Synergies and trade-offs between the sustainable development goals and reaching zero net greenhouse gas emissions in Sweden

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Ahlbäck, H. Klingvall, E. Nordell, K. M. Eriksson This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4630096/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 09 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Energy, Sustainability and Society → Version 1 posted 18 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background The Swedish climate target to reach zero net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2045 implies large transformations of current industry, energy and transport sectors. Electric vehicles, wind and solar power, biomass, carbon capture and storage, climate neutral concrete and green hydrogen are all considered technological key components in transitioning away from fossil energy. The purpose of this study is to present synergies and trade-offs from large-scale implementation of these key components in Sweden, expressed as positive or negative impacts on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The study used expert opinions elicited from thematic workshops as input, which were put through a qualitative analysis to construct causal relationships and further tested against published literature to gain empirical support. Results The results shows that 11 out of the 17 SDGs will be affected positively or negatively. In Sweden, 37 of the identified impacts were positive and 16 impacts were negative. For international spillover impacts, the pattern was reversed with 7 positive impacts and 28 negative impacts. A large-scale implementation of the key components brings synergies to economic growth and job creation as well as sustainable industrialization and innovation. There are, however, several trade-offs identified that concerns environmental issues mainly linked to mineral extraction, both domestically and as international spillovers. Conclusions This study highlights the multifaceted linkages between climate mitigation efforts and the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. To achieve a sustainable climate transition, a holistic view incorporating the SDGs needs to be employed. Next steps could include stakeholders in policy and industry to identify actions and initiate collaborative approaches to strengthen potential synergies and minimize trade-offs. Sustainable development goals Climate change mitigation SDG impact assessment tool Climate neutral technologies Climate policy Sustainability Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Background Climate policy and the Sustainable Development Goals The Paris Agreement stipulates that global warming needs to be kept well below 2°C, preferably to 1.5°C, compared to pre-industrial levels [1]. Its fulfillment rests upon the ambitions expressed in so-called Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), where countries detail their expected mitigation efforts. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [2], the pledges made so far are insufficient to keep global warming from exceeding 1.5°C during the 21st century. National mitigation pathways in compliance with the Paris Agreement need to ensure that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions will reach net zero by 2050. A great challenge to the global community, no doubt, and even more so when acknowledging the broader context of sustainable development. The climate transition needs to be just, inclusive and take socio-economic, cultural and environmental perspectives into account. Thus, finding coherence between the Paris Agreement and the United Nations (UN) 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [3] is central to governments and policymakers at all levels of society [4]. Launched in 2015, the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development puts forward 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to be reached by 2030, agreed upon by all UN member states. As expressed by the UN, the SDGs are integrated and indivisible [3] meaning that, together, they form a holistic whole. While conceptually not new – sustainable development has since its inception linked social and economic development to the limitations of nature – the holistic nature of the 2030 Agenda and the SDG framework stands out compared to previous UN treaties. The notion that the SDGs interconnect, relate and depend on each other was further emphasized by Nilsson et al [5], showing that successful implementation of the 2030 Agenda needs to consider interactions between the SDGs, thereby challenging current modus operandi characterized by silo structures and intra-disciplinarity. Embracing the holistic view, the SDG framework offers a furtherance of ‘sustainable development’ as a concept, expanded from three pillars of environmental, social and economic sustainability into 17 perspectives or dimensions. As such, the SDGs merit further use, not only as political goals but as a framework to which holistic qualities of e.g., climate mitigation and adaptation efforts might be tested. Although the topics of climate change and sustainable development were initially addressed by separate circles in research and policy [6], linking these has gained increased attention. Not the least throughout the IPCC process, where climate mitigation and sustainable development is described as a two-way relationship that is cross-cutting, complex and not always mutually beneficial [7, 8]. Similarly, the 2030 Agenda calls for urgent action to combat climate change by putting forward SDG 13 (climate action) and emphasizing its intrinsically linked nature to the other 16 goals. Mitigation of GHGs could bring synergies to other sustainability perspectives but, if not carefully considered, also induce trade-offs. Hence, as nations across the world introduce climate policies and actors across sectors move into climate action, there is a growing need to build new knowledge and practices of how to identify and avoid unintended consequences to the broader scope of sustainability. In 2017, the Swedish parliament agreed upon a climate policy framework in line with the Paris Agreement. The framework stipulates that by 2045 Sweden should have zero net emissions of GHGs [9]. Even though Sweden has low levels of territorial GHG emissions relative other countries, reaching the climate target will bring considerable challenges and needs for transformations in the national energy, industry and transport sectors. The climate policy framework was adopted subsequently to the 2030 Agenda but does not explicitly mention the SDGs. However, The Swedish Climate Policy Council, a part of the climate policy framework, has expressed a need to align climate policy with other societal goals and vice versa to enforce synergies and avoid trade-offs [10]. Numerous studies have been carried out to explore potential impacts of climate and energy policy on the SDGs deploying various methodologies. For instance, McCollum et al. [11] linked energy policy to the SDGs by mapping interactions between SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy) and the other SDGs according to a seven-point scale indicating the degree of synergy or trade-off. The work identified numerous interactions in which synergies clearly outweighed trade-offs. Von Stechow et al. [12] analyzed synergies and trade-offs based on a set of predefined energy related indicators derived from an energy-economy-climate model. The results showed that climate policies with relatively low flexibility of mitigation options tend to induce less synergies and more trade-offs on the SDGs, and that keeping energy demand low achieved best overall performance. On a national level, Thapa et al. [13] demonstrated how SDG 13 (climate action) strongly interlinks with SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production) and SDG 15 (life on land) in the case of Nepal, through a combined network and advanced sustainability analysis. Stevenson et al. [14] carried out a study with the similar aim of identifying and assessing interactions between policies relating to SDG 13 (climate action) and other SDGs in the UK. The study combined automated keyword searches with an expert survey. They found potential synergies that linked investigated climate policies with SDG 3 (good health and well-being), SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure), SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities), SDG 14 (life below water) and SDG 15 (life on land) as well as a set of potential trade-offs. In its latest assessment reports, the IPCC carried out qualitative assessments between sectoral mitigation options and the SDGs in terms of synergies and trade-offs [7]. Based on literature reviews, a large set of synergies were found in all studied sectors, but also significant trade-offs deemed as important to address including for SDG 1 (no poverty), SDG 2 (zero hunger), and in some cases SDG 14 (life below water) and SDG 15 (life on land). Furthermore, the assessments identified several cases where mitigation options showed both synergies and trade-offs for the same SDG, in particular those relevant to land use changes. In summary, it is clear from the peer-reviewed literature that, even though there are similarities among the studies, and some draw inspiration from Nilsson’s [5] score-based SDG interactions, there is no established methodology to conduct climate and energy policy related SDG impact assessments. The aim of this study is to identify and qualitatively describe potential synergies and trade-offs to reach the Swedish climate target of zero net GHG emissions by 2045, expressed as positive or negative impacts on the SDGs. The study focuses on key components of the technological transformations needed in the transport sector, the iron and steel and concrete industries, and the electricity sector. Seven key components were analyzed: wind power, solar photovoltaics (solar PV), biomass, green hydrogen, climate neutral cement, carbon capture and storage (CCS) and electric vehicle batteries (EVBs), based on their production, use and end-of-life options. The underlying rationale is to tackle the holistic quality and complexity inherent in the SDG framework to deliver usable knowledge as input to policy and strategic decision-making. This was done by eliciting expert opinions derived from thematic workshops through use of the SDG Impact Assessment Tool [15]. The tool was used to structure and guide open-ended discussions and qualitative reasonings in search of potential SDG impacts from a large-scale implementation of the selected key components. Initial expert assessments were justified by constructing causal relationships and further tested against peer-reviewed literature to gain empirical support, or else excluded. Technological change in the Swedish climate transition By 2045 at the latest, Sweden is to have zero net GHG emissions, to thereafter pursue negative emissions. According to the Swedish climate policy framework, zero net emissions of GHGs translates into at least 85% emission reductions compared to 1990 levels. The remaining emission reductions can be achieved through supplementary measures, including bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), increased carbon sequestration in forest and land, and verified emission reductions carried out outside the Swedish borders [9]. To achieve the net-zero target by 2045, application of transformative technologies that curb GHG emissions are required across several sectors in Sweden. The two single largest contributing sectors to Swedish territorial GHG emissions are industry and transport. The industry sector emits around 35% of the Swedish territorial GHG emissions, which in 2022 corresponded to 15,3 Mt carbon dioxide-equivalents. The transport sector emits around 30%, corresponding to 13,6 Mt carbon dioxide-equivalents in 2022 [16]. Within both these sectors, direct and indirect (via green hydrogen) electrification represents central strategies for climate mitigation. This in turn requires transformations in the electricity sector, in order to meet the significantly increased demand for electricity from renewable sources. Besides electrification, increased use of biomass as replacement of fossil fuels as well as application of CCS are important mitigation strategies for the Swedish industry and transport sectors. Swedish territorial GHG emissions from the transport sector are dominated by road transport, with passenger vehicles being responsible for around 60% of total emissions [16]. A substantial reduction of these emissions is required for Sweden to meet the climate target by 2045. Large-scale adoption of new technologies will be crucial, in particular battery electric vehicles (BEVs), as well as replacement of fossil fuels with biofuels in existing internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). BEVs have high energy-efficiency and zero tailpipe emissions, and lower life cycle GHG emissions than ICEVs when charged with low-carbon electricity [2], which is the case for the almost carbon free Swedish electricity system [17]. The BEVs market in Sweden has already shown a rapid growth – between 2020 and 2022, the BEVs market almost tripled, with 33% of all newly registered passenger vehicles being BEVs in 2022 [18]. Regarding the industry sector, production of steel and concrete together contribute about 45% of industrial GHG emissions in Sweden [16]. Both these industries require application of transformative technologies in order to achieve deep emission reductions by 2045 [19, 20]. The iron and steel industry is currently the largest emitting industrial sector in Sweden, contributing to a third of the total industrial GHG emissions, or around 10-12% of total territorial emissions [16]. Currently, two thirds of the total Swedish steel is produced through a blast furnace process, where carbon and coke are used for reduction of the iron ore. The last third is produced through a scrap-based process using electric arc furnaces. Reduction of iron ore in blast furnaces is the dominating source of GHG emissions from Swedish steel production. For the Swedish steel industry to achieve deep GHG emission reductions, the main mitigation strategy is to replace the blast furnace process with hydrogen direct reduction (H-DR), with a potential to reduce GHG emissions from ironmaking with 90% [19, 21]. Since 2016, the main Swedish steel producer SSAB, which is accountable for more than 90% of the GHG emissions from Swedish steel production [19], together with the mining company LKAB and the energy company Vattenfall, are supported by the government to run the Hydrogen Breakthrough Iron-Making Technology (HYBRIT) project [19, 21]. The project aims to produce fossil free steel through H-DR and largely eliminate GHG emissions from steel production by 2030 [22, 23]. The concrete industry is responsible for around 15% of total industrial GHG emissions in Sweden, equivalent to around 4% of total territorial GHG emissions [16]. The majority of GHG emissions from the concrete industry, around 65%, can be attributed to the production of cement, specifically the calcination process where limestone is converted to cement clinker at high temperatures. Current main mitigation options to reduce GHG emissions from the Swedish concrete industry include replacing fossil fuels with waste-based fuels or biofuels, using alternative binders, and using less cement through optimizing concrete recipes, as well as increased reuse of concrete [20]. However, in order to achieve emission reductions in line with the climate target, application of CCS is necessary, even when available abatement options are used to full potential [20, 24]. The Swedish cement industry has set the target of producing climate neutral cement by 2030 [20, 25]. Electrification of the transport sector and, particularly, electrification of the Swedish steel industry, will substantially increase demand for electricity. Today, the Swedish electricity system is almost carbon neutral with low GHG emissions compared to other countries [17]. In 2022, Sweden produced a total of 170 TWh, out of which 41% was generated from hydropower, 29% from nuclear power, 19% from wind power, 10% from thermal power, and 1% from solar PV [26]. The Swedish iron and steel industry estimates that the technological shift from blast furnaces to H-DR will increase electricity consumption annually from 7 to 22 TWh at current production volumes [21], which agrees with a scenario produced by Toktarova et al. [19]. However, assuming that Swedish steel production volumes would increase, both through increased production volumes in current plants and through new establishments following new demand for green steel, electricity consumption by 2045 could increase with 20 to 100 TWh, according to the Swedish Energy Agency [27]. Electrification of road-based transports, following large-scale introduction of BEVs, is expected to increase demand for electricity with an additional 30 TWh by 2045 [27]. Adding to this, there is an ongoing establishment of production facilities for EVBs in Sweden that is likely to further increase electricity demand. In the short to medium term, new electricity demand is expected to mainly be supplied by wind power and solar PV, due to their relatively low costs and quick expansion possibilities [28, 29]. During the last ten years, expansion of wind power has been rapid in Sweden, with installed capacity almost quadrupling from around 3 600 MW in 2012 to 14 300 MW in 2022 [30]. Methods Description of key components Figure 1 gives an overview of the key components assessed in this study and their linkages to achieve decarbonization in the electricity sector, the iron and steel industry, the transport sector and the concrete industry. Wind power and solar PV produce renewable electricity required for electrification of the transport sector and the iron and steel industry. Biomass contributes with negative GHG emissions in the electricity sector (BECCS) as well as GHG emission reductions by replacing fossil fuels with biofuels in ICEVs in the transport sector and in the production of climate neutral concrete. The key components were assessed in their production, use and end-of-life stages in a simplified lifecycle approach. Assessments of the production stage focused on the input of raw materials, in particular the critical minerals and metals necessary in the production of relevant key components. As pointed out by the International Energy Agency (IEA), minerals play a critical role to clean energy technologies needed in the climate transition [ 31 ]. A large-scale expansion of these technologies will increase demand dramatically during the coming decades. This is particularly true for EVBs, electrolyzers for green hydrogen, solar PV and wind power. Minerals assessed as highly critical by the IEA [ 31 ] for each of the key components were selected, namely: copper, aluminum, rare earth elements (REEs), zinc, cobalt, nickel, lithium and platinum group metals (PGMs). These minerals are also included in the European Commission’s 2023 list of Critical Raw Materials [ 32 ]. A high share of these will be imported either directly or embedded in imports of the key components. Copper is the only of the included minerals that is currently mined in Sweden, however import is still assumed necessary to meet demand to 2045. There are known sources of lithium in the Swedish bedrock, and cobalt as well as REEs have been found in several locations, but none of these are currently mined [ 33 ]. However, the possibility that large-scale deployment of the key components could lead to intensified extraction in current Swedish mines and/or opening of new was considered in the assessments. The critical raw materials and minerals relevant to each key component are presented in Table 1 . The precise details of where and how the critical minerals will be sourced in the future are outside the scope of the study, but current main sourcing countries were used as proxy for where increased demand could be supplied from. The critical raw materials needed in climate neutral concrete as well as required biomass were assumed to be extracted domestically. In the user phase, a large-scale implementation of the key components was assumed as outlined in section 2 and according to the scenarios summarized in Table 1 . The assessment considered export potential for domestically produced EVBs and green steel based on ongoing industrial ventures, whereas biomass and climate neutral concrete were assumed to be produced and used domestically, and electrolyzers, wind turbines and solar PV modules assumed to be imported. The end-of-life assessments were focused on reuse and recycling possibilities, and potential impacts on waste generation. For assumptions regarding end-of-life options for each key component, see Table 1 . Table 1 Framing and relevant assumptions for the key components as used in the assessments. Data covering sourcing countries and percentage of global mining is taken from the Mineral Commodity Summaries 2023 [ 34 ] Key component Biomass CCS Climate neutral concrete EVB Green hydrogen Solar PV Wind power Application Electricity generation, transport, concrete industry BECCS, concrete industry Building & construction material Transport Iron & steel industry Electricity generation Electricity generation Scenario Expanded use of biomass in electricity generation, replacement of fossil fuels with biofuels in transport and concrete production Expanded use of biomass in electricity generation, capture and storage of GHG emissions from concrete production Replacement of conventional concrete with climate neutral in the building and construction sector Replacement of fossil fuels with electrification in the transport sector Replacement of fossil fuels with green hydrogen production and Lined Rock Cavern (LRC) storage in the iron and steel industry Expansion of solar PV to meet increased demand for electricity from renewable sources in industry and transport Expansion of wind power to meet increased demand for electricity from renewable sources in industry and transport Global value chain No No No Extraction of minerals and export potential for domestically produced EVBs Extraction of minerals for electrolyzers and export potential for domestically produced green steel Extraction of minerals for PV modules Extraction of minerals for wind turbines Critical raw materials and minerals (main sourcing countries > 10% of global mining [% of global mining]) Residual and cultivated forestry biomass (domestic) N/A Limestone (domestic) Aluminium a (Australia [26%], China [24%], Guinea [23%]); Cobalt (Congo-Kinshasa [68%]), Copper b (Chile [24%], Congo-Kinshasa [10%], Peru [10%]); Lithium (Australia [47%], Chile [39%], China [15%]) Nickel (Indonesia [48%], Philippines [10%]); PGMs c (South Africa [55%], Russia [27%]) Aluminium a (Australia [26%], China [24%], Guinea [23%]); Copper b (Chile [24%], Congo-Kinshasa [10%], Peru [10%]) Aluminium a (Australia [26%], China [24%], Guinea [23%]); Copper b (Chile [24%], Congo-Kinshasa [10%], Peru [10%]); REEs (China [70%], United States [14%]); Zinc (China [32%], Peru [11%], Australia [10%]) End-of-life options Not relevant Not relevant Possible to reuse Limited reuse and recycling possibilities Not relevant Limited recycling possibilities Limited recycling possibilities a Data reflects mining of bauxite b Data reflects mine production (not refinery) c Data includes both platinum and palladium combined SDG impact assessments The qualitative and holistic assessments of potential SDG impacts from the key components was conducted in three subsequent steps: (i) initial assessments based on interdisciplinary expert workshops using the SDG Impact Assessment Tool, (ii) a qualitative analysis and structuring of workshop outputs to construct causal relationships and (iii) a literature search to establish empirical support for, or discard, suggested SDG impacts. The process was designed to move from open-ended workshop discussions aimed to identify and suggest potential SDG impacts, to a prioritized set of SDG impacts backed by plausible rationales and empirically traceable accounts. The initial assessments were carried out in a series of thematic workshops arranged per key component. Invited expertise consisting of researchers in relevant academic fields and practitioners with relevant experiences were given the task to identify and describe potential impacts on the SDGs from large-scale implementation of the key components. The SDG Impact Assessment Tool was used to facilitate, encourage and structure discussions among workshop participants, divided into groups of no more than five in each. Impacts were categorized as ‘positive’, ‘no or negligible impact’, ‘negative’, ‘ambiguous’ or ‘more knowledge needed’. The SDG Impact Assessment Tool offers a simple approach to assess impacts on the SDGs in workshop formats, providing users with succinct information of the SDGs including all corresponding targets. The workshops were carried out by categorizing impacts for each SDG accompanied with motivations clarifying arguments and reasonings. As basis for the assessments, workshop participants were instructed with a set of delimitations and assumptions relevant to the Swedish deployment of respective key component as presented in Table 1 . Additionally, workshop participants were tasked to describe whether identified impacts would appear domestically or considered as international spillover effects with potential synergies and trade-offs arising outside of Sweden. The workshop participants proposed potential SDG impacts with varying levels of confidence, ranging from speculative to very high. The workshop outputs were, at a later stage, further analyzed with the aim to construct causal relationships, as an a priori justification or validation of suggested SDG impacts. This was achieved by formulating an effect corresponding to the cause and the suggested SDG impact, structured as: [cause] -> [effect] -> [SDG impact]. As an example, linking large-scale implementation of EVBs to a suggested positive impact on SDG 3 (human health) would correspond to [replacement of fossil fuels with EVBs] -> [decreased NOx and PM emissions] -> [improved human health]. SDG impacts where no such relationship could be established were discarded. In some cases, a cause could give rise to effects both in support and hindering the same aspect of an SDG. For example, large scale deployment of EVBs will decrease the use of fossil fuels while, at the same time, increase extraction of minerals necessary to produce EVBs. Thus, the impact on material footprint, an aspect of SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production), is both positive and negative. Such bi-directional impacts were categorized as ambiguous. To reach a final set of prioritized SDG impacts, a literature search was conducted with the aim of increasing confidence by finding empirical support as an a posteriori justification of suggested impacts and corresponding causal relationships. This was done for SDG impacts with an assessed level of confidence of workshop participants lower than ‘very high’. Empirical support to identified SDG impacts were categorized in five levels as described in Table 2 . Peer-reviewed papers were assigned to the levels ‘Specific’, ‘General’ and ‘Indicative’, based on their specificity to the cause and effect. Causal relationships where no empirical support could be found, denoted as ‘None’ in Table 2 , were deemed speculative and excluded from the set of prioritized impacts. Table 2 Empirical support categories of causal relationships with corresponding levels of confidence. Level of confidence Description Empirical support Very high Causal relationships assessed with very high level of expert confidence Expert opinion High Literature specific to the cause and effect Specific Medium Literature specific to the effect and informative to the cause General Low Literature informative to the cause and effect Indicative Speculative No occurrences of literature in support of causal relationship None SDG impacts justified by both a causal mechanism and empirical support were selected as prioritized. The prioritized impacts were further checked for double allocation between key components. The guiding principle was to allocate impacts to key components in the sectors they would appear, according to Fig. 1 . As an example – large-scale expansion of wind power in Sweden would primarily give rise to positive impacts on SDG 13 (climate action) due to the replacement of fossil fuels in the transport sector and iron and steel industry, and hence be allocated to EVB and green hydrogen and not wind power itself. Results The stepwise procedure of the SDG impact assessments (Fig. 2 ) for the seven key components resulted in a total of 95 prioritized SDG impacts. The impacts were distributed as follows over the key components: 11 with biomass, 5 with CCS, 8 with climate neutral concrete, 24 associated with EVBs, 17 with green hydrogen, 12 with solar PV, and 18 with wind power. The distribution of these impacts over the SDGs, as well as the breakdown into different impact categories, is shown in Fig. 3 . No prioritized impacts were identified for SDG 1, SDG 2, SDG 4, SDG 5, SDG 10, and SDG 17. The highest number of impacts was found for SDG 8 (23 impacts), followed by SDG 12 (13 impacts) and SDG 7 (11 impacts). Domestically, 37 of the prioritized impacts were positive and 16 impacts were negative. For spillover impacts, the pattern was reversed with 7 positive impacts and 28 negative impacts. 7 of the prioritized domestic impacts were classified as ambiguous, all linked to SDG 7, SDG 8 and SDG 12. No ambiguous spillover impacts were identified. Biomass 11 impacts on the SDGs were identified from the expanded use of biomass in the energy and transport sectors (Table 3 ). Combustion of biomass increases hazardous air pollution in local and regional surroundings, negatively impacting respiratory and, possibly, cardiovascular health, which pose a risk to SDG 3 (good health and wellbeing) and SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities) through degradation of urban air quality. Table 3 Prioritized SDG impacts from biomass. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given. SDG Impact Spillover Causal relationship Empirical support 3 - No Combustion of biomass in the energy and transport sectors -> Increased NOx and PM emissions -> Increased illness and mortality from hazardous air pollution Expert opinion 7 + No Use of biomass in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -> Increased use of renewable energy -> Increased share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption Expert opinion 7 - No Use of biomass in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -> Increased demand for biomass -> Less affordable average energy prices Specific 8 + No Replacement of fossil energy with bioenergy in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -> Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions -> Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions Expert opinion 8 +/- No Use of biomass in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -> Decreased use of fossil fuels/Increased outtake of biomass resources -> Increased material footprint per GDP Expert opinion 8 + No Use of biomass in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -> Increased economic activity in the agricultural, forestry and energy sectors -> Economic growth and job creation in the agricultural, forestry and energy sectors Indicative 9 + No Replacement of fossil energy with bioenergy in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -> Reduced GHG emissions per unit of value added -> Upgrade and retrofit of industries Specific 11 - No Combustion of biomass in the energy and transport sectors -> Increased NOx and PM emissions -> Degradation of urban air quality Expert opinion 12 +/- No Use of biomass in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -> Decreased use of fossil fuels/Increased outtake of biomass resources -> Impact on material footprint Specific 13 + No Replacement of fossil energy with bioenergy in the industry and transport sectors -> Decreased use of fossil energy -> Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions Expert opinion 15 - No Use of biomass in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -> Increased exploitation of biomass resources -> Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and loss General Use of biomass to mitigate GHG emissions in the industry, energy, and transport sectors could have both positive and negative impacts on different aspects of SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy). Expanded use of biomass will increase the share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption, thus contributing positively to SDG 7. At the same time, increased demand for biomass could increase energy prices, as biofuels are typically more expensive than fossil fuels, with risk for a negative impact on the affordability perspective of SDG 7 [ 35 , 36 ]. This is particularly true for the transport sector through the blending of ethanol and biodiesel in fossil fuels. Replacement of fossil energy with bioenergy enables decoupling of economic growth (GDP) from GHG emissions in the industry, energy and transport sectors, with positive impacts on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) and SDG 13 (climate action). Decreased use of fossil fuels also generates positive impacts on SDG 8 and SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production) through reduced material footprint per GDP. Increased domestic consumption of biomass will, on the other hand, increase the Swedish material footprint per GDP, which might hamper ambitions to improve resource efficiency in consumption and production with negative impacts on SDG 8 and SDG 12. Thus, the impact on material footprint per GDP is assessed as ambiguous. A well-managed bioenergy production system, which uses materials that otherwise would go to waste, can mitigate the negative impact on SDG 12 through advances in the management of natural resources. Producing biogas, for instance, can decrease food waste, or at least make the energy in food waste useful. Economic growth and job creation are likely to arise and be upheld in the Swedish agricultural, forestry and energy sectors from increased use of biomass, bringing new opportunities to a wide range of associated actors [ 35 ] giving a positive impact on SDG 8. Biomass usage also brings positive impacts to SDG 9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure) as it enables upgrade and retrofit of industries through replacement of fossil energy[ 19 , 20 ]. Increased use of biomass could cause negative impacts on SDG 15 (life on land). As demand for biomass increases, harvesting of wood and logging residues (slash and stumps), as well as cultivation of energy forest, is likely to increase [ 35 – 37 ]. Thus, outtake of biomass risks having several negative environmental impacts on e.g., soil and water chemistry as well as biodiversity through loss, degradation, and fragmentation of habitats [ 37 , 38 ]. However, such negative impacts vary greatly depending on crops and farming methods, as well as geological and biological factors [ 39 ]. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Five impacts on the SDGs were identified from the application of CCS in the industry and energy sectors (Table 4 ). CCS gives rise to energy penalties that, to varying degrees, reduce the overall energy efficiency of e.g., concrete production and thermal power plants [ 40 ]. Adding to this, further energy losses appear on a system level due to transport and storage of carbon dioxide. Hence, large-scale implementation of CCS might have a negative impact on SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy) through decreased energy efficiency. CCS is, however, an important mitigation option to reach net-zero GHG emissions in concrete production and to enable negative GHG emissions when applied to biofueled thermal power plants. These two applications reduce territorial GHG emissions while upholding economic productivity and growth, thus giving positive impacts on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) through economic decoupling of GHG emissions, SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure) through reduced GHG emissions per unit of value added in industry, and SDG 13 (climate action) as it removes GHG emissions in absolute terms. Table 4 Prioritized SDG impacts from Carbon capture and storage. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given. SDG Impact Spillover effect Causal relationship Empirical support 7 - No Application of CCS in the industry and energy sectors -> Increased energy use per unit output -> Reduced energy efficiency of industrial processes and energy conversion General 8 + No Application of CCS in the industry and energy sectors -> Mitigation of GHG emissions -> Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions Expert opinion 9 + No Application of CCS in the industry and energy sectors -> Mitigation of GHG emissions -> Upgrade and retrofit of infrastructure and industries through reduced GHG emissions per unit of value added Expert opinion 12 - No Application of CCS in biomass fueled thermal power plants -> Increased exploitation of biomass resources -> Increased material footprint Expert opinion 13 + No Application of CCS in the industry and energy sectors -> Removal of GHG emissions -> Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions Expert opinion CCS, when applied to biofueled power plants (BECCS) could lead to a negative impact on SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production). BECCS enables negative GHG emissions, which could increase the demand for biomass used in electricity and heat production to achieve carbon offsets, thereby increasing the domestic material footprint. The significance and magnitude of this risk depends on the future market value of negative emissions, which will impact the demand for biomass used for this purpose. Climate neutral concrete Eight impacts on the SDGs were identified from replacing conventional with climate neutral concrete (Table 5 ). Replacing conventional concrete with climate neutral mitigates territorial GHG emissions from the industry sector and associated embedded emissions in the supply chains of transport infrastructure and buildings. This enables economic activity and growth decoupled from GHG emissions. Climate neutral concrete allows for continued use of concrete in buildings and transport infrastructure while mitigating GHG emissions, which contributes to sustained economic growth and job creation. These effects give positive impacts on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth). Replacing conventional concrete with climate neutral also brings a positive impact on SDG 9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure) as it mitigates GHG emissions from the industry sector and enables retrofit of the concrete industry, as well as upgrade of infrastructure through reduced GHG emissions per unit of value added [ 20 ]. Through its mitigation potential, climate neutral concrete also impacts SDG 13 (climate action) positively. Table 5 Prioritized SDG impacts from Climate neutral concrete. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given. SDG Impact Spillover Causal relationship Empirical support 8 + No Replacing production of conventional concrete with climate neutral -> Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions -> Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions Expert opinion 8 + No Replacing use of conventional concrete with climate neutral -> Continued use of concrete as a construction material -> Sustained economic growth and job creation in the buildings and transport infrastructure sectors Expert opinion 8 + No Production of climate neutral concrete -> Substitution of gravel and sand with reused concrete in infrastructure -> Decreased material footprint per GDP Expert opinion 9 + No Replacing production of conventional concrete with climate neutral -> Mitigation of GHG emissions from the industry sector -> Retrofit of industries Specific 9 + No Replacing use of conventional concrete with climate neutral -> Reduced GHG emissions per unit of value added in transport infrastructure -> Upgrade of infrastructure through reduced embedded GHG emissions Expert opinion 11 + No Replacing use of conventional concrete with climate neutral -> Reduced embedded GHG emissions in buildings and transport infrastructure -> Reduction of per capita environmental impact of cities Expert opinion 12 + No Production of climate neutral concrete -> Substitution of gravel and sand with reused concrete in infrastructure -> Decreased material footprint Expert opinion 13 + No Replacing production of conventional concrete with climate neutral -> Reduced GHG emissions from the industry sector -> Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions Specific Replacing conventional concrete with climate neutral in e.g., buildings and transport infrastructure contributes positively to SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities) through the reduction of embedded GHG emissions, and thus the per capita environmental impact of cities. Furthermore, there is a potential to reuse waste concrete in new concrete production or as ballast in construction of e.g., transport infrastructure, bringing down the need for virgin raw materials, a positive impact on SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production). Electric Vehicle Batteries (EVBs) 24 impacts on the SDGs were identified from replacing fossil fuels with EVBs in the transport sector (Table 6 ). Replacing ICEVs with BEVs reduce emissions of air pollutants from transport [ 41 ]. Air pollution, particularly nitrogen oxides (NOx), damages human health. Even at low levels, NOx may cause damage to the human respiratory system. Electrification of transports thus brings a positive impact on SDG 3 (good health and well-being) as well as SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities), through improved urban air quality. Although EVBs has zero tailpipe emissions, the higher weight of electric vehicles gives rise to increased mobilization of road dust to air, which may locally impact SDG 3 and SDG 11 negatively through increased concentrations of particulate matter (PM). However, the positive impact from eliminating exhaust emissions can be assumed to outweigh the negative impact from increased road dust. Table 6 Prioritized SDG impacts from Electric vehicle batteries. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given. SDG Impact Spillover Causal relationship Empirical support 3 + No Replacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -> Decreased NOx and PM emissions -> Improved human health Specific 3 - Yes Production of EVBs -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Health risks associated with mining Specific 6 - Yes Production of EVBs -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for pollution of drinking water and water scarcity General 7 + No Replacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -> Decreased use of fossil energy -> Increased share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption Specific 7 + No Replacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -> Increased energy efficiency -> Decreased primary energy per GDP Expert opinion 8 + No Replacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -> Decreased use of fossil energy -> Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions Expert opinion 8 +/- No Replacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -> Decreased domestic consumption of fossil fuels/Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Impact on material footprint per GDP Expert opinion 8 + No Electrification of transports -> Increased demand for electric vehicles including components such as EVBs -> Economic growth and job creation in the transport, industry and energy sectors Expert opinion 8 + Yes Electrification of transports -> Import of inputs to the transport and industry sectors -> Increased economic activity in export countries Expert opinion 8 + Yes Domestic production of EVBs -> Export of low carbon footprint EVBs -> Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions in import countries Expert opinion 8 - Yes Production of EVBs -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for labor rights, child labor and safe and secure environments from mining General 9 + No Electrification of transports -> Expansion of charging infrastructure -> Upgrade and retrofit of industry and infrastructure as well as encouraged innovation Expert opinion 11 + No Replacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -> Decreased NOx and PM emissions -> Improved urban air quality Expert opinion 11 - No Domestic production of EVBs -> Establishment of new mines for extraction of critical minerals -> Risks to the protection and safeguard of natural and cultural heritage Expert opinion 12 +/- No Replacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -> Decreased use of fossil energy/Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Impact on material footprint Expert opinion 12 - Yes Production of EVBs -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks to sound management of chemicals and wastes including release to air, water and soil General 12 - No Electrification of transports -> Increased deposit of exhausted EVBs -> Increased waste generation Expert opinion 12 - Yes Production of EVBs -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks to the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources Specific 13 + No Replacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -> Reduced GHG emissions from the transport sector -> Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions Expert opinion 13 + Yes Domestic production of EVBs -> Export of low carbon footprint EVBs -> Mitigation of GHG emissions in import countries Expert opinion 14 - Yes Production of EVBs -> Increased extraction for critical minerals -> Risk for marine ecosystems from seabed and deep-sea mining General 15 - Yes Production of EVBs -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for biodiversity, habitats as well as terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems Expert opinion 15 - No Domestic production of EVBs -> Establishment of new mines for extraction of critical minerals -> Risks to terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems Expert opinion 16 - Yes Production of EVBs -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for corruption and lack off participatory decision-making at local levels in countries with weak institutions General As electrification of transports accelerates, demand for critical minerals used in EVBs such as aluminum, cobalt, copper and lithium will increase (Table 2 ). Mining of these minerals to support electrification of transports in Sweden poses risks for several negative spillover impacts. Mining is associated with emissions to air and water that increase exposure of workers and residents to toxic elements, negatively impacting SDG 3. There are additional risks to SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) from water pollution and aggravating water scarcity in the mining of particularly lithium and copper. Artisanal and unregulated mining of cobalt has negative spillover impacts on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) from lack of labor rights, use of child labor and occupational accidents [ 31 , 42 ]. Cobalt mining can also impact SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) negatively from increased corruption and lack of participatory decision-making at local levels in countries with weak institutions [ 43 ]. Increased mining of aluminum, cobalt, copper and lithium is likely to further strengthen already existing harmful consequences to local biodiversity and habitats as well as terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems, resulting in negative spillover impacts on SDG 15 (life on land). To meet the increased demand, opening of new or increased extraction in existing mines for, in particular, copper, cobalt and lithium could also occur in Sweden, with risks for a negative impact on SDG 15 (life on land). In the long term, the need for critical minerals could trigger searches for new deposits of copper and cobalt on the ocean floor should conventional resources become scarce. Seabed and deep-sea mining pose great risks to create harmful consequences to marine ecosystems with negative spillover impacts on SDG 14 (life below water) [ 44 , 45 ]. In the short to medium term, the increased demand for electricity following electrification of transports will most likely be met by wind power [ 29 ]. Replacement of fossil fuels with EVBs will thus bring positive impacts on SDG 7 (clean and affordable energy) and SDG 13 (climate action) as the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption increases and territorial GHG emissions is mitigated. This also positively impacts SDG 8 through decoupling of GHG emissions from economic (GDP) growth in the transport sector. Additionally, electric motors are significantly more energy efficient compared to internal combustion engines. Hence, electrification of transport will provide another positive impact on SDG 7 by increasing the energy efficiency of the transport sector, which decreases the use of primary energy per GDP. Following electrification of transports, domestic car manufacturers will see a growing demand for electric vehicles on the Swedish market, which could provide economic growth and job creation if successfully met, as a positive impact on SDG 8. Electrification of transports could bring further opportunities to sustainable industrialization, new innovations and supplementing infrastructure along the whole supply chains of production, distribution and use. A fundamental requirement is the realization of increased capacity for renewable electricity production and distribution, including upgrading of electricity grids and building of charging stations. This could give a positive impact on SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure). Positive spillover impacts on SDG 8 could also be realized from Swedish imports of electric vehicles, EVBs and other components, driving economic activity in other countries, as well as through export of domestically produced EVBs with relatively low carbon footprints, supporting decoupling of economic growth from GHG emissions in other countries. Decreased domestic consumption of fossil fuels in the transport sector reduces the material footprint which positively impacts SDG 8, specifically the material footprint per GDP, and SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production). At the same time, however, electrification of transports will increase the exploitation of critical minerals and thus increase the material footprint. As the actual net effect is uncertain, related impacts on SDG 8 and SDG 12 are assessed as ambiguous. Electrification of transports will also increase the turnover of EVBs, but due to the lack of established recycling and/or reuse options waste generation from exhausted EVBs could increase, which negatively impacts SDG 12. For lithium, there is a specific risk of scarcity which could give another negative impact on SDG 12 and the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources [ 46 ]. Opening of new mines in Sweden following increased demand for cobalt, copper and lithium, could pose additional risks to SDG 11 and the protection and safeguard of the natural and cultural heritage of the Sami people [ 47 ]. Green hydrogen 17 impacts on the SDGs were identified from replacing fossil fuels with green hydrogen (Table 7 ). Mining of PGMs and nickel, necessary in electrolyzers used to produce green hydrogen, is associated with health risks [ 48 , 49 ]. Large-scale implementation of green hydrogen in the iron- and steel industry can hence pose a negative spillover impact on SDG 3 (good health and well-being) in countries extracting and processing these minerals. Such mining can also generate a negative spillover impact on SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) due to high water usage during extraction and processing, as well as pollution of freshwater [ 43 , 50 ]. Both PGMs and nickel are predominantly mined in countries with weak institutions, posing additional negative spillovers concerning SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) through risks for violation of labor rights and safe and secure working environments, SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production) due to poor management of chemicals and wastes, SDG 15 (life on land) due to poor management of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and the resulting risks of habitat destruction and decrease in biodiversity, and SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) due to risks of increased injustice, corruption and lack of inclusive institutions [ 43 , 51 ]. Table 7 Prioritized SDG impacts from green hydrogen. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given. SDG Impact Spillover Causal relationship Empirical support 3 - Yes Production of electrolyzers -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Health risks associated with mining Specific 6 - Yes Production of electrolyzers-> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for pollution of drinking water and water scarcity General 7 + No Replacement of fossil fuels with electrification in the iron and steel industry -> Decreased use of fossil energy -> Increased share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption Specific 7 +/- No Electrification of the iron and steel industry with green hydrogen -> Increased flexibility of electricity use through green hydrogen storage/Increased demand for electricity -> Impact on average electricity prices Expert opinion 8 + No Replacement of fossil fuels with electrification in the iron and steel industry -> Decreased use of fossil energy -> Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions Expert opinion 8 + No Replacement of fossil fuels with electrification in the iron and steel industry -> Decreased use of fossil energy -> Decreased material footprint per GDP Expert opinion 8 + No Electrification of the iron and steel industry with green hydrogen -> Increased economic activity in the industry and energy sectors -> Economic growth and job creation Indicative 8 + Yes Domestic production of steel with green hydrogen -> Export of green steel -> Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions in import countries Expert opinion 8 - Yes Production of electrolyzers -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for labor rights and safe and secure environments General 9 + No Electrification of the iron and steel industry with green hydrogen -> Reduced GHG emissions per unit of value added -> Upgrade and retrofit of industry and infrastructure Expert opinion 11 + No Replacement of conventional steel with green -> Reduced embedded GHG emissions in buildings and transport infrastructure -> Reduction of per capita environmental impact of cities Expert opinion 12 + No Replacement of fossil fuels with electrification in the iron and steel industry -> Decreased use of fossil raw materials -> Decreased material footprint Expert opinion 12 - Yes Production of electrolyzers -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks to sound management of chemicals and wastes including release to air, water and soil General 13 + No Replacement of fossil fuels with electrification in the iron and steel industry -> Decreased use of fossil energy -> Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions Expert opinion 13 + Yes Domestic production of steel with green hydrogen -> Export of green steel -> Mitigation of GHG emissions in import countries Expert opinion 15 - Yes Production of electrolyzers -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for biodiversity, habitats as well as terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems General 16 - Yes Production of electrolyzers -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for corruption and lack off participatory decision-making at local levels in countries with weak institutions General Using green hydrogen as input and energy carrier in the iron and steel industry enables flexible use of intermittent electricity and replacement of fossil resources, which positively impacts SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy) through increased share of renewable energy in the Swedish total final energy consumption [ 28 ]. Electrification of the iron and steel industry will, however, at the same time significantly increase demand for electricity, a demand that in the short to medium term is most likely to be met by wind power. Even though green hydrogen can balance the intermittent electricity production from wind power, the actual net effect on consumer electricity prices from increased electricity demand is uncertain, which gives an ambiguous impact on SDG 7 and affordability. Green hydrogen enables a decarbonization of the Swedish iron and steel industry, clearly impacting SDG 13 (climate action) positively and contributing to a positive spillover impact on SDG 13 in countries importing green steel from Sweden. Replacing coal with electricity and green hydrogen in the iron and steel industry offers additional positive impacts on SDG 8 and SDG 12 through decoupling of economic (GDP) growth from GHG emissions, and through decreased material footprint per GDP. Actors in the Swedish iron and steel industry could also benefit from a first mover advantage by producing premium green steel that could lead to growth opportunities and job creation, offering another positive impact on SDG 8. Export of green steel from Sweden that replaces conventional steel in industrial production and manufacturing could also provide a positive spillover impact on SDG 8 and SDG 12 by decoupling economic growth from GHG emissions in import countries. Replacing current coal-based processes with electrification and green hydrogen enables a retrofit of industries through mitigation of GHG emissions per unit of value added, as a positive impact on SDG 9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure). Replacing conventional steel with green in buildings and transport infrastructure also reduces embedded GHG emissions and thus the per capita environmental impact of cities, giving a positive impact on SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities). Solar PV 12 impacts on the SDGs were identified from large-scale expansion of solar PV (Table 8 ). Expanded use of solar PV will increase the demand for aluminum and copper (Table 2 ). Mining of these minerals is associated with negative impacts on human health [ 43 , 52 ], in particular respiratory diseases and allergies, thereby generating a negative spillover impact on SDG 3 (good health and well-being). Such mining might also lead to acid mine drainage and metal and chemical pollution of land, surface and ground waters that can impair the ecological status of terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, threaten local biodiversity, degrade habitats and limit the availability of fresh water. Increased extraction of minerals for solar PV is thus likely to cause negative spillover impacts on SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), SDG 15 (life on land) as well as SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production) through poor management of chemicals and wastes [ 52 , 53 ]. Mining and processing of aluminum (bauxite) and copper in countries with weak institutions could pose additional negative spillover impacts on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) through violation of labor rights and safe and secure working environments, and SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) as a consequence of increased injustice, corruption and lack of inclusive institutions [ 43 , 52 ]. Additionally, increased demand for copper could trigger searches for new resource deposits on the ocean floor, which pose risks to damaging marine ecosystems as a negative spillover impact on SDG 14 (life below water) [ 44 , 45 ]. Table 8 Prioritized SDG impacts from solar PV. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given. SDG Impact Spillover Causal relationship Empirical support 3 - Yes Production of PV modules -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Health risks associated with mining General 6 - Yes Production of PV modules -> Increased extraction for critical minerals -> Risks for pollution of drinking water and water scarcity Expert opinion 7 + No Expansion of solar PV -> Increased renewable electricity production -> Increased share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption Expert opinion 7 +/- No Expansion of solar PV -> Increased supply of electricity/Increased share of intermittent electricity production -> Impact on average electricity prices Expert opinion 8 + Yes Expansion of solar PV -> Import of solar PV modules -> Increased economic activity in export countries Indicative 8 - Yes Production of PV modules -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risk for labor rights and safe and secure environments General 9 + No Expansion of solar PV -> Development of grid connected energy storage -> Upgrade of infrastructure and new innovations Specific 12 - Yes Production of PV modules -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks to sound management of chemicals and wastes including release to air, water and soil Specific 12 - No Expansion of solar PV -> Increased deposit of exhausted PV modules -> Increased waste generation Expert opinion 14 - Yes Production of PV modules -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risk for marine ecosystems from seabed and deep-sea mining General 15 - Yes Production of PV modules -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for biodiversity, habitats as well as terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems General 16 - Yes Production of PV modules -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for corruption and lack off participatory decision-making at local levels in countries with weak institutions General Increased integration of solar PV in the Swedish energy system will increase the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption, thereby giving a positive impact on SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy). The impact on consumer electricity prices, i.e., the affordability aspect of SDG 7, is ambiguous as increased supply of intermittent electricity might contribute to higher price fluctuations. Imports of solar PV modules to Sweden could generate a positive spillover impact on SDG 8 in terms of increased economic growth, job creation and innovation in exporting countries. In Sweden, a large-scale expansion of solar PV could support the development of energy storage capabilities in the electricity infrastructure, such as stationary batteries, thereby strengthening innovation and stimulating development of sustainable infrastructure, a positive impact on SDG 9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure) [ 54 ]. Wind power 18 impacts on the SDGs were identifies from expansion of wind power (Table 9 ). Production of wind turbine components requires aluminum, copper, REEs, mainly neodymium and dysprosium, and zinc (Table 2 ). Mining of these minerals may contaminate soil, freshwater and drinking water, as well as give rise to local air pollution [ 55 – 58 ]. Large-scale expansion of wind power in Sweden thus poses a risk for negative spillover impacts on SDG 3 (good health and wellbeing), SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) and SDG 15 (life on land). Furthermore, there is an additional risk for a negative spillover impact on SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production), specifically the environmentally sound management of chemicals and wastes [ 57 , 58 ]. Increased global demand for copper, REEs and zinc could trigger searches for new deposits on the ocean floor. Seabed and deep-sea mining pose great risks to create harmful consequences to marine ecosystems with risk for a negative spillover impact on SDG 14 (life below water) [ 44 , 45 ]. There is a risk for a negative spillover impact on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), as mining of in particular REEs is associated with risks for violation of labor rights and safe and secure working environments. Increased demand for REEs also poses a risk for corruption and lack of participatory decision-making as a negative spillover impact on SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions), as the mining of REEs is concentrated to countries with weak institutions [ 55 , 59 ]. Table 9 Prioritized SDG impacts from wind power. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given. SDG Impact Spillover Causal relationship Empirical support 3 - Yes Production of wind turbines -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Health risks associated with mining Specific 6 - Yes Production of wind turbines -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for pollution of drinking water and water scarcity Specific 7 + No Expansion of wind power -> Increased renewable electricity production -> Increased share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption Expert opinion 7 +/- No Expansion of wind power -> Increased supply of electricity/Increased share of intermittent electricity production -> Impact on average electricity prices Expert opinion 8 + No Expansion of wind power -> Increased economic activity in the energy sector -> Economic growth and job creation Expert opinion 8 + Yes Expansion of wind power -> Import of wind turbines -> Increased economic activity in export countries Indicative 8 - Yes Production of wind turbines -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for labor rights and safe and secure environments Specific 9 + No Expansion of wind power -> Development of grid connected energy storage -> Upgrade of infrastructure and new innovations Expert opinion 11 - No Expansion of wind power -> Increased land use for wind power parks -> Risks to local participatory democracy Expert opinion 11 - No Expansion of wind power -> Increased extraction of critical minerals and land use for wind power parks -> Risks to the protection and safeguard of natural and cultural heritage Expert opinion 12 - Yes Production of wind turbines -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for sound management of chemicals and wastes including release to air, water, and soil General 12 - No Expansion of wind power -> Increased deposit of turbine blades -> Increased waste generation Specific 14 - Yes Production of wind turbines -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for marine ecosystems from seabed and deep-sea mining General 15 - No Production of wind turbines -> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for biodiversity, habitats as well as terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems Specific 15 - No Expansion of wind power -> Increased land use for wind power parks -> Risks for habitat degradation, fragmentation, and loss Expert opinion 15 - Yes Production of wind turbines-> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for biodiversity, habitats as well as terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems General 16 - Yes Production of wind turbines-> Increased extraction of critical minerals -> Risks for corruption and lack off participatory decision-making at local levels in countries with weak institutions Specific 16 - No Expansion of wind power -> Increased land use for wind power parks -> Risks for participatory decision-making on local levels Expert opinion In addition, increased demand for REEs might lead to opening of new mines in Sweden, which is associated with risks for a negative impact on SDG 15 due to habitat loss, pollution, and leakage of hazardous chemicals [ 58 , 60 ]. Opening of new mines as well as new wind power establishments could also generate a negative impact on SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities) through risks for the protection and safeguard of the natural and cultural heritage of the Sami people [ 47 , 61 ]. The large-scale expansion of wind power will exploit areas at land and sea. This could lead to political and/or commercial conflicts between national, regional and local interests with additional risks for negative impact on SDG 11. If established in sensitive areas, the expansion of wind power could also pose a risk to biodiversity and ecosystems through loss or degradation of habitats, as a negative impact on SDG 15. A large-scale expansion of wind power increases the share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption, which gives a positive impact on SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy). The impact on consumer electricity prices, i.e., the affordability aspect of SDG 7, is however ambiguous as increased supply of intermittent electricity might contribute to higher price fluctuations. Swedish energy companies and supplementing industries could benefit from the expansion of wind power, leading to economic growth, job creation and bring a positive impact on SDG 8. Import of wind turbines could also generate a positive spillover impact on economic activity outside of Sweden [ 62 ]. Increased electricity generation from wind power may also create incentives to develop energy storage capabilities in the electricity infrastructure, such as stationary batteries, thereby strengthening innovation and development of sustainable infrastructure, giving a positive impact on SDG 9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure). Discussion The technological transformations required to reach zero net GHG emissions in Sweden by 2045 is, no doubt, sweeping with far reaching consequences across many sectors. As shown in this study, at least 11 out of the 17 SDGs will potentially be affected positively or negatively, domestically or abroad – thus highlighting a multifaceted linkage between climate mitigation efforts and the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The results presented here show both agreements and differences with the qualitative SDG assessments carried out by IPCC [ 63 ]. The main similarities being that, for comparable objects, both studies identified no significant impacts linked to SDG 4 (quality education), SDG 5 (gender equality) or SDG 10 (reduced inequalities) but synergies with SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) and SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure). IPCC identified several synergies with SDG 1 (no poverty) and SDG 2 (zero hunger), which were not identified in this study. The main reason is likely due to the difference in scope – the scenario studied by IPCC was the climate transition on a global level, including the transition in low-income regions, thus making issues of poverty and hunger increasingly relevant to mitigation efforts. As noted by McCollum et al. [ 11 ], SDG interactions may not always be universally linked but rather context-dependent and case-specific. Comparisons of SDG assessments that differs in context and scope are, indeed, likely to show varying and perhaps even contrasting results. Based on the SDG assessments presented here, a set of overarching narratives encapsulating synergies and trade-offs between the Swedish climate transition and the SDGs emerges. In the domestic context, positive impacts are foremost linked to SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) and SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure). This is not surprising given the technological focus of this study. It is also well in line with political aspirations and the Swedish public debate that emphasize needs for industrial transformation to reach zero net emissions of GHGs as well as how the climate transition can provide growth and export opportunities to the Swedish industry. As evident across all assessed key components, the development and implementation of climate neutral technologies have the potential to create jobs, growth markets, infrastructures, innovations and systemic know-how with export potential. Climate benefits from Swedish exports – sometimes referred to as a ‘comparative carbon advantage’ [ 64 ] – could be realized and is here assessed as potential positive spillover impacts on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) and SDG 13 (climate action), through decoupling of economic growth and GHG emissions in countries importing EVBs and green steel. The Swedish climate transition is, however, to a large extent dependent on imports along supply chains to support the technological transformations. The need for raw materials, in particular critical minerals, is expected to increase rapidly. The most clear-cut narrative derived from the SDG impact assessments is the shift from fossil resources to critical minerals. The growing dependency on critical minerals is acknowledged in policy – for instance the European Critical Raw Materials Act – emphasizing increased attention to security of supply issues, including sustainable sourcing practices [ 65 ]. Among industrial businesses acting in global supply chains, there is a raising awareness of broader sustainability implications from the upstream extraction of minerals. In response, several global initiatives such as the Alliance for Responsible Mining, the Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance, the Responsible Mining Foundation and the Responsible Minerals Initiative, work on different levels to provide information and encourage cooperation to combat social and environmental risks from mining. Sustainability efforts or Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) actions are, however, limited by the lack of transparency, data and corruption that hampers trust among private actors, authorities and civic society [ 66 , 67 ]. This study has identified a large set of trade-offs originating from mineral extraction in countries with weak institutions, posing spillover risks to SDG 3 (human health and well-being), SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), SDG 15 (life on land) and SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions). Risks that, if not carefully considered in policy, business conduct and due diligence, could potentially grow over time. Another narrative concerns that of material use, recycling and circularity. As the deployment of transformative technologies increases, so will end-of-life aspects as well with potential risks to SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production). Wind power, solar PV and EVBs all contain advanced composite materials and alloys to enhance durability, energy efficiency and energy density. While giving crucial properties to market performance and uptake, these advanced materials might cause concern for future recycling options. Even though risks associated to SDG 12 and waste generation were categorized as domestic in this study, effective solutions could involve actors upstream in value chains and, thus, be of concern to international policy making and business cooperation. Should related waste problems, environmental degradation and mineral scarcity be avoided, new technologies and practices for recycling need to be developed in tandem with product development, incorporating future circular options in its design. However, as noted by the IEA [ 31 ], in contrast to fossil fuels, the advantage of renewable energy technologies is the potential for material recovery and recycling, whereas oil, coal and natural gas requires a continuous new supply. Increased circular flow of materials will bring the need of virgin minerals down and associated risks to sustainable development. Although some test facilities are planned, there are currently no fully established recycling options in Sweden for e.g., wind turbine blades, solar PV modules or EVBs. Lately, much of the energy related public debate in Sweden, as in most of Europe, has focused on the increasing energy and electricity prices, as well as aspects of participatory decision-making at local levels. A final narrative derived from the assessments is linked to SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities) and SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) and the impact from upscaling intermittent renewable energy on household economies as well as issues of local acceptance. There is a growing concern that an increased share of household income will be spent on energy costs, bringing households on the margin closer to energy poverty. The Swedish electricity mix has since the 1970s been fully reliant on hydro and nuclear power, which has provided relatively low and stable electricity prices. Even though Sweden has decommissioned six out of twelve nuclear reactors in the span of 25 years, the combined electricity generation from hydro and nuclear power has remained the same [ 68 ]. A large-scale expansion of wind power and solar PV will bring short-term fluctuations to power generation and, consequently, electricity prices. The long-term economic effect is assessed as ambiguous, however, as actual electricity prices will depend on demand and supply on European energy markets as well as governmental policies. Public concern for energy prices is one of several reasons for the increased opposition against planning and permitting of new land-based wind power installations, in a growing conflict between national and local interests. A resistance that was initially characterized by ’not in my backyard’ has expanded into a wider manifestation of ’not in anyone’s backyard‘, putting forward arguments against wind power as negatively impacting health, natural environments, cultural heritage, as well as being ineffective, expensive, weather-dependent and harmful to the climate [ 69 ]. Local communities lack of incentives to accept wind power establishments could prove one major obstacle for Sweden to achieve the climate target, as is evident in recent trends of deploying municipal veto against planned wind power installations. The SDG impacts identified in this study should be viewed as a first assessment of potential synergies and trade-offs between the technological transformations needed to reach zero net GHG emissions in Sweden and the SDGs. The scope of the study brings limitations, and some methodological considerations should be discussed. Firstly, the SDG impact assessments carried out in this study were based on input from a set of academic and practitioner experts challenged to address the complexity of the SDGs. When moving beyond their explicit expertise, the tendency to acknowledge emerging risks in favor of what is perceived as familiar [ 70 ] may give biases in the results. However, the approach to structure workshop outputs, construct causal relationships and establish empirical support resulted in dismissal of some SDG impacts and have contributed to minimize such biases. Secondly, incomplete contextual information is a typical challenge in scenario-based SDG impact assessments [ 11 ]. Spatial and temporal context, as well as governance, socio-cultural and technological conditions, are generally considered key factors in SDG interactions [ 5 ]. The temporal development of the key components and the specific context in which they are implemented and used were deemed to be out of scope for this study. Hence, the key components, as well as the governance, socio-cultural and socio-economic aspects, were studied as currently is. Since these aspects might change, as well as the development of how the key components will be designed, produced, adopted and disposed of in the future, the SDG impact assessments should potentially be updated to follow future developments. Thirdly, the construction of causal relationships and search for empirical support was designed to enhance confidence and seek confirmation when prioritizing SDG impacts. It should be noted, however, that the causal relationships were formulated a priori and the search for empirical support was non-exhaustive. As such, these relationships should not be mistaken for expressions of verified causality over all possible applications. Conclusions Since more governance policies and strategies for business cooperation that aligns the Swedish climate transition with the UN 2030 Agenda are needed, the SDG impacts identified in this study is an opportunity for policymakers and business actors to explore options for a more sustainable climate transition. The SDG impact assessments presented serve as a starting point for such efforts. Although this study summarizes knowledge from academic and practitioner experts as well as from the scientific literature into a set of prioritized SDG impacts, continued efforts from the scientific community is needed to deepen this knowledge. For the full implementation of the studied key components, the assessments might need to be further refined to include specific details relevant for respective key components. A plausible next step would be to involve stakeholders and relevant expertise to jointly pinpoint needs for action in the policy sphere and discuss collaborative business approaches in order to strengthen potential synergies and minimize trade-offs. Furthermore, to mitigate sustainability challenges identified as spillover impacts, actors across relevant supply chains of the transformative technologies need to seek new ways of collaboration. Supply chain specific SDG impact assessment could be carried out as starting points to such efforts, facilitated by neutral partners to induce trust and create a common view of where to focus joint action. The set of prioritized SDG impacts presented in this study could lay the groundwork for the construction of indicators as a measure to monitor progress of a climate transition in line with the SDGs. Although this study focuses on the specific context of the Swedish climate transition, there might be some results that parallels the situation in other countries. Hence, the results might be a relevant starting point for similar studies in other parts of the world. Additionally, the results can be relevant on sub-national levels. Several regions, cities, municipalities and local businesses in Sweden take active part in the climate transition and implement policies aiming to reduce GHG emissions. The SDG impact assessments could help regional and local policymakers and businesses to align their efforts to reduce climate impact with the SDGs. Finally, the methodological approach applied in this study, i.e., to elicit expert judgements in a workshop format followed by structuring and analysis of inputs, could inspire researchers and practitioners to create more collaboration to build new knowledge concerning complex sustainability issues. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. Competing interests The authors declares that they have no competing interests. Funding Funding for this study was provided by Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research. Authors' contributions AA has made an substantial contributions to the conception and design of the work; the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data; has drafted the work and substantively revised it; have approved the submitted version; have agreed both to be personally accountable for the contributions and ensured that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature. HK has made an substantial contributions to the conception and design of the work; the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data; has drafted the work and substantively revised it; have approved the submitted version; have agreed both to be personally accountable for the contributions and ensured that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature. EN has made an substantial contributions to the conception and design of the work; the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data; has substantively revised the work; have approved the submitted version; have agreed both to be personally accountable for the contributions and ensured that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature. KME has made an substantial contributions to the conception and design of the work; the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data; has drafted the work and substantively revised it; have approved the submitted version; have agreed both to be personally accountable for the contributions and ensured that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature. Acknowledgements This work is financed by the Mistra Carbon Exit Programme. Workshop contributions from researchers and practitioners within the Mistra Carbon Exit programme are gratefully acknowledged. 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As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4630096","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":329809504,"identity":"762c67cf-9164-451a-8237-af509225d66c","order_by":0,"name":"A. 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Eriksson","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Gothenburg","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"K.","middleName":"M.","lastName":"Eriksson","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-06-24 12:15:03","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4630096/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4630096/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-025-00558-4","type":"published","date":"2026-01-09T15:58:18+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":60784674,"identity":"6c2c9216-9bcf-4b21-8e92-50a706ca94a7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-22 04:39:07","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1325091,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOverview of assessed key components and their interconnectionsin contributing to mitigation in line with the target of zero net GHG emissions in Sweden by 2045.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4630096/v1/318f3de28523a1a4b09ee6eb.png"},{"id":60784875,"identity":"a42f4423-fb60-4269-a7f3-17ee22c546f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-22 04:47:07","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1030509,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStepwise procedure of the SDG impact assessments, moving from expert input in workshops via justification of rationale and published observations to a prioritized subset of SDG impacts.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4630096/v1/58d1fefb61073ee92a531a90.png"},{"id":60784676,"identity":"57084b2e-de6c-4895-9929-fa584f88c8af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-22 04:39:07","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":529433,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNumber of prioritized SDG impacts for the seven key components over the SDGs, shown as pie chart distributions of different impact types. Legend at the bottom left shows the coloring and patterns of the types of impact. Legend at the bottom right shows the correspondence between number of prioritized impacts and pie chart sizes.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4630096/v1/700fcb29808bcdc04aee74ee.png"},{"id":100069286,"identity":"abc8b6a8-f3f8-45dc-8e55-c7e23ee9a045","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-12 16:12:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4147197,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4630096/v1/f9e771d8-4c09-4d4c-8cb2-b175c16eacc6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Synergies and trade-offs between the sustainable development goals and reaching zero net greenhouse gas emissions in Sweden","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClimate policy and the Sustainable Development Goals\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Paris Agreement stipulates that global warming needs to be kept well below 2\u0026deg;C, preferably to 1.5\u0026deg;C, compared to pre-industrial levels [1]. Its fulfillment rests upon the ambitions expressed in so-called Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), where countries detail their expected mitigation efforts. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [2], the pledges made so far are insufficient to keep global warming from exceeding 1.5\u0026deg;C during the 21st century. National mitigation pathways in compliance with the Paris Agreement need to ensure that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions will reach net zero by 2050. A great challenge to the global community, no doubt, and even more so when acknowledging the broader context of sustainable development. The\u0026nbsp;climate transition needs to be just, inclusive and\u0026nbsp;take socio-economic, cultural and environmental perspectives into account. Thus, finding coherence between the Paris Agreement and the United Nations (UN) 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [3]\u0026nbsp;is central to governments and policymakers at all levels of society [4].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLaunched in 2015, the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development puts forward 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to be reached by 2030, agreed upon by all UN member states. As expressed by the UN, the SDGs are integrated and indivisible [3] meaning that, together, they form a holistic whole. While conceptually not new \u0026ndash; sustainable development has since its inception linked social and economic development to the limitations of nature \u0026ndash; the holistic nature of the 2030 Agenda and the SDG framework stands out compared to previous UN treaties. The notion that the SDGs interconnect, relate and depend on each other was further emphasized by Nilsson et al [5], showing that successful implementation of the 2030 Agenda needs to consider interactions between the SDGs, thereby challenging current modus operandi characterized by silo structures and intra-disciplinarity. Embracing the holistic view, the SDG framework offers a furtherance of \u0026lsquo;sustainable development\u0026rsquo; as a concept, expanded from three pillars of environmental, social and economic sustainability into 17 perspectives or dimensions. As such, the SDGs merit further use, not only as political goals but as a framework to which holistic qualities of e.g., climate mitigation and adaptation efforts might be tested.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough the topics of climate change and sustainable development were initially addressed by separate circles in research and policy [6], linking these has gained increased attention. Not the least throughout the IPCC process, where climate mitigation and sustainable development is described as a two-way relationship that is cross-cutting, complex and not always mutually beneficial [7, 8].\u0026nbsp;Similarly, the 2030 Agenda calls for urgent action to combat climate change by putting forward SDG 13 (climate action) and emphasizing its intrinsically linked nature to the other 16 goals. Mitigation of GHGs could bring synergies to other sustainability perspectives but, if not carefully considered, also induce trade-offs. Hence, as nations across the world introduce climate policies and actors across sectors move into climate action, there is a growing need to build new knowledge and practices of how to identify and avoid unintended consequences to the broader scope of sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2017, the Swedish parliament agreed upon a climate policy framework in line with the Paris Agreement. The framework stipulates that by 2045 Sweden should have zero net emissions of GHGs [9]. Even though Sweden has low levels of territorial GHG emissions relative other countries, reaching the climate target will bring considerable challenges and needs for transformations in the national energy, industry and transport sectors. The climate policy framework was adopted subsequently to the 2030 Agenda but does not explicitly mention the SDGs. However, The Swedish Climate Policy Council, a part of the climate policy framework, has expressed a need to align climate policy with other societal goals and vice versa to enforce synergies and avoid trade-offs [10].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNumerous studies have been carried out to explore potential impacts of climate and energy policy on the SDGs deploying various methodologies. For instance, McCollum et al. [11] linked energy policy to the SDGs by mapping interactions between SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy) and the other SDGs according to a seven-point scale indicating the degree of synergy or trade-off. The work identified numerous interactions in which synergies clearly outweighed trade-offs. Von Stechow et al. [12] analyzed synergies and trade-offs based on a set of predefined energy related indicators derived from an energy-economy-climate model. The results showed that climate policies with relatively low flexibility of mitigation options tend to induce less synergies and more trade-offs on the SDGs, and that keeping energy demand low achieved best overall performance. On a national level, Thapa et al. [13]\u0026nbsp;demonstrated how SDG 13 (climate action) strongly interlinks with SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production) and SDG 15 (life on land) in the case of Nepal, through a combined network and advanced sustainability analysis. Stevenson et al. [14]\u0026nbsp;carried out a study with the similar aim of identifying and assessing interactions between policies relating to SDG 13 (climate action) and other SDGs in the UK. The study combined automated keyword searches with an expert survey. They found potential synergies that linked investigated climate policies with SDG 3 (good health and well-being), SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure), SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities), SDG 14 (life below water) and SDG 15 (life on land) as well as a set of potential trade-offs. In its latest assessment reports, the IPCC carried out qualitative assessments between sectoral mitigation options and the SDGs in terms of synergies and trade-offs [7]. Based on literature reviews, a large set of synergies were found in all studied sectors, but also significant trade-offs deemed as important to address including for SDG 1 (no poverty), SDG 2 (zero hunger), and in some cases SDG 14 (life below water) and SDG 15 (life on land). Furthermore, the assessments identified several cases where mitigation options showed both synergies and trade-offs for the same SDG, in particular those relevant to land use changes. In summary, it is clear from the peer-reviewed literature that, even though there are similarities among the studies, and some draw inspiration from Nilsson\u0026rsquo;s [5] score-based SDG interactions, there is no established methodology to conduct climate and energy policy related SDG impact assessments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to identify and qualitatively describe potential synergies and trade-offs to reach the Swedish climate target of zero net GHG emissions by 2045, expressed as positive or negative impacts on the SDGs. The study focuses on key components of the technological transformations needed in the transport sector, the iron and steel and concrete industries, and the electricity sector. Seven key components were analyzed: wind power, solar photovoltaics (solar PV), biomass, green hydrogen, climate neutral cement, carbon capture and storage (CCS) and electric vehicle batteries (EVBs), based on their production, use and end-of-life options.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe underlying rationale is to tackle the holistic quality and complexity inherent in the SDG framework to deliver usable knowledge as input to policy and strategic decision-making. This was done by eliciting expert opinions derived from thematic workshops through use of the SDG Impact Assessment Tool [15]. The tool was used to structure and guide open-ended discussions and qualitative reasonings in search of potential SDG impacts from a large-scale implementation of the selected key components. Initial expert assessments were justified by constructing causal relationships and further tested against peer-reviewed literature to gain empirical support, or else excluded.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTechnological change in the Swedish climate transition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy 2045 at the latest, Sweden is to have zero net GHG emissions, to thereafter pursue negative emissions. According to the Swedish climate policy framework, zero net emissions of GHGs translates into at least 85% emission reductions compared to 1990 levels. The remaining emission reductions can be achieved through supplementary measures, including bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), increased carbon sequestration in forest and land, and verified emission reductions carried out outside the Swedish borders\u0026nbsp;[9].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo achieve the net-zero target by 2045, application of transformative technologies that curb GHG emissions are required across several sectors in Sweden. The two single largest contributing sectors to Swedish territorial GHG emissions are industry and transport. The industry sector emits around 35% of the Swedish territorial GHG emissions, which in 2022 corresponded to 15,3 Mt carbon dioxide-equivalents. The transport sector emits around 30%, corresponding to 13,6 Mt carbon dioxide-equivalents in 2022\u0026nbsp;[16]. Within both these sectors, direct and indirect (via green hydrogen) electrification represents central strategies for climate mitigation. This in turn requires transformations in the electricity sector, in order to meet the significantly increased demand for electricity from renewable sources. Besides electrification, increased use of biomass as replacement of fossil fuels as well as application of CCS are important mitigation strategies for the Swedish industry and transport sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSwedish territorial GHG emissions from the transport sector are dominated by road transport, with passenger vehicles being responsible for around 60% of total emissions\u0026nbsp;[16]. A substantial reduction of these emissions is required for Sweden to meet the climate target by 2045. Large-scale adoption of new technologies will be crucial, in particular battery electric vehicles (BEVs), as well as replacement of fossil fuels with biofuels in existing internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). BEVs have high energy-efficiency and zero tailpipe emissions, and lower life cycle GHG emissions than ICEVs when charged with low-carbon electricity\u0026nbsp;[2], which is the case for the almost carbon free Swedish electricity system\u0026nbsp;[17]. The BEVs market in Sweden has already shown a rapid growth \u0026ndash; between 2020 and 2022, the BEVs market almost tripled, with 33% of all newly registered passenger vehicles being BEVs in 2022\u0026nbsp;[18].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding the industry sector, production of steel and concrete together contribute about 45% of industrial GHG emissions in Sweden\u0026nbsp;[16]. Both these industries require application of transformative technologies in order to achieve deep emission reductions by 2045\u0026nbsp;[19, 20]. The iron and steel industry is currently the largest emitting industrial sector in Sweden, contributing to a third of the total industrial GHG emissions, or around 10-12% of total territorial emissions\u0026nbsp;[16]. Currently, two thirds of the total Swedish steel is produced through a blast furnace process, where carbon and coke are used for reduction of the iron ore. The last third is produced through a scrap-based process using electric arc furnaces. Reduction of iron ore in blast furnaces is the dominating source of GHG emissions from Swedish steel production. For the Swedish steel industry to achieve deep GHG emission reductions, the main mitigation strategy is to replace the blast furnace process with hydrogen direct reduction (H-DR), with a potential to reduce GHG emissions from ironmaking with 90%\u0026nbsp;[19, 21]. Since 2016, the main Swedish steel producer SSAB, which is accountable for more than 90% of the GHG emissions from Swedish steel production\u0026nbsp;[19], together with the mining company LKAB and the energy company Vattenfall, are supported by the government to run the Hydrogen Breakthrough Iron-Making Technology (HYBRIT) project\u0026nbsp;[19, 21]. The project aims to produce fossil free steel through H-DR and largely eliminate GHG emissions from steel production by 2030\u0026nbsp;[22, 23].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe concrete industry is responsible for around 15% of total industrial GHG emissions in Sweden, equivalent to around 4% of total territorial GHG emissions\u0026nbsp;[16]. The majority of GHG emissions from the concrete industry, around 65%, can be attributed to the production of cement, specifically the calcination process where limestone is converted to cement clinker at high temperatures. Current main mitigation options to reduce GHG emissions from the Swedish concrete industry include replacing fossil fuels with waste-based fuels or biofuels, using alternative binders, and using less cement through optimizing concrete recipes, as well as increased reuse of concrete\u0026nbsp;[20]. However, in order to achieve emission reductions in line with the climate target, application of CCS is necessary, even when available abatement options are used to full potential\u0026nbsp;[20, 24]. The Swedish cement industry has set the target of producing climate neutral cement by 2030\u0026nbsp;[20, 25].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectrification of the transport sector and, particularly, electrification of the Swedish steel industry, will substantially increase demand for electricity. Today, the Swedish electricity system is almost carbon neutral with low GHG emissions compared to other countries [17]. In 2022, Sweden produced a total of 170 TWh, out of which 41% was generated from hydropower, 29% from nuclear power, 19% from wind power, 10% from thermal power, and 1% from solar PV [26]. The Swedish iron and steel industry estimates that the technological shift from blast furnaces to H-DR will increase electricity consumption annually from 7 to 22 TWh at current production volumes [21], which agrees with a scenario produced by Toktarova et al. [19]. However, assuming that Swedish steel production volumes would increase, both through increased production volumes in current plants and through new establishments following new demand for green steel, electricity consumption by 2045 could increase with 20 to 100 TWh, according to the Swedish Energy Agency [27]. Electrification of road-based transports, following large-scale introduction of BEVs, is expected to increase demand for electricity with an additional 30 TWh by 2045 [27]. Adding to this, there is an ongoing establishment of production facilities for EVBs in Sweden that is likely to further increase electricity demand. In the short to medium term, new electricity demand is expected to mainly be supplied by wind power and solar PV, due to their relatively low costs and quick expansion possibilities [28, 29]. During the last ten years, expansion of wind power has been rapid in Sweden, with installed capacity almost quadrupling from around 3 600 MW in 2012 to 14 300 MW in 2022 [30].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDescription of key components\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e gives an overview of the key components assessed in this study and their linkages to achieve decarbonization in the electricity sector, the iron and steel industry, the transport sector and the concrete industry. Wind power and solar PV produce renewable electricity required for electrification of the transport sector and the iron and steel industry. Biomass contributes with negative GHG emissions in the electricity sector (BECCS) as well as GHG emission reductions by replacing fossil fuels with biofuels in ICEVs in the transport sector and in the production of climate neutral concrete.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe key components were assessed in their production, use and end-of-life stages in a simplified lifecycle approach. Assessments of the production stage focused on the input of raw materials, in particular the critical minerals and metals necessary in the production of relevant key components. As pointed out by the International Energy Agency (IEA), minerals play a critical role to clean energy technologies needed in the climate transition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. A large-scale expansion of these technologies will increase demand dramatically during the coming decades. This is particularly true for EVBs, electrolyzers for green hydrogen, solar PV and wind power. Minerals assessed as highly critical by the IEA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] for each of the key components were selected, namely: copper, aluminum, rare earth elements (REEs), zinc, cobalt, nickel, lithium and platinum group metals (PGMs). These minerals are also included in the European Commission\u0026rsquo;s 2023 list of Critical Raw Materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA high share of these will be imported either directly or embedded in imports of the key components. Copper is the only of the included minerals that is currently mined in Sweden, however import is still assumed necessary to meet demand to 2045. There are known sources of lithium in the Swedish bedrock, and cobalt as well as REEs have been found in several locations, but none of these are currently mined [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the possibility that large-scale deployment of the key components could lead to intensified extraction in current Swedish mines and/or opening of new was considered in the assessments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe critical raw materials and minerals relevant to each key component are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The precise details of where and how the critical minerals will be sourced in the future are outside the scope of the study, but current main sourcing countries were used as proxy for where increased demand could be supplied from. The critical raw materials needed in climate neutral concrete as well as required biomass were assumed to be extracted domestically.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the user phase, a large-scale implementation of the key components was assumed as outlined in section 2 and according to the scenarios summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The assessment considered export potential for domestically produced EVBs and green steel based on ongoing industrial ventures, whereas biomass and climate neutral concrete were assumed to be produced and used domestically, and electrolyzers, wind turbines and solar PV modules assumed to be imported. The end-of-life assessments were focused on reuse and recycling possibilities, and potential impacts on waste generation. For assumptions regarding end-of-life options for each key component, see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFraming and relevant assumptions for the key components as used in the assessments. Data covering sourcing countries and percentage of global mining is taken from the Mineral Commodity Summaries 2023 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey component\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiomass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCCS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate neutral concrete\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEVB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreen hydrogen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolar PV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWind power\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApplication\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectricity generation, transport, concrete industry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBECCS, concrete industry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuilding \u0026amp; construction material\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransport\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIron \u0026amp; steel industry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectricity generation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectricity generation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScenario\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpanded use of biomass in electricity generation, replacement of fossil fuels with biofuels in transport and concrete production\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpanded use of biomass in electricity generation, capture and storage of GHG emissions from concrete production\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of conventional concrete with climate neutral in the building and construction sector\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with electrification in the transport sector\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with green hydrogen production and Lined Rock Cavern (LRC) storage in the iron and steel industry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of solar PV to meet increased demand for electricity from renewable sources in industry and transport\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of wind power to meet increased demand for electricity from renewable sources in industry and transport\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal value chain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtraction of minerals and export potential for domestically produced EVBs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtraction of minerals for electrolyzers and export potential for domestically produced green steel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtraction of minerals for PV modules\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtraction of minerals for wind turbines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCritical raw materials and minerals \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(main sourcing countries\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10% of global mining \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[% of global mining])\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidual and cultivated forestry biomass (domestic)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimestone (domestic)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAluminium\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e (Australia [26%], China [24%], Guinea [23%]); Cobalt (Congo-Kinshasa [68%]), Copper\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e (Chile [24%], Congo-Kinshasa [10%], Peru [10%]); Lithium (Australia [47%], Chile [39%], China [15%])\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNickel (Indonesia [48%], Philippines [10%]); PGMs\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e (South Africa [55%], Russia [27%])\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAluminium\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e (Australia [26%], China [24%], Guinea [23%]); Copper\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e (Chile [24%], Congo-Kinshasa [10%], Peru [10%])\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAluminium\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e (Australia [26%], China [24%], Guinea [23%]); Copper\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e (Chile [24%], Congo-Kinshasa [10%], Peru [10%]); REEs (China [70%], United States [14%]); Zinc (China [32%], Peru [11%], Australia [10%])\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnd-of-life options\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot relevant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot relevant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePossible to reuse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimited reuse and recycling possibilities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot relevant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimited recycling possibilities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimited recycling possibilities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e Data reflects mining of bauxite\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e Data reflects mine production (not refinery)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e Data includes both platinum and palladium combined\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSDG impact assessments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe qualitative and holistic assessments of potential SDG impacts from the key components was conducted in three subsequent steps: (i) initial assessments based on interdisciplinary expert workshops using the SDG Impact Assessment Tool, (ii) a qualitative analysis and structuring of workshop outputs to construct causal relationships and (iii) a literature search to establish empirical support for, or discard, suggested SDG impacts. The process was designed to move from open-ended workshop discussions aimed to identify and suggest potential SDG impacts, to a prioritized set of SDG impacts backed by plausible rationales and empirically traceable accounts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe initial assessments were carried out in a series of thematic workshops arranged per key component. Invited expertise consisting of researchers in relevant academic fields and practitioners with relevant experiences were given the task to identify and describe potential impacts on the SDGs from large-scale implementation of the key components. The SDG Impact Assessment Tool was used to facilitate, encourage and structure discussions among workshop participants, divided into groups of no more than five in each. Impacts were categorized as \u0026lsquo;positive\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;no or negligible impact\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;negative\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;ambiguous\u0026rsquo; or \u0026lsquo;more knowledge needed\u0026rsquo;. The SDG Impact Assessment Tool offers a simple approach to assess impacts on the SDGs in workshop formats, providing users with succinct information of the SDGs including all corresponding targets. The workshops were carried out by categorizing impacts for each SDG accompanied with motivations clarifying arguments and reasonings. As basis for the assessments, workshop participants were instructed with a set of delimitations and assumptions relevant to the Swedish deployment of respective key component as presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Additionally, workshop participants were tasked to describe whether identified impacts would appear domestically or considered as international spillover effects with potential synergies and trade-offs arising outside of Sweden.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe workshop participants proposed potential SDG impacts with varying levels of confidence, ranging from speculative to very high. The workshop outputs were, at a later stage, further analyzed with the aim to construct causal relationships, as an \u003cem\u003ea priori\u003c/em\u003e justification or validation of suggested SDG impacts. This was achieved by formulating an effect corresponding to the cause and the suggested SDG impact, structured as:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[cause] -\u0026gt; [effect] -\u0026gt; [SDG impact].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs an example, linking large-scale implementation of EVBs to a suggested positive impact on SDG 3 (human health) would correspond to [replacement of fossil fuels with EVBs] -\u0026gt; [decreased NOx and PM emissions] -\u0026gt; [improved human health]. SDG impacts where no such relationship could be established were discarded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn some cases, a cause could give rise to effects both in support and hindering the same aspect of an SDG. For example, large scale deployment of EVBs will decrease the use of fossil fuels while, at the same time, increase extraction of minerals necessary to produce EVBs. Thus, the impact on material footprint, an aspect of SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production), is both positive and negative. Such bi-directional impacts were categorized as ambiguous.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo reach a final set of prioritized SDG impacts, a literature search was conducted with the aim of increasing confidence by finding empirical support as an \u003cem\u003ea posteriori\u003c/em\u003e justification of suggested impacts and corresponding causal relationships. This was done for SDG impacts with an assessed level of confidence of workshop participants lower than \u0026lsquo;very high\u0026rsquo;. Empirical support to identified SDG impacts were categorized in five levels as described in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Peer-reviewed papers were assigned to the levels \u0026lsquo;Specific\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;General\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;Indicative\u0026rsquo;, based on their specificity to the cause and effect. Causal relationships where no empirical support could be found, denoted as \u0026lsquo;None\u0026rsquo; in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, were deemed speculative and excluded from the set of prioritized impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical support categories of causal relationships with corresponding levels of confidence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevel of confidence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery high\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCausal relationships assessed with very high level of expert confidence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiterature specific to the cause and effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiterature specific to the effect and informative to the cause\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiterature informative to the cause and effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpeculative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo occurrences of literature in support of causal relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDG impacts justified by both a causal mechanism and empirical support were selected as prioritized. The prioritized impacts were further checked for double allocation between key components. The guiding principle was to allocate impacts to key components in the sectors they would appear, according to Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. As an example \u0026ndash; large-scale expansion of wind power in Sweden would primarily give rise to positive impacts on SDG 13 (climate action) due to the replacement of fossil fuels in the transport sector and iron and steel industry, and hence be allocated to EVB and green hydrogen and not wind power itself.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe stepwise procedure of the SDG impact assessments (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) for the seven key components resulted in a total of 95 prioritized SDG impacts. The impacts were distributed as follows over the key components: 11 with biomass, 5 with CCS, 8 with climate neutral concrete, 24 associated with EVBs, 17 with green hydrogen, 12 with solar PV, and 18 with wind power. The distribution of these impacts over the SDGs, as well as the breakdown into different impact categories, is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. No prioritized impacts were identified for SDG 1, SDG 2, SDG 4, SDG 5, SDG 10, and SDG 17. The highest number of impacts was found for SDG 8 (23 impacts), followed by SDG 12 (13 impacts) and SDG 7 (11 impacts). Domestically, 37 of the prioritized impacts were positive and 16 impacts were negative. For spillover impacts, the pattern was reversed with 7 positive impacts and 28 negative impacts. 7 of the prioritized domestic impacts were classified as ambiguous, all linked to SDG 7, SDG 8 and SDG 12. No ambiguous spillover impacts were identified.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eBiomass\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 impacts on the SDGs were identified from the expanded use of biomass in the energy and transport sectors (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Combustion of biomass increases hazardous air pollution in local and regional surroundings, negatively impacting respiratory and, possibly, cardiovascular health, which pose a risk to SDG 3 (good health and wellbeing) and SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities) through degradation of urban air quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrioritized SDG impacts from biomass. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpillover\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCausal relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCombustion of biomass in the energy and transport sectors -\u0026gt; Increased NOx and PM emissions -\u0026gt; Increased illness and mortality from hazardous air pollution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse of biomass in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -\u0026gt; Increased use of renewable energy -\u0026gt; Increased share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse of biomass in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -\u0026gt; Increased demand for biomass -\u0026gt; Less affordable average energy prices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil energy with bioenergy in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -\u0026gt; Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions -\u0026gt; Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+/-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse of biomass in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -\u0026gt; Decreased use of fossil fuels/Increased outtake of biomass resources -\u0026gt; Increased material footprint per GDP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse of biomass in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -\u0026gt; Increased economic activity in the agricultural, forestry and energy sectors -\u0026gt; Economic growth and job creation in the agricultural, forestry and energy sectors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil energy with bioenergy in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -\u0026gt; Reduced GHG emissions per unit of value added -\u0026gt; Upgrade and retrofit of industries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCombustion of biomass in the energy and transport sectors -\u0026gt; Increased NOx and PM emissions -\u0026gt; Degradation of urban air quality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+/-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse of biomass in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -\u0026gt; Decreased use of fossil fuels/Increased outtake of biomass resources -\u0026gt; Impact on material footprint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil energy with bioenergy in the industry and transport sectors -\u0026gt; Decreased use of fossil energy -\u0026gt; Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse of biomass in the industry, energy, and transport sectors -\u0026gt; Increased exploitation of biomass resources -\u0026gt; Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and loss\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse of biomass to mitigate GHG emissions in the industry, energy, and transport sectors could have both positive and negative impacts on different aspects of SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy). Expanded use of biomass will increase the share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption, thus contributing positively to SDG 7. At the same time, increased demand for biomass could increase energy prices, as biofuels are typically more expensive than fossil fuels, with risk for a negative impact on the affordability perspective of SDG 7 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. This is particularly true for the transport sector through the blending of ethanol and biodiesel in fossil fuels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil energy with bioenergy enables decoupling of economic growth (GDP) from GHG emissions in the industry, energy and transport sectors, with positive impacts on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) and SDG 13 (climate action). Decreased use of fossil fuels also generates positive impacts on SDG 8 and SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production) through reduced material footprint per GDP. Increased domestic consumption of biomass will, on the other hand, increase the Swedish material footprint per GDP, which might hamper ambitions to improve resource efficiency in consumption and production with negative impacts on SDG 8 and SDG 12. Thus, the impact on material footprint per GDP is assessed as ambiguous. A well-managed bioenergy production system, which uses materials that otherwise would go to waste, can mitigate the negative impact on SDG 12 through advances in the management of natural resources. Producing biogas, for instance, can decrease food waste, or at least make the energy in food waste useful.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic growth and job creation are likely to arise and be upheld in the Swedish agricultural, forestry and energy sectors from increased use of biomass, bringing new opportunities to a wide range of associated actors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] giving a positive impact on SDG 8. Biomass usage also brings positive impacts to SDG 9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure) as it enables upgrade and retrofit of industries through replacement of fossil energy[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreased use of biomass could cause negative impacts on SDG 15 (life on land). As demand for biomass increases, harvesting of wood and logging residues (slash and stumps), as well as cultivation of energy forest, is likely to increase [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR36\" citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, outtake of biomass risks having several negative environmental impacts on e.g., soil and water chemistry as well as biodiversity through loss, degradation, and fragmentation of habitats [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. However, such negative impacts vary greatly depending on crops and farming methods, as well as geological and biological factors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCarbon Capture and Storage (CCS)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFive impacts on the SDGs were identified from the application of CCS in the industry and energy sectors (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). CCS gives rise to energy penalties that, to varying degrees, reduce the overall energy efficiency of e.g., concrete production and thermal power plants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Adding to this, further energy losses appear on a system level due to transport and storage of carbon dioxide. Hence, large-scale implementation of CCS might have a negative impact on SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy) through decreased energy efficiency. CCS is, however, an important mitigation option to reach net-zero GHG emissions in concrete production and to enable negative GHG emissions when applied to biofueled thermal power plants. These two applications reduce territorial GHG emissions while upholding economic productivity and growth, thus giving positive impacts on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) through economic decoupling of GHG emissions, SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure) through reduced GHG emissions per unit of value added in industry, and SDG 13 (climate action) as it removes GHG emissions in absolute terms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrioritized SDG impacts from Carbon capture and storage. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpillover effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCausal relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApplication of CCS in the industry and energy sectors -\u0026gt; Increased energy use per unit output -\u0026gt; Reduced energy efficiency of industrial processes and energy conversion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApplication of CCS in the industry and energy sectors -\u0026gt; Mitigation of GHG emissions -\u0026gt; Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApplication of CCS in the industry and energy sectors -\u0026gt; Mitigation of GHG emissions -\u0026gt; Upgrade and retrofit of infrastructure and industries through reduced GHG emissions per unit of value added\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApplication of CCS in biomass fueled thermal power plants -\u0026gt; Increased exploitation of biomass resources -\u0026gt; Increased material footprint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApplication of CCS in the industry and energy sectors -\u0026gt; Removal of GHG emissions -\u0026gt; Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCCS, when applied to biofueled power plants (BECCS) could lead to a negative impact on SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production). BECCS enables negative GHG emissions, which could increase the demand for biomass used in electricity and heat production to achieve carbon offsets, thereby increasing the domestic material footprint. The significance and magnitude of this risk depends on the future market value of negative emissions, which will impact the demand for biomass used for this purpose.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eClimate neutral concrete\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEight impacts on the SDGs were identified from replacing conventional with climate neutral concrete (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Replacing conventional concrete with climate neutral mitigates territorial GHG emissions from the industry sector and associated embedded emissions in the supply chains of transport infrastructure and buildings. This enables economic activity and growth decoupled from GHG emissions. Climate neutral concrete allows for continued use of concrete in buildings and transport infrastructure while mitigating GHG emissions, which contributes to sustained economic growth and job creation. These effects give positive impacts on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth). Replacing conventional concrete with climate neutral also brings a positive impact on SDG 9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure) as it mitigates GHG emissions from the industry sector and enables retrofit of the concrete industry, as well as upgrade of infrastructure through reduced GHG emissions per unit of value added [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Through its mitigation potential, climate neutral concrete also impacts SDG 13 (climate action) positively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrioritized SDG impacts from Climate neutral concrete. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpillover\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCausal relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacing production of conventional concrete with climate neutral -\u0026gt; Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions -\u0026gt; Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacing use of conventional concrete with climate neutral -\u0026gt; Continued use of concrete as a construction material -\u0026gt; Sustained economic growth and job creation in the buildings and transport infrastructure sectors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of climate neutral concrete -\u0026gt; Substitution of gravel and sand with reused concrete in infrastructure -\u0026gt; Decreased material footprint per GDP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacing production of conventional concrete with climate neutral -\u0026gt; Mitigation of GHG emissions from the industry sector -\u0026gt; Retrofit of industries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacing use of conventional concrete with climate neutral -\u0026gt; Reduced GHG emissions per unit of value added in transport infrastructure -\u0026gt; Upgrade of infrastructure through reduced embedded GHG emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacing use of conventional concrete with climate neutral -\u0026gt; Reduced embedded GHG emissions in buildings and transport infrastructure -\u0026gt; Reduction of per capita environmental impact of cities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of climate neutral concrete -\u0026gt; Substitution of gravel and sand with reused concrete in infrastructure -\u0026gt; Decreased material footprint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacing production of conventional concrete with climate neutral -\u0026gt; Reduced GHG emissions from the industry sector -\u0026gt; Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacing conventional concrete with climate neutral in e.g., buildings and transport infrastructure contributes positively to SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities) through the reduction of embedded GHG emissions, and thus the per capita environmental impact of cities. Furthermore, there is a potential to reuse waste concrete in new concrete production or as ballast in construction of e.g., transport infrastructure, bringing down the need for virgin raw materials, a positive impact on SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eElectric Vehicle Batteries (EVBs)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 impacts on the SDGs were identified from replacing fossil fuels with EVBs in the transport sector (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Replacing ICEVs with BEVs reduce emissions of air pollutants from transport [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. Air pollution, particularly nitrogen oxides (NOx), damages human health. Even at low levels, NOx may cause damage to the human respiratory system. Electrification of transports thus brings a positive impact on SDG 3 (good health and well-being) as well as SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities), through improved urban air quality. Although EVBs has zero tailpipe emissions, the higher weight of electric vehicles gives rise to increased mobilization of road dust to air, which may locally impact SDG 3 and SDG 11 negatively through increased concentrations of particulate matter (PM). However, the positive impact from eliminating exhaust emissions can be assumed to outweigh the negative impact from increased road dust.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrioritized SDG impacts from Electric vehicle batteries. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpillover\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCausal relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -\u0026gt; Decreased NOx and PM emissions -\u0026gt; Improved human health\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of EVBs -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Health risks associated with mining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of EVBs -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for pollution of drinking water and water scarcity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -\u0026gt; Decreased use of fossil energy -\u0026gt; Increased share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -\u0026gt; Increased energy efficiency -\u0026gt; Decreased primary energy per GDP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -\u0026gt; Decreased use of fossil energy -\u0026gt; Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+/-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -\u0026gt; Decreased domestic consumption of fossil fuels/Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Impact on material footprint per GDP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectrification of transports -\u0026gt; Increased demand for electric vehicles including components such as EVBs -\u0026gt; Economic growth and job creation in the transport, industry and energy sectors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectrification of transports -\u0026gt; Import of inputs to the transport and industry sectors -\u0026gt; Increased economic activity in export countries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDomestic production of EVBs -\u0026gt; Export of low carbon footprint EVBs -\u0026gt; Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions in import countries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of EVBs -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for labor rights, child labor and safe and secure environments from mining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectrification of transports -\u0026gt; Expansion of charging infrastructure -\u0026gt; Upgrade and retrofit of industry and infrastructure as well as encouraged innovation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -\u0026gt; Decreased NOx and PM emissions -\u0026gt; Improved urban air quality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDomestic production of EVBs -\u0026gt; Establishment of new mines for extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks to the protection and safeguard of natural and cultural heritage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+/-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -\u0026gt; Decreased use of fossil energy/Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Impact on material footprint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of EVBs -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks to sound management of chemicals and wastes including release to air, water and soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectrification of transports -\u0026gt; Increased deposit of exhausted EVBs -\u0026gt; Increased waste generation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of EVBs -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks to the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with EVBs -\u0026gt; Reduced GHG emissions from the transport sector -\u0026gt; Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDomestic production of EVBs -\u0026gt; Export of low carbon footprint EVBs -\u0026gt; Mitigation of GHG emissions in import countries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of EVBs -\u0026gt; Increased extraction for critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risk for marine ecosystems from seabed and deep-sea mining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of EVBs -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for biodiversity, habitats as well as terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDomestic production of EVBs -\u0026gt; Establishment of new mines for extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks to terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of EVBs -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for corruption and lack off participatory decision-making at local levels in countries with weak institutions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs electrification of transports accelerates, demand for critical minerals used in EVBs such as aluminum, cobalt, copper and lithium will increase (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Mining of these minerals to support electrification of transports in Sweden poses risks for several negative spillover impacts. Mining is associated with emissions to air and water that increase exposure of workers and residents to toxic elements, negatively impacting SDG 3. There are additional risks to SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) from water pollution and aggravating water scarcity in the mining of particularly lithium and copper. Artisanal and unregulated mining of cobalt has negative spillover impacts on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) from lack of labor rights, use of child labor and occupational accidents [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Cobalt mining can also impact SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) negatively from increased corruption and lack of participatory decision-making at local levels in countries with weak institutions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. Increased mining of aluminum, cobalt, copper and lithium is likely to further strengthen already existing harmful consequences to local biodiversity and habitats as well as terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems, resulting in negative spillover impacts on SDG 15 (life on land). To meet the increased demand, opening of new or increased extraction in existing mines for, in particular, copper, cobalt and lithium could also occur in Sweden, with risks for a negative impact on SDG 15 (life on land). In the long term, the need for critical minerals could trigger searches for new deposits of copper and cobalt on the ocean floor should conventional resources become scarce. Seabed and deep-sea mining pose great risks to create harmful consequences to marine ecosystems with negative spillover impacts on SDG 14 (life below water) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the short to medium term, the increased demand for electricity following electrification of transports will most likely be met by wind power [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Replacement of fossil fuels with EVBs will thus bring positive impacts on SDG 7 (clean and affordable energy) and SDG 13 (climate action) as the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption increases and territorial GHG emissions is mitigated. This also positively impacts SDG 8 through decoupling of GHG emissions from economic (GDP) growth in the transport sector. Additionally, electric motors are significantly more energy efficient compared to internal combustion engines. Hence, electrification of transport will provide another positive impact on SDG 7 by increasing the energy efficiency of the transport sector, which decreases the use of primary energy per GDP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing electrification of transports, domestic car manufacturers will see a growing demand for electric vehicles on the Swedish market, which could provide economic growth and job creation if successfully met, as a positive impact on SDG 8. Electrification of transports could bring further opportunities to sustainable industrialization, new innovations and supplementing infrastructure along the whole supply chains of production, distribution and use. A fundamental requirement is the realization of increased capacity for renewable electricity production and distribution, including upgrading of electricity grids and building of charging stations. This could give a positive impact on SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure). Positive spillover impacts on SDG 8 could also be realized from Swedish imports of electric vehicles, EVBs and other components, driving economic activity in other countries, as well as through export of domestically produced EVBs with relatively low carbon footprints, supporting decoupling of economic growth from GHG emissions in other countries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecreased domestic consumption of fossil fuels in the transport sector reduces the material footprint which positively impacts SDG 8, specifically the material footprint per GDP, and SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production). At the same time, however, electrification of transports will increase the exploitation of critical minerals and thus increase the material footprint. As the actual net effect is uncertain, related impacts on SDG 8 and SDG 12 are assessed as ambiguous. Electrification of transports will also increase the turnover of EVBs, but due to the lack of established recycling and/or reuse options waste generation from exhausted EVBs could increase, which negatively impacts SDG 12. For lithium, there is a specific risk of scarcity which could give another negative impact on SDG 12 and the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. Opening of new mines in Sweden following increased demand for cobalt, copper and lithium, could pose additional risks to SDG 11 and the protection and safeguard of the natural and cultural heritage of the Sami people [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGreen hydrogen\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e17 impacts on the SDGs were identified from replacing fossil fuels with green hydrogen (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Mining of PGMs and nickel, necessary in electrolyzers used to produce green hydrogen, is associated with health risks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. Large-scale implementation of green hydrogen in the iron- and steel industry can hence pose a negative spillover impact on SDG 3 (good health and well-being) in countries extracting and processing these minerals. Such mining can also generate a negative spillover impact on SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) due to high water usage during extraction and processing, as well as pollution of freshwater [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. Both PGMs and nickel are predominantly mined in countries with weak institutions, posing additional negative spillovers concerning SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) through risks for violation of labor rights and safe and secure working environments, SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production) due to poor management of chemicals and wastes, SDG 15 (life on land) due to poor management of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and the resulting risks of habitat destruction and decrease in biodiversity, and SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) due to risks of increased injustice, corruption and lack of inclusive institutions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrioritized SDG impacts from green hydrogen. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpillover\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCausal relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of electrolyzers -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Health risks associated with mining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of electrolyzers-\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for pollution of drinking water and water scarcity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with electrification in the iron and steel industry -\u0026gt; Decreased use of fossil energy -\u0026gt; Increased share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+/-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectrification of the iron and steel industry with green hydrogen -\u0026gt; Increased flexibility of electricity use through green hydrogen storage/Increased demand for electricity -\u0026gt; Impact on average electricity prices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with electrification in the iron and steel industry -\u0026gt; Decreased use of fossil energy -\u0026gt; Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with electrification in the iron and steel industry -\u0026gt; Decreased use of fossil energy -\u0026gt; Decreased material footprint per GDP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectrification of the iron and steel industry with green hydrogen -\u0026gt; Increased economic activity in the industry and energy sectors -\u0026gt; Economic growth and job creation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDomestic production of steel with green hydrogen -\u0026gt; Export of green steel -\u0026gt; Economic (GDP) decoupling from GHG emissions in import countries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of electrolyzers -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for labor rights and safe and secure environments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectrification of the iron and steel industry with green hydrogen -\u0026gt; Reduced GHG emissions per unit of value added -\u0026gt; Upgrade and retrofit of industry and infrastructure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of conventional steel with green -\u0026gt; Reduced embedded GHG emissions in buildings and transport infrastructure -\u0026gt; Reduction of per capita environmental impact of cities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with electrification in the iron and steel industry -\u0026gt; Decreased use of fossil raw materials -\u0026gt; Decreased material footprint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of electrolyzers -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks to sound management of chemicals and wastes including release to air, water and soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacement of fossil fuels with electrification in the iron and steel industry -\u0026gt; Decreased use of fossil energy -\u0026gt; Mitigation of territorial GHG emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDomestic production of steel with green hydrogen -\u0026gt; Export of green steel -\u0026gt; Mitigation of GHG emissions in import countries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of electrolyzers -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for biodiversity, habitats as well as terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of electrolyzers -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for corruption and lack off participatory decision-making at local levels in countries with weak institutions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing green hydrogen as input and energy carrier in the iron and steel industry enables flexible use of intermittent electricity and replacement of fossil resources, which positively impacts SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy) through increased share of renewable energy in the Swedish total final energy consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Electrification of the iron and steel industry will, however, at the same time significantly increase demand for electricity, a demand that in the short to medium term is most likely to be met by wind power. Even though green hydrogen can balance the intermittent electricity production from wind power, the actual net effect on consumer electricity prices from increased electricity demand is uncertain, which gives an ambiguous impact on SDG 7 and affordability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreen hydrogen enables a decarbonization of the Swedish iron and steel industry, clearly impacting SDG 13 (climate action) positively and contributing to a positive spillover impact on SDG 13 in countries importing green steel from Sweden. Replacing coal with electricity and green hydrogen in the iron and steel industry offers additional positive impacts on SDG 8 and SDG 12 through decoupling of economic (GDP) growth from GHG emissions, and through decreased material footprint per GDP. Actors in the Swedish iron and steel industry could also benefit from a first mover advantage by producing premium green steel that could lead to growth opportunities and job creation, offering another positive impact on SDG 8. Export of green steel from Sweden that replaces conventional steel in industrial production and manufacturing could also provide a positive spillover impact on SDG 8 and SDG 12 by decoupling economic growth from GHG emissions in import countries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplacing current coal-based processes with electrification and green hydrogen enables a retrofit of industries through mitigation of GHG emissions per unit of value added, as a positive impact on SDG 9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure). Replacing conventional steel with green in buildings and transport infrastructure also reduces embedded GHG emissions and thus the per capita environmental impact of cities, giving a positive impact on SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSolar PV\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 impacts on the SDGs were identified from large-scale expansion of solar PV (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Expanded use of solar PV will increase the demand for aluminum and copper (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Mining of these minerals is associated with negative impacts on human health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e], in particular respiratory diseases and allergies, thereby generating a negative spillover impact on SDG 3 (good health and well-being). Such mining might also lead to acid mine drainage and metal and chemical pollution of land, surface and ground waters that can impair the ecological status of terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, threaten local biodiversity, degrade habitats and limit the availability of fresh water. Increased extraction of minerals for solar PV is thus likely to cause negative spillover impacts on SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), SDG 15 (life on land) as well as SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production) through poor management of chemicals and wastes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. Mining and processing of aluminum (bauxite) and copper in countries with weak institutions could pose additional negative spillover impacts on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) through violation of labor rights and safe and secure working environments, and SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) as a consequence of increased injustice, corruption and lack of inclusive institutions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, increased demand for copper could trigger searches for new resource deposits on the ocean floor, which pose risks to damaging marine ecosystems as a negative spillover impact on SDG 14 (life below water) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrioritized SDG impacts from solar PV. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpillover\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCausal relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of PV modules -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Health risks associated with mining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of PV modules -\u0026gt; Increased extraction for critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for pollution of drinking water and water scarcity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of solar PV -\u0026gt; Increased renewable electricity production -\u0026gt; Increased share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+/-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of solar PV -\u0026gt; Increased supply of electricity/Increased share of intermittent electricity production -\u0026gt; Impact on average electricity prices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of solar PV -\u0026gt; Import of solar PV modules -\u0026gt; Increased economic activity in export countries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of PV modules -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risk for labor rights and safe and secure environments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of solar PV -\u0026gt; Development of grid connected energy storage -\u0026gt; Upgrade of infrastructure and new innovations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of PV modules -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks to sound management of chemicals and wastes including release to air, water and soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of solar PV -\u0026gt; Increased deposit of exhausted PV modules -\u0026gt; Increased waste generation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of PV modules -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risk for marine ecosystems from seabed and deep-sea mining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of PV modules -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for biodiversity, habitats as well as terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of PV modules -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for corruption and lack off participatory decision-making at local levels in countries with weak institutions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreased integration of solar PV in the Swedish energy system will increase the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption, thereby giving a positive impact on SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy). The impact on consumer electricity prices, i.e., the affordability aspect of SDG 7, is ambiguous as increased supply of intermittent electricity might contribute to higher price fluctuations. Imports of solar PV modules to Sweden could generate a positive spillover impact on SDG 8 in terms of increased economic growth, job creation and innovation in exporting countries. In Sweden, a large-scale expansion of solar PV could support the development of energy storage capabilities in the electricity infrastructure, such as stationary batteries, thereby strengthening innovation and stimulating development of sustainable infrastructure, a positive impact on SDG 9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWind power\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 impacts on the SDGs were identifies from expansion of wind power (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Production of wind turbine components requires aluminum, copper, REEs, mainly neodymium and dysprosium, and zinc (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Mining of these minerals may contaminate soil, freshwater and drinking water, as well as give rise to local air pollution [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR56 CR57\" citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. Large-scale expansion of wind power in Sweden thus poses a risk for negative spillover impacts on SDG 3 (good health and wellbeing), SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) and SDG 15 (life on land). Furthermore, there is an additional risk for a negative spillover impact on SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production), specifically the environmentally sound management of chemicals and wastes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. Increased global demand for copper, REEs and zinc could trigger searches for new deposits on the ocean floor. Seabed and deep-sea mining pose great risks to create harmful consequences to marine ecosystems with risk for a negative spillover impact on SDG 14 (life below water) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. There is a risk for a negative spillover impact on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), as mining of in particular REEs is associated with risks for violation of labor rights and safe and secure working environments. Increased demand for REEs also poses a risk for corruption and lack of participatory decision-making as a negative spillover impact on SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions), as the mining of REEs is concentrated to countries with weak institutions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 9\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrioritized SDG impacts from wind power. Positive (+), negative (-) or ambiguous (+/-) impacts, spillovers, the causal relationship and the empirical support is given.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpillover\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCausal relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of wind turbines -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Health risks associated with mining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of wind turbines -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for pollution of drinking water and water scarcity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of wind power -\u0026gt; Increased renewable electricity production -\u0026gt; Increased share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+/-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of wind power -\u0026gt; Increased supply of electricity/Increased share of intermittent electricity production -\u0026gt; Impact on average electricity prices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of wind power -\u0026gt; Increased economic activity in the energy sector -\u0026gt; Economic growth and job creation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of wind power -\u0026gt; Import of wind turbines -\u0026gt; Increased economic activity in export countries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of wind turbines -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for labor rights and safe and secure environments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of wind power -\u0026gt; Development of grid connected energy storage -\u0026gt; Upgrade of infrastructure and new innovations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of wind power -\u0026gt; Increased land use for wind power parks -\u0026gt; Risks to local participatory democracy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of wind power -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals and land use for wind power parks -\u0026gt; Risks to the protection and safeguard of natural and cultural heritage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of wind turbines -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for sound management of chemicals and wastes including release to air, water, and soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of wind power -\u0026gt; Increased deposit of turbine blades -\u0026gt; Increased waste generation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of wind turbines -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for marine ecosystems from seabed and deep-sea mining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of wind turbines -\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for biodiversity, habitats as well as terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of wind power -\u0026gt; Increased land use for wind power parks -\u0026gt; Risks for habitat degradation, fragmentation, and loss\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of wind turbines-\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for biodiversity, habitats as well as terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction of wind turbines-\u0026gt; Increased extraction of critical minerals -\u0026gt; Risks for corruption and lack off participatory decision-making at local levels in countries with weak institutions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpansion of wind power -\u0026gt; Increased land use for wind power parks -\u0026gt; Risks for participatory decision-making on local levels\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert opinion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, increased demand for REEs might lead to opening of new mines in Sweden, which is associated with risks for a negative impact on SDG 15 due to habitat loss, pollution, and leakage of hazardous chemicals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. Opening of new mines as well as new wind power establishments could also generate a negative impact on SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities) through risks for the protection and safeguard of the natural and cultural heritage of the Sami people [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. The large-scale expansion of wind power will exploit areas at land and sea. This could lead to political and/or commercial conflicts between national, regional and local interests with additional risks for negative impact on SDG 11. If established in sensitive areas, the expansion of wind power could also pose a risk to biodiversity and ecosystems through loss or degradation of habitats, as a negative impact on SDG 15.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA large-scale expansion of wind power increases the share of renewable energy in total final energy consumption, which gives a positive impact on SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy). The impact on consumer electricity prices, i.e., the affordability aspect of SDG 7, is however ambiguous as increased supply of intermittent electricity might contribute to higher price fluctuations. Swedish energy companies and supplementing industries could benefit from the expansion of wind power, leading to economic growth, job creation and bring a positive impact on SDG 8. Import of wind turbines could also generate a positive spillover impact on economic activity outside of Sweden [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]. Increased electricity generation from wind power may also create incentives to develop energy storage capabilities in the electricity infrastructure, such as stationary batteries, thereby strengthening innovation and development of sustainable infrastructure, giving a positive impact on SDG 9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe technological transformations required to reach zero net GHG emissions in Sweden by 2045 is, no doubt, sweeping with far reaching consequences across many sectors. As shown in this study, at least 11 out of the 17 SDGs will potentially be affected positively or negatively, domestically or abroad \u0026ndash; thus highlighting a multifaceted linkage between climate mitigation efforts and the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The results presented here show both agreements and differences with the qualitative SDG assessments carried out by IPCC [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. The main similarities being that, for comparable objects, both studies identified no significant impacts linked to SDG 4 (quality education), SDG 5 (gender equality) or SDG 10 (reduced inequalities) but synergies with SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) and SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure). IPCC identified several synergies with SDG 1 (no poverty) and SDG 2 (zero hunger), which were not identified in this study. The main reason is likely due to the difference in scope \u0026ndash; the scenario studied by IPCC was the climate transition on a global level, including the transition in low-income regions, thus making issues of poverty and hunger increasingly relevant to mitigation efforts. As noted by McCollum et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], SDG interactions may not always be universally linked but rather context-dependent and case-specific. Comparisons of SDG assessments that differs in context and scope are, indeed, likely to show varying and perhaps even contrasting results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the SDG assessments presented here, a set of overarching narratives encapsulating synergies and trade-offs between the Swedish climate transition and the SDGs emerges. In the domestic context, positive impacts are foremost linked to SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) and SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure). This is not surprising given the technological focus of this study. It is also well in line with political aspirations and the Swedish public debate that emphasize needs for industrial transformation to reach zero net emissions of GHGs as well as how the climate transition can provide growth and export opportunities to the Swedish industry. As evident across all assessed key components, the development and implementation of climate neutral technologies have the potential to create jobs, growth markets, infrastructures, innovations and systemic know-how with export potential. Climate benefits from Swedish exports \u0026ndash; sometimes referred to as a \u0026lsquo;comparative carbon advantage\u0026rsquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e] \u0026ndash; could be realized and is here assessed as potential positive spillover impacts on SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) and SDG 13 (climate action), through decoupling of economic growth and GHG emissions in countries importing EVBs and green steel.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Swedish climate transition is, however, to a large extent dependent on imports along supply chains to support the technological transformations. The need for raw materials, in particular critical minerals, is expected to increase rapidly. The most clear-cut narrative derived from the SDG impact assessments is the shift from fossil resources to critical minerals. The growing dependency on critical minerals is acknowledged in policy \u0026ndash; for instance the European Critical Raw Materials Act \u0026ndash; emphasizing increased attention to security of supply issues, including sustainable sourcing practices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e]. Among industrial businesses acting in global supply chains, there is a raising awareness of broader sustainability implications from the upstream extraction of minerals. In response, several global initiatives such as the Alliance for Responsible Mining, the Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance, the Responsible Mining Foundation and the Responsible Minerals Initiative, work on different levels to provide information and encourage cooperation to combat social and environmental risks from mining. Sustainability efforts or Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) actions are, however, limited by the lack of transparency, data and corruption that hampers trust among private actors, authorities and civic society [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e]. This study has identified a large set of trade-offs originating from mineral extraction in countries with weak institutions, posing spillover risks to SDG 3 (human health and well-being), SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), SDG 15 (life on land) and SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions). Risks that, if not carefully considered in policy, business conduct and due diligence, could potentially grow over time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother narrative concerns that of material use, recycling and circularity. As the deployment of transformative technologies increases, so will end-of-life aspects as well with potential risks to SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production). Wind power, solar PV and EVBs all contain advanced composite materials and alloys to enhance durability, energy efficiency and energy density. While giving crucial properties to market performance and uptake, these advanced materials might cause concern for future recycling options. Even though risks associated to SDG 12 and waste generation were categorized as domestic in this study, effective solutions could involve actors upstream in value chains and, thus, be of concern to international policy making and business cooperation. Should related waste problems, environmental degradation and mineral scarcity be avoided, new technologies and practices for recycling need to be developed in tandem with product development, incorporating future circular options in its design. However, as noted by the IEA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], in contrast to fossil fuels, the advantage of renewable energy technologies is the potential for material recovery and recycling, whereas oil, coal and natural gas requires a continuous new supply. Increased circular flow of materials will bring the need of virgin minerals down and associated risks to sustainable development. Although some test facilities are planned, there are currently no fully established recycling options in Sweden for e.g., wind turbine blades, solar PV modules or EVBs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLately, much of the energy related public debate in Sweden, as in most of Europe, has focused on the increasing energy and electricity prices, as well as aspects of participatory decision-making at local levels. A final narrative derived from the assessments is linked to SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities) and SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) and the impact from upscaling intermittent renewable energy on household economies as well as issues of local acceptance. There is a growing concern that an increased share of household income will be spent on energy costs, bringing households on the margin closer to energy poverty. The Swedish electricity mix has since the 1970s been fully reliant on hydro and nuclear power, which has provided relatively low and stable electricity prices. Even though Sweden has decommissioned six out of twelve nuclear reactors in the span of 25 years, the combined electricity generation from hydro and nuclear power has remained the same [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e]. A large-scale expansion of wind power and solar PV will bring short-term fluctuations to power generation and, consequently, electricity prices. The long-term economic effect is assessed as ambiguous, however, as actual electricity prices will depend on demand and supply on European energy markets as well as governmental policies. Public concern for energy prices is one of several reasons for the increased opposition against planning and permitting of new land-based wind power installations, in a growing conflict between national and local interests. A resistance that was initially characterized by \u0026rsquo;not in my backyard\u0026rsquo; has expanded into a wider manifestation of \u0026rsquo;not in anyone\u0026rsquo;s backyard\u0026lsquo;, putting forward arguments against wind power as negatively impacting health, natural environments, cultural heritage, as well as being ineffective, expensive, weather-dependent and harmful to the climate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e]. Local communities lack of incentives to accept wind power establishments could prove one major obstacle for Sweden to achieve the climate target, as is evident in recent trends of deploying municipal veto against planned wind power installations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe SDG impacts identified in this study should be viewed as a first assessment of potential synergies and trade-offs between the technological transformations needed to reach zero net GHG emissions in Sweden and the SDGs. The scope of the study brings limitations, and some methodological considerations should be discussed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirstly, the SDG impact assessments carried out in this study were based on input from a set of academic and practitioner experts challenged to address the complexity of the SDGs. When moving beyond their explicit expertise, the tendency to acknowledge emerging risks in favor of what is perceived as familiar [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e] may give biases in the results. However, the approach to structure workshop outputs, construct causal relationships and establish empirical support resulted in dismissal of some SDG impacts and have contributed to minimize such biases. Secondly, incomplete contextual information is a typical challenge in scenario-based SDG impact assessments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Spatial and temporal context, as well as governance, socio-cultural and technological conditions, are generally considered key factors in SDG interactions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The temporal development of the key components and the specific context in which they are implemented and used were deemed to be out of scope for this study. Hence, the key components, as well as the governance, socio-cultural and socio-economic aspects, were studied as currently is. Since these aspects might change, as well as the development of how the key components will be designed, produced, adopted and disposed of in the future, the SDG impact assessments should potentially be updated to follow future developments. Thirdly, the construction of causal relationships and search for empirical support was designed to enhance confidence and seek confirmation when prioritizing SDG impacts. It should be noted, however, that the causal relationships were formulated a priori and the search for empirical support was non-exhaustive. As such, these relationships should not be mistaken for expressions of verified causality over all possible applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eSince more governance policies and strategies for business cooperation that aligns the Swedish climate transition with the UN 2030 Agenda are needed, the SDG impacts identified in this study is an opportunity for policymakers and business actors to explore options for a more sustainable climate transition. The SDG impact assessments presented serve as a starting point for such efforts. Although this study summarizes knowledge from academic and practitioner experts as well as from the scientific literature into a set of prioritized SDG impacts, continued efforts from the scientific community is needed to deepen this knowledge. For the full implementation of the studied key components, the assessments might need to be further refined to include specific details relevant for respective key components.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA plausible next step would be to involve stakeholders and relevant expertise to jointly pinpoint needs for action in the policy sphere and discuss collaborative business approaches in order to strengthen potential synergies and minimize trade-offs. Furthermore, to mitigate sustainability challenges identified as spillover impacts, actors across relevant supply chains of the transformative technologies need to seek new ways of collaboration. Supply chain specific SDG impact assessment could be carried out as starting points to such efforts, facilitated by neutral partners to induce trust and create a common view of where to focus joint action. The set of prioritized SDG impacts presented in this study could lay the groundwork for the construction of indicators as a measure to monitor progress of a climate transition in line with the SDGs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough this study focuses on the specific context of the Swedish climate transition, there might be some results that parallels the situation in other countries. Hence, the results might be a relevant starting point for similar studies in other parts of the world. Additionally, the results can be relevant on sub-national levels. Several regions, cities, municipalities and local businesses in Sweden take active part in the climate transition and implement policies aiming to reduce GHG emissions. The SDG impact assessments could help regional and local policymakers and businesses to align their efforts to reduce climate impact with the SDGs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the methodological approach applied in this study, i.e., to elicit expert judgements in a workshop format followed by structuring and analysis of inputs, could inspire researchers and practitioners to create more collaboration to build new knowledge concerning complex sustainability issues.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declares that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding for this study was provided by Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAA has made an substantial contributions to the conception and design of the work; the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data; has drafted the work and substantively revised it; have approved the submitted version; have agreed both to be personally accountable for the contributions and ensured that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHK has made an substantial contributions to the conception and design of the work; the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data; has drafted the work and substantively revised it; have approved the submitted version; have agreed both to be personally accountable for the contributions and ensured that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEN has made an substantial contributions to the conception and design of the work; the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data; has substantively revised the work; have approved the submitted version; have agreed both to be personally accountable for the contributions and ensured that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKME has made an substantial contributions to the conception and design of the work; the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data; has drafted the work and substantively revised it; have approved the submitted version; have agreed both to be personally accountable for the contributions and ensured that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work is financed by the Mistra Carbon Exit Programme. Workshop contributions from researchers and practitioners within the Mistra Carbon Exit programme are gratefully acknowledged.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUNFCCC (2015) Adoption of the Paris Agreement\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIPCC (2022) Mitigation of Climate Change Climate Change 2022 Working Group III contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUnited Nations General Assembly (2015) Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015 16301:\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNerini FF, Sovacool B, Hughes N, Cozzi L, Cosgrave E, Howells M, Tavoni Massimo and Tomei J, Zerriffi H, Milligan B (2019) Connecting climate action with other Sustainable Development Goals. 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J Risk Res 16:293\u0026ndash;313. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2012.729522\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/13669877.2012.729522\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"energy-sustainability-and-society","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"esso","sideBox":"Learn more about [Energy, Sustainability and Society](https://energsustainsoc.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13705","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13705/3","title":"Energy, Sustainability and Society","twitterHandle":"@OpenEnviron","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Sustainable development goals, Climate change mitigation, SDG impact assessment tool, Climate neutral technologies, Climate policy, Sustainability","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4630096/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4630096/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Swedish climate target to reach zero net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2045 implies large transformations of current industry, energy and transport sectors. Electric vehicles, wind and solar power, biomass, carbon capture and storage, climate neutral concrete and green hydrogen are all considered technological key components in transitioning away from fossil energy. The purpose of this study is to present synergies and trade-offs from large-scale implementation of these key components in Sweden, expressed as positive or negative impacts on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The study used expert opinions elicited from thematic workshops as input, which were put through a qualitative analysis to construct causal relationships and further tested against published literature to gain empirical support.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results shows that 11 out of the 17 SDGs will be affected positively or negatively. In Sweden, 37 of the identified impacts were positive and 16 impacts were negative. For international spillover impacts, the pattern was reversed with 7 positive impacts and 28 negative impacts. A large-scale implementation of the key components brings synergies to economic growth and job creation as well as sustainable industrialization and innovation. There are, however, several trade-offs identified that concerns environmental issues mainly linked to mineral extraction, both domestically and as international spillovers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the multifaceted linkages between climate mitigation efforts and the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. To achieve a sustainable climate transition, a holistic view incorporating the SDGs needs to be employed. Next steps could include stakeholders in policy and industry to identify actions and initiate collaborative approaches to strengthen potential synergies and minimize trade-offs.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Synergies and trade-offs between the sustainable development goals and reaching zero net greenhouse gas emissions in Sweden","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-22 04:39:02","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4630096/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-07-24T07:23:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-22T16:40:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-21T19:01:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-21T17:05:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-20T16:40:59+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-17T16:06:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-12T14:47:08+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"11291908797587072933089732954883481116","date":"2024-07-12T07:37:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"53730684565447675598883107163709558778","date":"2024-07-11T21:59:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"189611811938777558389460469989565710202","date":"2024-07-11T21:32:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"123361346797046344821192844088613602426","date":"2024-07-11T08:17:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"303471810642316452743884661209345778913","date":"2024-07-10T08:53:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"86085116018936452324698897999405083457","date":"2024-07-10T07:31:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"202327569625606139499294918572083328176","date":"2024-07-10T03:11:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-07-09T21:27:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-07-03T11:49:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-06-28T03:32:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Energy, Sustainability and Society","date":"2024-06-24T12:13:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"energy-sustainability-and-society","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"esso","sideBox":"Learn more about [Energy, Sustainability and Society](https://energsustainsoc.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13705","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13705/3","title":"Energy, Sustainability and Society","twitterHandle":"@OpenEnviron","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"37ccbaea-8d65-4038-8c70-e2108545818a","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 22nd, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-12T16:03:47+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4630096","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-025-00558-4","journal":{"identity":"energy-sustainability-and-society","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Energy, Sustainability and Society"},"publishedOn":"2026-01-09 15:58:18","publishedOnDateReadable":"January 9th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-22 04:39:02","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s13705-025-00558-4","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-025-00558-4","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4630096","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4630096","identity":"rs-4630096","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}