psychol. 2022;13:889758. LEGEY S, AQUINO F, LAMEGO M K, et al. Relationship Among Physical Activity Level, Mood and Anxiety States and Quality of Life in Physical Education Students [J]. Clin Pract Epidemiol Mental Health. 2017;13(1):71. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Annex.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 29 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in BMC Psychology → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 05 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 22 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 30 Nov, 2025 Reviews received at journal 09 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 12 Aug, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 01 Jul, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 29 Jun, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 28 Jun, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 26 Jun, 2025 First submitted to journal 26 Jun, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6742511","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":478545790,"identity":"fd01ee96-0c9b-4502-a2e4-95b1535e86a4","order_by":0,"name":"Zhihui Xu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai University of Sport","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zhihui","middleName":"","lastName":"Xu","suffix":""},{"id":478545791,"identity":"5d775d8a-d910-4f35-8137-5d40b40fda59","order_by":1,"name":"Haiyue Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai University of Sport","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Haiyue","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":478545792,"identity":"3aca482e-fd0e-451a-8f36-62a087e9b745","order_by":2,"name":"Jianwei YU","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Shanghai for Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jianwei","middleName":"","lastName":"YU","suffix":""},{"id":478545793,"identity":"6f64959c-0f29-4348-a90b-523d11783206","order_by":3,"name":"Zixian Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shenyang Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zixian","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":478545794,"identity":"8b50bd4b-99ad-4232-bcfc-7b470069031d","order_by":4,"name":"Shufan Li","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai University of Sport","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shufan","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":478545795,"identity":"fb31614c-49bb-4b57-9c71-01535c936482","order_by":5,"name":"Yuzhang Li","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAzElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACNhDBY3+8sfHBB1K0yDGcOdxsOIMULcYMN9LbpDmIUW9wI/3Zg587ahMbZz5skGZgsJPTbSCoJSHdsPfM8cRm6cQG4wKGZGOzA4S1HJPgbTuW2AbUkjyD4UDiNsJaEtsk/wK19EgebDjMQ5yWZDZp3rYaYwkJxsZmorRInnnGJi3bdkDOgCexmXGGARF+4Tue/kzybVsdjwH78ec/PlTYyRHUogBRcBjmTgLKQUC+AUzVEaF0FIyCUTAKRiwAAOHxR/bLzDnYAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai University of Sport","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yuzhang","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-25 08:08:30","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6742511/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6742511/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04620-4","type":"published","date":"2026-04-29T15:56:58+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":85865443,"identity":"f87327de-d465-4373-b584-d7789770ba49","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-02 12:56:59","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":74292,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlow chart of included samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6742511/v1/65b5df080aabc1abafa26a99.png"},{"id":85865442,"identity":"4fae12c7-ab3b-4b7d-8886-a9a64f746c76","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-02 12:56:59","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":94791,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDifferences in PARS-3CD-RISC and CD-RISC subdimensions between the depressive symptom group and the normal group\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*** indicates very significant data difference p \u0026lt; 0.001. NC: normal group, DS: depressive symptom group\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6742511/v1/e31b833302aa8c60d01416c2.png"},{"id":85864240,"identity":"26a5188b-7257-477b-bda7-8a784abbf535","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-02 12:48:59","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":79764,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePARS-3, CD-RISC, and BDI correlations\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6742511/v1/3ac9dee614184be55841cfad.png"},{"id":85864236,"identity":"1153996c-f4d1-4e1f-ace0-6c2e8ea56947","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-02 12:48:59","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31085,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePath coefficient diagram\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6742511/v1/7a40bfbbe1fbac30e9f5ba03.png"},{"id":108437667,"identity":"a018ac93-a7b3-467e-b2c8-d004d7ee915a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 16:01:40","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":611916,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6742511/v1/c482414a-571d-4142-9510-3bfd7e103641.pdf"},{"id":85864234,"identity":"4bc40363-4765-4264-8be6-5982ddfcdb0d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-02 12:48:59","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":20820,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Annex.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6742511/v1/1b8f527ccc0d034e0cbfde36.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Path Analysis of Psychological Resilience as a Mediator in the Relationship Between Physical Activity and Depressive Symptoms in University Students","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDepression is a mood disorder characterized primarily by symptoms such as persistent low mood, diminished interest, and anhedonia \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. University students are particularly susceptible to depression due to academic pressures, changes in their living environments, lifestyle alterations, and employment-related stress, with a depression prevalence rate reaching 31.88% \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Depression among university students not only affects their social functioning and academic performance\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, but can also have a detrimental impact on physical health \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Prolonged depressive states may lead to diminished mood, loss of interest, dropout awareness\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, suicidal ideation \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, and even suicidal behavior \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychological resilience\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e (as measured by the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale, CD-RISC) refers to an individual's ability to rapidly recover and adapt when faced with adversity, stress, and challenges. It includes emotional regulation, self-efficacy, and problem-solving abilities \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. CD-RISC enables individuals to effectively manage life's adversities, thereby mitigating the effects of negative emotions. Existing studies have demonstrated that CD-RISC is negatively correlated with depressive symptoms. Individuals with higher CD-RISC levels are more likely to respond to stress in a constructive manner, demonstrating greater resilience to depression \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This suggests that CD-RISC could be an important factor in alleviating depressive symptoms. Furthermore, some studies have indicated that CD-RISC, as an individual's ability to cope with stress and challenges, may play a mediating role between physical activity (Physical Activity Rating Scale, PARS-3) and depressive symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePARS-3 is one of the important non-pharmacological interventions for depression treatment, demonstrating good antidepressant effects\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Regular participation in PARS-3 helps reduce the incidence of depression and improves existing depressive symptoms \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. PARS-3 can improve mental health through various mechanisms, including promoting the release of neurochemicals such as endorphins and dopamine\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, which have profound effects on alleviating depressive symptoms \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Cross-sectional studies have found a close relationship between PARS-3, CD-RISC, and depressive symptoms. PARS-3 not only enhances physical fitness but also improves emotional state, boosts self-efficacy, and thereby strengthens CD-RISC\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This enhanced CD-RISC, in turn, helps individuals better cope with life’s pressures and alleviates depressive symptoms \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA review of previous studies reveals that the mediating role of CD-RISC in the relationship between PARS-3 and depressive symptoms shows variability. Li Rui \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e reported that CD-RISC fully mediates the relationship between PARS-3 and depression, while studies by Zhang Wenzhe \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e and Chen Songcai \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003esuggest that CD-RISC partially mediates this relationship. How does CD-RISC function as a mediator in the relationship between PARS-3 and depressive symptoms? How does the relationship between CD-RISC and depressive symptoms differ at varying levels of depression? How do various exercise regimens influence CD-RISC and depressive symptoms? Building upon previous research, this study further explores the relationship between PARS-3, depressive symptoms, and CD-RISC, with a focus on the mediating role of CD-RISC and its subdimensions in the association between PARS-3 and depressive symptoms. It also evaluates the accuracy of the PARS-3 intervention. This study seeks to provide valuable insights for future longitudinal research on depressive symptoms in university students, offer guidance for clinical identification and targeted interventions, and establish theoretical foundations for researchers and university administrators.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Participants and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e1.1 Participants\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sample size was calculated using the formula n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;400 \u0026times; Q / P (where P is the prevalence rate, and Q\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1 - P). According to a previous meta-analysis, the depression prevalence rate among university students is approximately 31.38% \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, resulting in a minimum required sample size of n\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;875. A convenience sampling method was used to recruit participants from a university located in the Songjiang District of Shanghai.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInclusion criteria: 1. Aged 18\u0026ndash;25 years; 2. Clear consciousness, sufficient comprehension ability, and the ability to complete the questionnaire independently or with the help of an investigator; 3. No history of mental disorders, and not currently taking barbiturates, benzodiazepines, or chloral hydrate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExclusion criteria: 1. Non-university students; 2. Students not majoring in physical education.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shanghai University of Sport (Ethical Registration Number: 102772024RT108).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2 Testing Procedure\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore participants filled out the questionnaire, the investigator read the instructions aloud, explained the items, clarified that the data collected would be used solely for scientific research, emphasized the importance of truthful, independent, and voluntary responses, and informed participants of their right to withdraw at any time. All participants read and filled in the informed consent form before filling in the questionnaire. During the process, participants were reminded to answer carefully according to the instructions. After completion, the investigator checked for missing items and illogical responses, and ensured data completeness, accuracy, and authenticity through re-filling or correction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 160 invalid questionnaires were excluded, including 25 with inconsistent answers, 42 completed in less than 3 minutes, and 93 with outliers exceeding\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3 standard deviations. In total, 1156 valid questionnaires (87.84%) were included. As shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2 Research Instruments\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2.1 General Information Questionnaire\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis questionnaire collects basic information such as age, gender, height, weight, family background, exercise history, and lifestyle of the participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2.2 Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe CD-RISC\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e consists of 25 items distributed across three dimensions: optimism (4 items), strength (8 items), and resilience (13 items). The scale employs a 5-point rating system, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always), with a total score of 100. Higher scores reflect greater resilience, as they are positively correlated with the overall CD-RISC score. The Cronbach\u0026apos;s alpha coefficient for the scale in this study was 0.91.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2.3 Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS-3)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study utilized the Chinese version of the PARS-3 scale, as revised by Liang Deqing et al., primarily reflecting the participants\u0026apos; physical activity levels over the past month. The scale evaluates physical activity across three dimensions: intensity, duration, and frequency. Intensity and frequency are rated on a scale from 1 to 5, with corresponding scores ranging from 1 to 5, while the duration is rated from 1 to 5, with scores ranging from 0 to 4. The PARS-3 classification criteria are as follows: 0\u0026ndash;19 points represent low physical activity; 20\u0026ndash;42 points represent moderate physical activity; and \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;43 points represent high physical activity. The scale has demonstrated good reliability and validity in assessing the physical activity levels of Chinese university students \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2.4 Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe BDI-II is one of the most widely used self-report tools for screening depressive symptoms and assessing the severity of depression, specifically evaluating symptoms over the past two weeks. It uses a 4-level scoring system from 0 to 3, with scores ranging from 0\u0026ndash;13 indicating no depressive symptoms, 14\u0026ndash;19 indicating mild depression, 20\u0026ndash;28 indicating moderate depression, and \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;29 indicating severe depression. The internal consistency coefficient of the BDI-II in this study was 0.948 \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.3 Data Processing\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe collected questionnaires were thoroughly reviewed. Invalid and incomplete questionnaires were excluded, and the remaining data were coded and entered according to a pre-established coding scheme. The data were initially processed in Excel, then imported into SPSS 26.0 for further analysis and processing. Graphs were generated using GraphPad Prism 10 and OriginPro 2024b software. For statistical analysis, continuous variables that followed a normal distribution were described as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation. Comparisons between groups were performed using independent samples t-tests, with results presented to three decimal places. Categorical variables were compared using chi-square analysis. One-way ANOVA was used to analyze the differences in depressive symptoms, university students\u0026apos; PARS-3, and CD-RISC. Post-hoc multiple comparisons were conducted using one-way ANOVA. Pearson correlation analysis \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003ewas employed to examine the relationships among BDI, PARS-3, CD-RISC, and other variables. Mediation analysis was conducted using Model 4 of the PROCESS 4.0 macro to examine the roles of PARS-3, resilience, strength, optimism, and depressive symptoms, with all variables standardized prior to modeling. All statistical inferences were performed using two-tailed tests, with a significance threshold set at \u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05. P-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, \u0026lt; 0.01, and \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 were denoted by \u0026quot;*\u0026quot;, \u0026quot;**\u0026quot;, and \u0026quot;***\u0026quot;, respectively, indicating statistically significant differences.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e2.1 Demographic Characteristics of College Students\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) show that 1,156 college students were included in the study, with 194 students displaying depressive symptoms. The results revealed significant differences between the normal and depressive symptom groups in smoking, alcohol consumption, and being an only child (P \u0026lt; 0.05). No significant differences were observed in other demographic variables (P \u0026gt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic Characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNormal Group (N = 962)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepressive Symptoms Group (N = 194)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical Test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eX²=0.074,P = 0.786\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e357\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e605\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e168.03 ± 13.882\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e167.06 ± 20.753\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et = 63.388,P = 0.292\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.19 ± 24.181\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.42 ± 25.933\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et = 121.107,P = 0.654\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.17 ± 2.061\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.26 ± 1.939\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et = 15.919,P = 0.598\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternational Student\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eX²=0.098,P = 0.754\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e908\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e182\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmoking Status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eX²=9.824,P = 0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e903\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlcohol Consumption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eX²=10.805,P = 0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e939\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly Child\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eX²=8.357,P = 0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e579\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle-Parent Family\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eX²=2.699,P = 0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e845\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.2 Relationship between CD-RISC and Depressive Symptoms in College Students\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results, presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2, show that based on BDI-II scores, college students were classified into those with depressive symptoms and normal students. Statistically significant differences were found between the two groups in CD-RISC (t = 10.388, P \u0026lt; 0.001), resilience (t = 9.816, P \u0026lt; 0.001), strength (t = 10.361, P \u0026lt; 0.001), and optimism (t = 8.392, P \u0026lt; 0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between BDI-II and CD-RISC, as well as its subdimensions. The correlation analysis results, illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, showed significant negative correlations between BDI-II and college students' CD-RISC (r = -0.357, P \u0026lt; 0.001), resilience (r = -0.346, P \u0026lt; 0.001), strength (r = -0.349, P \u0026lt; 0.001), and optimism (r = -0.280, P \u0026lt; 0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.3 Relationship between College Students' PARS-3, CD-RISC, and BDI-II\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, a statistically significant difference was observed in PARS-3 scores between the depressive symptom group and the normal student group (t = 5.547, P \u0026lt; 0.001). The correlation analysis results (shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) indicated a significant negative correlation between PARS-3 and BDI-II scores (r = -0.121, P \u0026lt; 0.001). PARS-3 was significantly positively correlated with CD-RISC (r = 0.191, P \u0026lt; 0.001), resilience (r = 0.183, P \u0026lt; 0.001), strength (r = 0.180, P \u0026lt; 0.001), and optimism (r = 0.169, P \u0026lt; 0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.4 Mediating Path of CD-RISC between PARS-3 and BDI\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the interrelationships between PARS-3, BDI, resilience, strength, and optimism, the total PARS-3 score was used as the independent variable, BDI score as the dependent variable, and smoking, alcohol consumption, and being an only child as moderating variables. The mediating effects of resilience, strength, and optimism were analyzed using Model 4 in PROCESS. The results (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) show that regression model 1 testing revealed F = 17.094, P \u0026lt; 0.01, indicating that the regression model was statistically significant (t = -4.135, P \u0026lt; 0.001), and PARS-3 negatively predicted BDI-II. Regression model 2 testing revealed F = 56.603, P \u0026lt; 0.001, indicating that the regression model was statistically significant (t = -2.942, P \u0026lt; 0.01), and the three subdimensions of CD-RISC negatively predicted BDI-II. Regression model 3 testing revealed F = 43.542, P \u0026lt; 0.001, indicating that the regression model was statistically significant (t = -1.982, P \u0026lt; 0.05), and both PARS-3 and the three subdimensions of CD-RISC negatively predicted BDI-II. However, optimism in the subdimensions of Model 2 and Model 3 did not significantly predict BDI-II (t = -0.233, P \u0026gt; 0.05), (t = -0.152, P \u0026gt; 0.05), as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable 2. Regression of PARS-3 on Depressive Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"688\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegression Equation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 289px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFit Indices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificance of Regression Coefficients\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdjusted R\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegression Coefficient\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStandardized Regression Coefficient\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.121\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.094\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.042\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.121\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.135\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.358\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.128\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.126\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.603\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.173\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.942\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.252\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.188\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.933\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.027\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 71px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.233\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.363\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.131\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.128\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.542\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 71px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.982\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.136\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.168\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 71px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.850\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.249\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.186\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 71px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.897\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 71px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.152\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: \u0026quot;*\u0026quot; indicates a significant difference (p \u0026lt; 0.05), \u0026quot;**\u0026quot; indicates a highly significant difference (p \u0026lt; 0.01), and \u0026quot;***\u0026quot; indicates a very highly significant difference (p \u0026lt; 0.001). Model 1 is the regression analysis of Total PARS-3 predicting BDI-II. Model 2 is the regression analysis of the three subdimensions of CD-RISC predicting BDI-II. Model 3 is the regression analysis of Total PARS-3 and the three subdimensions of CD-RISC predicting BDI-II.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo explore the underlying mechanism of the significant positive effect of PARS-3 on BDI, resilience, strength, and optimism were introduced as mediators into the structural equation model. Mediation effects were tested using Model 4 in the SPSS macro program PROCESS, with mediation in the path between X and Y verified using the Bootstrap method provided by Hayes. The mediation path between the X and Y variables is shown in (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the bootstrap 95% confidence interval for the mediation effect of X on Y, including resilience, strength, and optimism, does not contain 0. This indicates that X not only exerts a direct mediation effect on Y, but also mediates the effect of Y through resilience. The direct effect (-0.02), the first mediation effect (0.01), and the second mediation effect (0.01) account for 40%, 20%, and 20%, respectively, of the total effect (0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMediation Effect Test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect Size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLLCI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eULCI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect Proportion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect Type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0641\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0251\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect Effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0409\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.89%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMediation Effect 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0223\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.67%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMediation Effect 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0209\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.22%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMediation Effect 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.0058\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.22%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.5 The Relationship Between CD-RISC and Depression Severity Levels in University Students\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter confirming the correlation between CD-RISC and depressive symptoms in college students, we further classified the levels of depressive symptoms to explore the relationship between CD-RISC and different levels of depressive symptoms among college students. If the homogeneity of variance test yields a corresponding P-value greater than the set significance level (e.g., P \u0026gt; 0.05), the results of the LSD (Least Significant Difference) method were focused on; if P \u0026lt; 0.05, the results of Tamhane’s T2 were observed. The results indicated that the CD-RISC scores and its sub-dimensions among college students with different levels of depressive symptoms were statistically significant, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of CD-RISC Scores Among College Students with Different Levels of Depressive Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall Situation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1156)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepressive Symptom Grouping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison between groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost Hoc Comparisons\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow(n = 96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate(n = 63)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh(n = 35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF(χ2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow VS Moderate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow VS High\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate VS High\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.29 ± 18.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.06 ± 13.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.78 ± 15.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.17 ± 17.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.872\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.168\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.209\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.998\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResilience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.76 ± 10.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.05 ± 7.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.56 ± 8.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.94 ± 10.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.070\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.059\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.479\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrength\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.13 ± 6.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56 ± 0.553\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.71 ± 5.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.31 ± 5.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.622\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.644\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.644\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOptimism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.40 ± 3.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.08 ± 2.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.51 ± 3.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.91 ± 3.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.812\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.761\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.370\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.955\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.6 The Relationship Between Different Exercise Intensity, Duration, Frequency, and CD-RISC and BDI-II\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe found that resilience, strength, and optimism mediate the relationship between PARS-3 and BDI-II. To further explore the impact of different exercise components on CD-RISC and BDI-II, we examined the correlation between exercise intensity, duration, frequency, and these variables. Exercise intensity showed a significant positive correlation with CD-RISC (r = 0.148, P \u0026lt; 0.001), resilience (r = 0.150, P \u0026lt; 0.001), strength (r = 0.150, P \u0026lt; 0.001), and optimism (r = 0.115, P \u0026lt; 0.001). Exercise duration was significantly positively correlated with CD-RISC (r = 0.169, P \u0026lt; 0.001), resilience (r = 0.159, P \u0026lt; 0.001), strength (r = 0.167, P \u0026lt; 0.001), and optimism (r = 0.149, P \u0026lt; 0.001). Exercise frequency showed significant positive correlations with CD-RISC (r = 0.206, P \u0026lt; 0.001), resilience (r = 0.180, P \u0026lt; 0.001), strength (r = 0.219, P \u0026lt; 0.001), and optimism (r = 0.192, P \u0026lt; 0.001). Exercise intensity was significantly negatively correlated with BDI-II (r = -0.086, P \u0026lt; 0.001), and both exercise duration (r = -0.095, P \u0026lt; 0.001) and PARS-3 (r = -0.121, P \u0026lt; 0.001) were significantly negatively correlated with BDI-II. See Annex1(Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eA one-way ANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of different exercise intensities, durations, and frequencies on CD-RISC and BDI-II. After confirming normal distribution and homogeneity of variance, if the p-value for the homogeneity of variance test exceeds the set significance level (e.g., P \u0026gt; 0.05), the results of the LSD (Least Significant Difference) test will be considered; if P \u0026lt; 0.05, the Tamhane’s T2 results will be evaluated. One-way ANOVA revealed that high-intensity exercise significantly resulted in lower depression scores compared to low-intensity exercise. The results showed that exercise intensity significantly affected BDI-II (F = 5.553, P \u0026lt; 0.001). Post-hoc comparisons revealed that high-intensity exercise had a more substantial impact on depression symptoms than low-intensity exercise. See Annex2(Table\u0026nbsp;6).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne-way ANOVA demonstrated that different exercise durations produced varying effects on depression symptoms and CD-RISC scores. Exercise duration significantly influenced BDI-II (F = 5.566, P \u0026lt; 0.01), CD-RISC (F = 17.946, P \u0026lt; 0.01), resilience (r = 15.161, P \u0026lt; 0.001), strength (r = 18.667, P \u0026lt; 0.001), and optimism (r = 13.440, P \u0026lt; 0.001). Longer exercise durations were associated with lower depression scores and higher CD-RISC scores. See Annex3(Table\u0026nbsp;7).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDifferent exercise frequencies had varying effects on depression symptoms and CD-RISC scores. Exercise frequency was found to have a significant effect on BDI-II (F = 8.741, P \u0026lt; 0.01), CD-RISC (F = 22.295, P \u0026lt; 0.01), resilience (r = 27.372, P \u0026lt; 0.001), strength (r = 15.353, P \u0026lt; 0.001), and optimism (r = 21.712, P \u0026lt; 0.001). Higher exercise frequencies were associated with lower depression scores and higher CD-RISC scores. See Annex4(Table\u0026nbsp;8).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study further confirms the positive effects of PARS-3 on depression symptoms, with a strong relationship between PARS-3, CD-RISC, and depression symptoms. PARS-3 is negatively correlated with depression symptoms, while CD-RISC is positively correlated with depression symptoms, and PARS-3 is positively correlated with CD-RISC. These findings align with previous research \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, where the positive correlation between PARS-3 and depression symptoms is attributed to a combination of physiological, psychological, and social factors \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, all of which work in synergy to improve emotional well-being and enhance mental health. PARS-3 plays a role in regulating the balance of brain neurotransmitters, including increasing the secretion of serotonin and dopamine \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Serotonin is known to regulate mood and improve sleep quality, thereby boosting an individual's ability to manage stress in response to negative events \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.This study also highlighted the positive relationship between physical exercise and CD-RISC, and more research is increasingly focusing on how PARS-3 impacts CD-RISC. The inherent characteristics of sportsmanship, such as perseverance and resilience, encourage individuals to develop a more optimistic and positive outlook as they engage in PARS-3. The group dynamic perspective suggests that collective environments can regulate individual emotions. In such environments, it is easier for individuals to communicate and share experiences with others, receive support from peers, or learn more effective exercise methods from them, ultimately improving an individual's capacity to handle stress and enhancing CD-RISC \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.CD-RISC, in turn, is negatively correlated with depression symptoms. Adolescents with higher CD-RISC scores are better equipped to adjust their mindset and respond proactively to challenges like academic pressure and interpersonal issues, which can reduce the likelihood of depression symptoms \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study also reveals that CD-RISC plays a partial mediating role in the effect of PARS-3 on depression symptoms. The paper further investigates the role of CD-RISC subdimensions in the relationship between PARS-3 and depression symptoms. PARS-3 promotes CD-RISC, and positive CD-RISC, in turn, influences depression symptoms. Previous studies \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e have indicated that regular participation in PARS-3 fosters healthy behaviors. This positive cycle boosts CD-RISC, health values, and other associated traits, reducing psychological stress and cultivating a healthier, more positive worldview.In the present study, we used PARS-3 as the independent variable, depression symptoms as the dependent variable, and the three subdimensions of CD-RISC as mediators, with smoking, drinking, and being an only child as moderators, to derive a mediation model. Our findings suggest that CD-RISC subdimensions partially mediate the relationship between PARS-3 and depression symptoms. The direct effect was 48.89%, the first mediation effect was 26.67%, and the second mediation effect was 22.22%. This may be due to the fact that individuals with resilience and strength often exhibit a positive and determined attitude, which enables them to effectively cope with stress and adversity, reducing the likelihood of psychological depression and fostering peer interactions \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.However, the third mediation effect was not significant, and it was also observed that the optimism dimension did not significantly predict BDI-II in Models 2 and 3, lacking statistical significance. This may be because optimism primarily reflects an individual's capacity to have hope and expectation for the future. The optimism dimension includes four items, such as \"I can achieve the goals I set for myself.\" From a conceptual standpoint, these items reflect an individual’s ability to manage situations under specific circumstances, and the scores seem to align more with stable personality traits. Changing an individual’s personality traits through a certain level of exercise may be challenging \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, and it is unlikely to significantly impact the emotional issues being addressed at the moment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that higher intensity, longer duration, and greater frequency of exercise result in better improvements in depression symptoms among university students and are associated with higher CD-RISC scores. We examined the differences and correlations between exercise intensity, duration, frequency, CD-RISC, and BDI, based on the three key components of exercise. The findings showed that intensity, duration, and frequency all exhibit significant differences and positive correlations with CD-RISC, which aligns with prior research. BEEBE \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e also found that exercise intensity, frequency, and duration are positively correlated with depression symptoms. According to animal model theories of depression, exercise can effectively reduce oxidative stress and enhance antioxidant capacity, leading to molecular and physiological changes both peripherally and centrally, which help regulate body functions and improve emotional health.The study highlights that higher exercise intensity results in greater improvements in depression symptoms and CD-RISC. Additionally, exercise intensity was found to be correlated with depression symptoms. The effects of different exercise intensities on depression outcomes vary \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. KVAM's study also demonstrated that high-intensity aerobic exercise is more effective in improving depression symptoms in patients \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. PARS-3 facilitates the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, all of which play a crucial role in mood regulation \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Exercise also enhances CD-RISC, primarily by strengthening both internal and external protective factors, thereby reducing negative emotions and supporting a high level of resilience for internal self-regulation \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.Furthermore, the study found that longer exercise durations yielded better results for depression symptoms and CD-RISC. The correlation between longer durations and both depression symptoms and CD-RISC indicates that longer periods of exercise produce better outcomes. This is consistent with WHO guidelines, which recommend starting with three weekly sessions of 20–30 minutes each, gradually increasing to the recommended 150 minutes. Krogh's analysis \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e indicated that over 150 minutes of aerobic exercise per week significantly improves depression symptoms. One reason for this may be that prolonged exercise reduces inflammation and improves endocrine function, which plays a positive role in alleviating depression symptoms\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Regarding exercise frequency, the study found that higher frequencies of exercise had the most positive effects on both CD-RISC and depression symptoms, followed by moderate and low frequencies. Additionally, exercise frequency was correlated with both PARS-3 and depression symptoms. This finding is consistent with Zhang Wei's research \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, which suggests that exercise frequency correlates with individual depression symptoms. High neuroticism is a marker of psychological vulnerability, making individuals more susceptible to depression when experiencing major life stressors \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Exercise frequency can modulate the relationship between the number of negative life events and high neuroticism, meaning individuals with higher exercise frequency demonstrate better mental health when facing the same negative life events, alleviating depression symptoms\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Another potential explanation is that PARS-3 influences neuroticism by 2–4%, and exercise promotes the release of β-endorphins and brain-derived neurotrophic factors, which helps maintain positive moods and stabilize neuroticism\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLimitations and Future Directions\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a cross-sectional design, which limits causal inference. More longitudinal studies are needed in the future to further explore the relationships between PARS-3, CD-RISC, and depressive symptoms, as well as the effect sizes of these relationships. Additionally, the study's moderation and correlation variable design was limited. Future research should also consider the impact of multifactorial variables, such as social interaction and support, on the relationship and prediction of CD-RISC and depressive symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study only assessed the levels, intensity, duration, and frequency of PARS-3 and CD-RISC through self-report questionnaires, which may introduce subjective bias. Future research could explore a wider range of exercise forms and use objective measurement tools, such as heart rate monitors and accelerometers, to more accurately assess physical activity. Additionally, employing EEG diagnostics and other methods could provide more precise evaluations of depressive symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe PARS-3 habits of university students and their psychological health are inevitably influenced by the social environment at the time. Therefore, whether the findings of this study can be generalized to other populations remains to be further analyzed and compared.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion and Suggestions","content":"\u003cp\u003eUniversity students' participation in physical activity, depressive symptoms, and psychological resilience are closely related. The more physical activity they engage in, the lower their depressive symptoms and the higher their psychological resilience, with higher scores in the sub-dimensions of CD-RISC. We also found that the mechanisms for improving depressive symptoms and psychological resilience differ, offering new insights into improving the health conditions of individuals with depressive symptoms. Moreover, we found that physical activity, depressive symptoms, and factors such as exercise intensity, duration, and frequency are closely related, exhibiting a certain \"dose-response effect.\" High-intensity, long-duration, and high-frequency exercise are key areas for future longitudinal research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn university settings, it is recommended to encourage students to engage in more high-intensity, long-duration, and frequent physical activities, as this may play a significant role in preventing and alleviating depressive symptoms and improving psychological resilience.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shanghai University of Sport (Ethical Registration Number: 102772024RT108).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe affirm that all authors( Zhihui Xu, Haiyue Liu，Jianwei YU，Zixian Wang，Shufan Li，Yuzhang Li)have agreed to the submission of this manuscript to your journal and consent to its publication upon acceptance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data and materials used in this study were generated and collected independently by the authors\u0026apos; team. Raw data, analysis codes, and experimental materials are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are no conflicts of interest in this research article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZhihui Xu and Yuzhang Li contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Haiyue Liu , Shufan Li and Jianwei YU. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Zixian Wang, all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to thank all the authors for their technical support and assistance and all the participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Ethics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shanghai University of Sport (Ethical Registration Number: 102772024RT108).\u0026nbsp;Our study complied with the Declaration of Helsinki in this regard. Details are provided in the attachment.\u0026nbsp;All participants read and filled in the informed consent form before filling in the questionnaire.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003enot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003enot applicable. Our cross-sectional survey did not compromise the anonymity of identifying images or other personal or clinical details of participants, including statements that patients agreed to make.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCOMPTON W M, CONWAY K P, STINSON F S, et al. Changes in the prevalence of major depression and comorbid substance use disorders in the United States between 1991\u0026ndash;1992 and 2001\u0026ndash;2002 [J]. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(12):2141\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMi-yuan WANG,LIU, Jia WU, Xin et al. The prevalence of depression among students in Chinese universities over the past decade: A Meta-analysis [J]. Journal of Hainan Medical College, 2020, 26(09): 686\u0026thinsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026thinsp;93\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;99.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMOJS E, WARCHOŁ-BIEDERMANN K, GŁOWACKA MD, et al. 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PLoS ONE. 2016;11(4):e0154496.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang Wei N, Xingmeng Z, Xinyao, et al. The Relationship among Negative Life Events, Neuroticism, Exercise Frequency and Depressive Symptoms in Freshmen [J]. Chin Mental Health J. 2024;38(11):996\u0026ndash;1002.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSTRUIJS S Y, LAMERS F, SPINHOVEN P et al. The predictive specificity of psychological vulnerability markers for the course of affective disorders [J]. J Psychiatr Res, 2018: 10\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCHENG LIAOY, X., CHEN, W., PENG X. The influence of physical exercise on adolescent personality traits: The mediating role of peer relationship and the moderating role of parent\u0026ndash;child relationship. [J] Front Psychol. 2022;13:889758.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLEGEY S, AQUINO F, LAMEGO M K, et al. 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Clin Pract Epidemiol Mental Health. 2017;13(1):71.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"CD-RISC, PARS-3, university students, depressive symptoms","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6742511/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6742511/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to examine the relationship between physical activity, psychological resilience, and depressive symptoms, specifically investigating the effects of exercise intensity, duration, and frequency on depressive symptoms and the individual subcomponents of psychological resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 1,156 university students were recruited from a university in Shanghai through convenience sampling. Data were gathered using the Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS-3), Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), and Beck Depression Inventory-Ⅱ (BDI-Ⅱ). Statistical analyses, including one-way ANOVA, correlation analysis, regression analysis, and mediation analysis, were conducted to analyze the data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificant correlations were found between PARS-3, CD-RISC, and BDI-Ⅱ. Depressive symptoms in university students showed significant negative correlations with CD-RISC (r=-0.357, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), resilience (r=-0.346, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), strength (r=-0.349, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and optimism (r=-0.280, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). PARS-3 was significantly negatively correlated with depressive symptoms (r=-0.121, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and positively correlated with CD-RISC (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.191, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), resilience (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.183, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), strength (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.180, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and optimism (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.169, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Exercise intensity was positively correlated with CD-RISC (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.148, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), resilience (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.150, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), strength (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.150, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and optimism (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.115, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Exercise duration was positively correlated with CD-RISC (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.169, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), resilience (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.159, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), strength (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.167, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and optimism (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.149, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Exercise frequency showed significant positive correlations with CD-RISC (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.206, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), resilience (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.180, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), strength (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.219, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and optimism (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.192, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Exercise intensity was negatively correlated with BDI-Ⅱ (r=-0.086, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), exercise duration was negatively correlated with BDI-Ⅱ (r=-0.095, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and PARS-3 was negatively correlated with BDI-Ⅱ (r=-0.121, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Additionally, the subdimensions of CD-RISC partially mediated the relationship between PARS-3 and depressive symptoms, with the direct effect reaching 48.89%. The effect of mediation 1 was 26.67%, and mediation 2 accounted for 22.22%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCD-RISC partially mediates the relationship between PARS-3 and depressive symptoms among university students. Lower PARS-3 levels are associated with higher depressive symptom scores and lower CD-RISC scores. This effect is closely linked to exercise intensity, duration, and frequency, demonstrating a significant \"dose-response\" relationship. It is recommended to implement appropriate exercise interventions based on the severity of symptoms. Universities should encourage students to engage in more high-intensity, long-duration, and frequent PARS-3 exercises to prevent and alleviate depressive symptoms in university students.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Path Analysis of Psychological Resilience as a Mediator in the Relationship Between Physical Activity and Depressive Symptoms in University Students","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-02 12:48:54","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6742511/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-05T11:20:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-22T06:20:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"111096854966551729538778641997338291960","date":"2025-11-30T09:29:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-09T13:49:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"337032635937039800051962366208979356109","date":"2025-08-12T14:11:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"163360954662250629435028378415619592447","date":"2025-07-02T01:14:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-30T02:08:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-28T19:23:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-26T06:25:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Psychology","date":"2025-06-26T06:22:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"96ac0052-28ca-46cd-acf2-f098273d6603","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 2nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-04T16:00:32+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6742511","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04620-4","journal":{"identity":"bmc-psychology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"BMC Psychology"},"publishedOn":"2026-04-29 15:56:58","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 29th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-02 12:48:54","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s40359-026-04620-4","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04620-4","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6742511","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6742511","identity":"rs-6742511","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}