Mix design and characterization of a low-carbon insulation foam

Mix design and characterization of a low-carbon insulation foam | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Mix design and characterization of a low-carbon insulation foam Matthieu CROO, Vincent Dubois, Alain Bataille, Jérôme Lefebvre, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7148977/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 23 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Engineering → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Building insulation is currently one of the biggest challenges to reduce energy consumption. Saving energy also means reducing the human impact on Environment. In order to reduce this impact, the manufacturing of the building materials is of importance. Moreover, policies, laws and regulations keep evolving in this direction. Mineral insulations and more precisely mineral insulating foams meet these two objectives. Indeed, in this research, replacing cement by lime and adding Limestone Clay Fines (LCF) enable the production of a mineral foam with comparative thermal and mechanical performances as mineral insulating market products, i.e. respectively under 0.065W/m/K and at least 0.2MPa. Sulfo-Aluminous Cement (SAC) was used to reach both criteria and it shows a key role in the setting. Mixing process choices and more precisely mixing equipment, can also have a significant impact. Indeed, the use of whisk, in place of a blade, produces more quickly a 28% lighter foam. Comparing with other insulating materials, this mineral foam presents one of the lowest CO2 equivalent emissions and also one of the lowest drinking net water consumptions. Additionally, the specificities of this insulation foam pores give to this new material interesting acoustic performances. Indeed, the processed foams are five times better acoustically than aerated concrete. In fact, the internal structure of the mineral foam absorbs up to 80% of low wavelengths. Lightweight mineral foam Insulating material Low carbon Sulfo-Aluminous Cement Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Highlights Thermal conductivity of the studied foams reaches until 0.053W/m/K; Acoustic absorption is above 80% between 400Hz and 1500Hz; A foam was designed with a carbon footprint of 10.63 KgCO 2 eq/m 3 . 1. Introduction The greatest challenge of the XXI century is not inventing but adapting [ 1 ]. In fact, fossil energy stocks are decreasing very quickly and they are limited, so government policies are trending towards energy sobriety and a reduction of human impact on the Environment. Building sector is behind 32% of the annual consumption of natural resources and 75% of its waste production are not recovered. Regarding the World building activity, it represents 35% of the total waste production. [ 2 ] In Europe, human activity resulted in an emission of 3.138 MT of CO 2 Eq in 2022 [ 3 ]. Building sector is behind 250 MT of CO 2 Eq. In addition, building emissions represent 40% of the 926 MT of CO 2 Eq generated by energy consumption. This means building sector and building use account for a third of the annual emissions of CO 2 Eq. The first two carbon-intensive construction materials are cement and steel, which respectively represent 2% and 1.8% of CO 2 Eq of the total European emissions.[ 4 ] Regarding world production, concrete, the most building material use, represent more than 8% of the total annual emission of CO 2 [ 5 ]. Thus, actual policies and laws aim at reducing the building sector impact on the Environment, using energy consumption regulations such as Europe’s REPowerEU in European Union [ 6 ] or the Environmental Regulation (RE 2020) in France [ 7 ]. For this reason, the development of high performance, low-carbon building insulating materials can be used in both new-building and renovation projects, and are increasingly sought-after. There are many different types of insulating products: synthetic ones, mineral ones, plant-based ones and animal-based ones. One of mineral insulating products is the mineral foam. It is manufactured from binder paste (cement, lime, plaster, etc…) into which a high proportion of air is mixed (around 90% of the volume) thanks to the addition of foaming agent and mechanical air drive [ 8 ], [ 9 ], [ 10 ], [ 11 ]. However, there are three different methods for generating mineral foam. Two by mechanical inclusion of air through agitation [ 12 ], and one by chemical reaction causing gas to form in the material[ 13 ], [ 14 ]. Thus, in the first case, it is possible to mix all the materials together to generate the final foam (Direct Foaming Method) [ 12 ], or just water and the foaming agent, which is then mixed with cement slurry (Prefoaming Method) [ 15 ], [ 16 ], [ 17 ], [ 18 ]. In the latter case, a material (generally aluminum for cellular concrete production) is added to the slurry in order to chemically react in the mixture and to produce gaz resulting in the formation of bubbles inside the blend and so creating a mineral foam [ 19 ]. These mineral insulating foams are quite fluid from start and they stiffen when drying, unlike mineral wools which, as their names suggest, are fibers bonded together and therefore highly flexible. The very low density of mineral foams (between 30 to 800 kg/m 3 ) provides a good insulation, while remaining rigid after curing (which prevents settling over time). They are also water-resistant, non-flammable and resistant to rodents, insects and fungi. For this study, carbon impact is therefore a key factor to justify the choice of one product over another. French thermal regulation, RE2020, provides a framework for the performance objectives of the material studied, regarding insulation. Thermal resistance depends both on thickness and on material thermal conductivity. The latter defines a material as insulating or not, as long as its conductivity is low enough to meet the required thermal resistance, for a maximum thickness of 30 cm (set by RE2020 [ 7 ]). In addition, the reference of 0.065 W/m/K defining a building material as a “good insulator” (according to the RT 2012 - French thermal regulations preceding the RE2020) can also be generally used. Regarding to the RE2020, thermal performances depend on the type of insulation considered (low floor, wall, converted attic, lost attic, etc.…). Mineral foams are divided, according to their dry density, into three groups named: mineral foam (from 400kg/m 3 to 800 kg/m 3 ), light mineral foam (from 160kg/m 3 to 400 kg/m 3 ) and ultra-light mineral foam (under 160 kg/m 3 ) [ 20 ]. As shown on other material, mineral foams thermal performances depend on their density. Thus, their thermal conductivity is linearly linked to their density [ 8 ], [ 13 ], [ 21 ], [ 22 ], [ 23 ]. Consequently, in order to be used as good insulating material for buildings, light and ultra-light mineral foams have to be produced. In addition, mineral foams, as many building materials, are the subject of research aimed at reducing their carbon footprint. It consists in binder replacement (Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) replaced by lime, plaster, etc…) or binder composition modification (using silica fume, ground granulated blast furnace slag, flash ash, sugarcane filter cake waste in substitution of OPC) [ 24 ], [ 25 ], [ 26 ]. Other components, without any binder activity can also be used to reduce the carbon impact of the mineral foam, like using vegetal particles [ 8 ]. However, these modifications tend to decrease the mechanical strength of mineral foams, which is already weak. Thus, alternative binders like calcium sulpho-aluminate cement (which need a clinkerization temperature of 1250°C and a lower amount of limestone than OPC), can be use, replacing a quarter of OPC [ 27 ], which is a step towards low-carbon mineral foam. In this matter, this research aims to find a formulation of light mineral foam with a lower carbon footprint, using lime in place of OPC, Sulfo-Aluminous Cement (SAC) preventing foam collapse and limestone clay fines (LCF) to substitute a part of lime. Foam’s resistance to collapse, thermal conductivity and mechanical strength will therefore be precisely studied to meet the various normative criteria. Acoustic absorption will also be discussed as a possible benefit of using that type of material, with an important volume of air and in particular interconnected pores [ 28 ]. To this end, comparisons will be made with mineral insulation foams, for walls, already sold on the building market and foams based on bibliographic public data. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Raw materials 2.1.1. White hydraulic lime Used as the main binder, it is similar to the limes used in the production of hemp concrete. Rénocal HL5 Calcia white hydraulic lime is composed of ⅔ white lime, ⅓ white cement combined with additives. It also contains 20% free lime. It has been chosen for its rapid setting and high mechanical resistance [29]. In addition, due to its composition, it has a lower carbon footprint than the Portland cement one, commonly used in mineral foam formulations. Furthermore, its absolute density (2.7 ± 0.07 g/cm 3 ) is lower than cement (3.2 ± 0.005 g/cm 3 for CEMI 52.5 R) which can participate to the foaming process easier. Investigations with plaster were also carried out, but due to its neutral pH, the produced foams were prone to mold. Plants are a natural support for fungal species, which, with lime’s basic pH (pH = 12), are unable to grow. The composition of the lime used is available in Table 1. Table 1: Rénocal HL5 White Hydraulic Lime properties (from Calcia) 2.1.2. Sulfo-Aluminous Cement Supplied by VICAT [30], and known to reduce concrete shrinkage, ALPENAT UP Sulfo-aluminous cement introduction into the foam has several interests/advantages: - fast-setting, allowing foam to set before the surfactant loses its activity; - rapid build-up of resistance for faster handling of foam blocks; - a carbon footprint 30% smaller than Portland cement, commonly used for mineral foams; - an insensitivity to many setting inhibitors; - reducing shrinkage. In addition, SAC has already been used in substitution to OPC in the production of mineral foam and shows satisfactory results (with an optimal substitution rate of 25%) [27]. The main component of Sulfo-Aluminous Cement (SAC) is calcium oxide with nearly 44.5%. SAC also contains significant quantities of aluminum oxide or alumina (over 23%), silicon dioxide or silica (over 11.5%), iron (III) oxide or ferric oxide (nearly 10.2%) and sulfur trioxide or sulfuric anhydride (nearly 7.5%). However, SAC, contains little or no anhydrite. It is therefore added to enable the formation of gypsum by hydration, which in turn enables the formation of ettringite by hydration of yeelimite. Other properties of the SAC are available in Table 2. Table 2 ALPENAT UP Sulfo-Aluminous Cement composition (from Vicat) Chemical characteristics Molecules Unity Average Standard deviation SiO 2 % 11.52 0.42 Al 2 O 3 % 23.03 0.53 FeO 3 % 10.17 0.15 CaO % 44.49 0.70 MgO % 0.71 0.04 TiO 2 % 1.42 0.02 K 2 O % 0.36 0.02 Na 2 O % 0.08 0.04 P 2 O 5 % 0.14 0.01 MnO % 0.00 0.02 SO 3 % 7.45 0.35 SrO % 0.12 0.00 Chlorides (CI) % 0.02 0.00 Fire lost (950°C) % 0.50 0.27 Mineralogical composition (by X ray diffraction) Mineral phase Unity Average Standard deviation Specifications Ca 4 Al 6 O 12 SO 4 Yeelimite % 51.0 0.9 ≥ 50 C 2 S β Belite β % 26.5 1.5 * C 2 S α‘ Belite α % 4.3 0.9 * CaSO 4 Anhydrite % 0.4 0.3 < 2 Free lime % 0.00 0.01 < 0.6 Other phases % 17.8 * * 2.1.3. Limestone Clay Fines Produced by washing limestone aggregates, the main characteristic of these fines is their clay content (determined by the Illite and Kaolinite content). The higher the clay content, the greater the water retention at wet state. But it also improves particle cohesion when it is hard/dry. In this study, the limestone clay fines come from Carrières du Boulonnais (LCF) which have a clay content of 19% and a true density of 2.75 ± 0.03 g/cm 3 . The composition of the LCF is available in Table 3. Table 3 Limestone Clay Fines composition from Carrières du Boulonnais Limestone Clay Fines Limestone Kaolinite Illite Quartz Goethite Dolomite Composition (%) 62 12 7 11 3 5 The main advantages of LCF are its local production, the presence of a large quantity of this material, the stock and production homogeneity. Moreover, it is also basically a manufacturing waste, meaning it can be considered as having no environmental impact. 2.1.4. Water (tap) Water composition on 2024/01/31 was recorded as shown below (Table 4). The analysis was warried out by C.A.B.B.A.L.R., responsible for the public water distribution service in the city sector of Béthune (France) [31]. Table 4 Water tap composition Parameters Value Quality limit Quality reference Total Chlorine 0,53 mg (Cl2) /L Hydrogen carbonates 376,0 mg/L Carbonates 0 mg (CO3) /L pH 7,2 pH unities ≥ 6,5 and ≤ 9 pH unities Potassium 5,2 mg/L Sodium 32,5 mg/L ≤ 200 mg/L Sulfates 91 mg/L ≤ 250 mg/L Chlorides 54 mg/L ≤ 250 mg/L Conductivity at 25°C 910 µS/cm ≥ 200 and ≤ 1100 µS/cm Fer total 23 µg/L ≤ 200 µg/L Ammonium (NH 4 ) < 0,05 mg/L ≥ and ≤ mg/L ≥ and ≤ 0,1 mg/L Nitrites (NO 2 ) < 0,02 mg/L ≤ 0,1 mg/L Nitrates/50 + Nitrites/3 0,03 mg/L ≤ 1 mg/L Nitrates (NO 3 ) 1,5 mg/L ≤ 50 mg/L Total organic carbon 0,55 mg(C)/L ≤ 2 mg(C)/L Nickel 20 µg/L ≤ 20 µg/L As shown in the table, water complies with French regulations for drinking water. 2.1.5. A foaming agent For this study, a potato protein hydrolysate surfactant supplied by Roquette industrial company was used. This co-product of starch processing has been tested beforehand, revealing an optimum foaming at FA/B = 0.7%. This ratio has been used for all formulations of this study. Pre-tests also show an improvement in foam up to 15min of mixing. After this point, there is no more visible improvement in foaming. The main advantage of hydrolysable potato protein surfactant is that it is bio-sourced, biodegradable, from local production and it is a co-product so that means the major part of the corresponding carbon footprint comes from the final product. 2.1.6. A superplasticizer A superplasticizer, Sika® ViscoCrete®-850 Végétal [32], based on polycarboxylates synthesized from bio-sourced plant matter was used. This product is particularly recommended for buildings and structures with low environmental impact in the manufacture of concrete (using cement). Table 5: ViscoCrete®-850 Végétal superplasticizer specificities by Sika Aspect/Color Yellowish liquid Density 1.070 ± 0.020g/cm 3 Dry extract 30.0 ± 1.5% (NF EN 480-8) 30.0 ± 1.5% (halogen method according to NF 085) pH value 5.0 ± 1.0 Total amount of chloride ion ≤ 0.1% Sodium oxide equivalent ≤ 1.0% Dosage Dosage range: 0.1 to 5% by weight of binder or cement, depending on fluidity and desired performance. 2.2. Production process In order to generate the foam, a Perrier high-performance automatic mixer for standardized mortars was used with two reference speeds: Vmin = 100 rpm and Vmax = 200 rpm. For the production process, a protocol based on the results obtained by MAZIAN & al. in 2022 [8] was used: mix dry materials for 30sec at Vmin, then add water for 30s also at Vmin; then change the speed to Vmax during 30s and change back to Vmin for 90s. A 30s pause is then imposed to scrape the sides of the bowl to ensure that all the material is thoroughly mixed. Finally, everything is mixed for 15min at Vmax. 2.3. Mix design: modulation of key parameters and hardened properties This study is divided into two parts: first, a parametric study which aims to find the best compromise between the proportions of the foam components to allow a high level of foamability without collapse; then, the study of hardened properties for the optimal mix, considering that the thermal conductivity has to be under 0.065 W.m − 1 .K − 1 to consider the foam such as an insulating material and a compressive strength upper 0.2 MPa to ensure the capacity of the foam to be handled and to bring a supplementary comfort performances. Other parameters are measured such as setting kinetic and acoustic absorption. Porosity is a key parameter in the level of these performances, so tomography is used to observe the internal architecture of pores (size, numbers, shape). Finally, carbon footprint and water consumption are compared to those of conventional insulating materials, in order to quantify a possible improvement. In the first part, several formulations were studied, Table 6, starting with a simple combination of water and binder was adjusted with the mixtures named “Wa”. Then, lime has been gradually replaced by Limestone Clay Fines (LCF) and this was tested with mixtures named as “LCF”. Next, the foam was stabilized with a substitution of lime by Sulfo-Aluminous Cement in mixtures named as “SAC”. Finally, a part of water has been replaced thanks to the addition of superplasticizer in the mixtures named “SVV”. Table 6 Compositions and mixing conditions of studied mixes Formulations Mixing conditions Weight ratios Water/Binder LCF (%/Binder) SAC (%/(Binder + LCF)) Superplasticizer (%/(Binder + SAC)) Mix Wa1 Blade 0.6 0 0 0 Mix Wa2 Blade 0.7 0 0 0 Mix Wa3 Blade 0.8 0 0 0 Mix Wa4 Blade 0.9 0 0 0 Mix Wa5 Blade 1.1 0 0 0 Mix Wa6 Blade 1.3 0 0 0 Mix Wa7 Blade 2.0 0 0 0 Mix LCF1 Blade 1.1 15 0 0 Mix LCF2 Blade 1.1 25 0 0 Mix LCF3 Blade 1.1 50 0 0 Mix LCF4 Blade 1.1 100 0 0 Mix SAC 1 Blade 1.1 25 8 0 Mix SAC 2 Blade 1.1 25 10 0 Mix SAC 3 Blade 1.1 25 12.5 0 Mix SAC 4 Blade 1.1 25 15 0 Mix SVV1 Blade 1.1 25 12.5 0.3 Mix SVV2 Blade 1.1 25 12.5 0.6 Mix SVV3 Blade 1.1 25 12.5 1.2 2.4. Study equipment Once the foam produced, it undergoes a spreading test using a flow table (NF EN 1015-3) (15 shocks are applied and the spreading diameter is measured every 120°). Then, the foam is introduced into cylindrical molds (f110mm; H227mm) to check for possible collapse, and into metal prismatic molds 40x40x160mm 3 for thermal testing using the hot-wire method, followed by bending and compression tests using a 50kN electromechanical press. For each formulation, 3 cylindrical molds and 6 prismatic molds were produced. In addition, 3 small cylindrical molds (f100mm; H40mm) were produced for some mixes (Mix B and Mix W), in order to analyze porosity by tomography and to investigate acoustic absorption using an impedance tube. Non-invasive technique was used to determine the distribution and size of the pores. Tests were done with the tomograph Nikon XT H 225 ST on cylinders with a diameter of 100 mm and a height of 40 mm. The resolution was 39 µm. The shooting and acquisition parameters are 85 kV voltage and 2 seconds exposure time. The images reconstruction, by Nikon Inspect-X software, allows the 3D volume to be obtained from the 2D images recorded by the tomograph. After reconstruction, the volume file is analyzed by the VGStudio Max (Volume Graphics software), as visible on Fig. 2. Before doing an image analysis, a surface determination must be performed, indicating to the analysis software the material areas and void areas in the image. Here, the mineral foams studied can be considered as two-phase systems: material or air void. The verification of a correct surface determination is done by comparing the porosity, previously determined, with the porosity established from the object properties defined by the VGStudio Max software. For a cylinder of 100 mm diameter and 40 mm height, therefore 314 159 mm 3 , at a resolution of 0.039 mm, the demand is too high for the CPU of the workstation and requires reducing the volume to analyze. The cylinder was therefore cut into three smaller sub-volumes: a central cylinder of 28 ± 1 mm diameter and 36 ± 1.5 mm height, as well as a lower disk and an upper disk of 85 ± 3 mm diameter and 10 ± 0.5 mm height. Thermal tests were then carried out on small samples (40x40x160mm 3 ) using the hot-wire method (recognized by standards NF EN ISO 12570, NF EN ISO 22007-1 and NF EN ISO 483), using an FP2C probe supplied by NeoTIM (Fig. 3) [33], [34]. The hot-wire probe was used to determine the thermal conductivity of the materials. Each formulation was tested ten times on the side and bottom faces of the produced samples (as they were perfectly flat). Before testing the samples, reference products with known conductivity were tested. The reference results were identical to those expected at ± 0.002 W/m/K. In addition, mechanical strength (flexural and compressive) tests are carried out on the produced insulating foams at 28 days, in accordance with NF EN 196 [9], [35]. A 50KN electromechanical press (Shimadzu AG-Xplus) was used for the mechanical strength tests (Fig. 4) [36]. This equipment ensures a satisfactory level of precision (± 0.5% between 0 and 0.5 kN and ± 0.3% between 0.5 kN and 50 kN) for the non-bearing products. Bending tests (3 per formulation) and compressive tests (6 per formulation) are carried out on 40x40x160mm 3 samples. Mechanical strength is determined with the flexural strength R f (N/mm 2 ) and the compressive strength R c (N/mm 2 ) with: R f = \(\:\frac{1.5\times\:{F}_{f}\times\:l}{{b}^{3}}\) (1) R c = \(\:\frac{{F}_{c}}{{b}^{2}}\) (2) Where F f is the strength applied to the middle of the prism at breakage (N); l is the distance between supports (mm); FC is the maximum breaking strength (N); and b is the dimension of the square section of the prism (mm) To characterize the absorption coefficients of the developed materials, an impedance tube was employed in accordance with the ISO 10534-2 standard [37]. Only normal incidence acoustic absorption between 50Hz and 1600Hz was investigated, as this provides sufficient information regarding the ability of a material to deal with an incoming sound. Consequently, this test is the most commonly used for the purpose of acoustically characterizing materials intended for common use, such as in civil engineering [38]. 3. Results and discussions The results below are going to show several parameters of the production of a mineral insulating foam. All the foam densities refer to fresh product in the part 3.1. and to dry final product in the part 3.2. 3.1. Mix design of lime-based mineral foam: foamability and stability 3.1.1. Proportions W/B (Water/Binder) The W/B ratio was determined on the basis of the water quantities recommended for the Rénocal HL5 Calcia lime use. At low W/B ratios (0.6 and 0.7), the mixture of water, lime and foaming agent allowed part of the binder to foam. Nevertheless, some of it remained stuck to the bottom of the bowl (33% of total mass for Mix Wa1 and 27% of total mass for Mix Wa2). For this two first Mix, thus, it is impossible to know if the mineral composition of the foam and stuck mix are homogenous. Therefore, these two Mixes cannot be selected. Increasing the ratio, results first in an augmentation of the density and a homogenous mix and then in a drastic decrease in density (1325Kg/m 3 to 760Kg/m 3 ) and a stability of the final product (very low collapse). Thus, by increasing the amount of water, as it is possible to observe from Fig. 5 , it improves foaming. However, as visible on the same graphic, the use of W/B ratio over 1.1 results in a decrease of density but associated with foam collapse. The addition of too much water, as visible for W/B = 2, carries on destabilizing the foam and separating two matter phases. One of the latter is a really light foam and the other one lies underneath corresponding to a very fluid and dense paste. A significant variation in foam density stems from a mix heterogeneity which itself is associated with a low value of W/B ratio. The value of W/B = 1.1 was therefore selected as giving the best foaming without collapse. 3.1.2. Mineral addition of Limestone Clay Fines (LCF) The main aim of replacing part of the binder with limestone clay fines was to reduce the carbon footprint of the final product. However, it turns out that the fines also improve the foaming of the mix. Indeed, as can be seen from the graph below (Fig. 6 ), foaming is considerably improved; up to 72% lighter with the addition of 25% fines. It can also be seen that above 25% fines, foaming seems to improve only slightly, while collapse increases. Indeed, already at 25%, collapse is multiplied by 5. The unique use of LCF with water and foaming adjuvant results in the formation of a very short-lived, unstable foam, which forms a very compact product as soon as it is poured. Similarly, the brittleness of the foam is visible at 50% of LCF, resulting in a very fragile final product that can barely support its own weight. Using only LCF and no other binder allows a foam formation only during the mixing time. When the mixer stops the foam quickly collapses, giving a very fluid and dense paste. Thus, without lime as a binder in the mix, mineral foam cannot be created. The addition of Limestone Clay Fines (25% of the binder content) was chosen as it significantly improves the foaming process. The aim is to stop foam from collapsing, so as to obtain a product that is stable over time. 3.1.3. Foam stabilization by SAC use In order to stabilize the foam, several admixtures were tested with the aim of improving the stability of the foaming agent. However, none were able to reduce the collapse. Nevertheless, to halt collapse, another possibility is to accelerate the setting of the binder so as to set the finished product before collapse occurs. For this purpose, Sulfo-Aluminous Cement (SAC) was used. As can be seen from Fig. 7 , the addition of SAC rapidly reduced the collapse of the mix. Nonetheless, it does result in an increase in density (+ 48%), but completely halts the collapse of the foam at 15% of SAC used in relation to the binder (LCF is considered here as a binder, even if its effect is very limited at this level). This increase in density occurs up to 10% SAC, after which the density remains stable. At 15% SAC, setting is very fast (30 min), which could raise the question of the manufacture of larger quantities of this product and the time needed to set up the foam where it has to. It was therefore decided to use 12.5% SAC, considering collapse was negligible (0.44%). 3.1.4. Water decreases by superplasticizer use The use of superplasticizers has two objectives: firstly, to liquefy the mix in order to make the product placement easier, and secondly, to reduce water consumption (an increasingly important resource currently and for the future). As shown below (Fig. 8 ), the addition of a small amount of superplasticizer (recommended dosage between 0.1% and 5%) improves mix fluidity, on the flow table, by more than 51% before impacts and by more than 44% after impacts (with 1.2% of superplasticizer). However, the addition of superplasticizer also increases foam density (by almost 6%). In fact, by bonding on the binder, the superplasticizer temporarily limits the amount of water bound by the binder, leaving more free water and therefore too much water for optimum foaming. In view of these results, it was decided to reduce the water content of a constant amount of superplasticizer. Given that the addition of 0.6% superplasticizer results in a post-impact spread almost identical to the 1.2% dosage, the first dosage will be retained. However, the superplasticizer aims to replace water, that is why new formulations were tested (Table 7 ) in order to decrease water consumption for the formulation Mix SVV2. Table 7 Composition of water-regulated studied mixes Formulations Mixing conditions Weight ratios Water/Binder LCF (%/Binder) SAC (%/(Binder + LCF)) Superplasticizer (%/(Binder + SAC)) Mix SSV2 Blade 1.1 25 12.5 0.6 Mix B1 Blade 0.9 25 12.5 0.6 Mix B Blade 1 25 12.5 0.6 Mix B2 Blade 1.3 25 12.5 0.6 Thus, the water content of the 0.6% superplasticizer formulation was adjusted. As can be seen from the graph below (Fig. 9 ), increasing the water content (W/B = 1.3) does not significantly affect the density of the foam, but does improve its flowability (+ 13%). However, two phases can be distinguished in the foam made: a very light phase with high porosity, and a second, denser phase. By decreasing the water content, a spreading reduction can be observed (from 6% at W/B = 1, then 18% at W/B = 0.9). In addition, a decrease in density is observed (16%) at W/B = 1, which does not seem to persist thereafter, as the quantity of water becomes too low to allow the same amount of foaming. Thus, the addition of 0.6% superplasticizer saves 10% water used. 3.1.5. Blade and whisk foam production Until now, the protocol for mineral foam production has been to use a mortar mixer blade. However, the equipment now includes a whisk that can be installed instead of the blade. A test was carried out to demonstrate the positive impact of this modification to the mixing system. As visible in Table 8, Mix B and Mix W have the same composition and respectively used a blade and a whisk for the production process. With a strictly identical protocol, the foam obtained with the whisk was 28% lighter at fresh state (Mix B is 356 + 5kg/m 3 and Mix W is 258 + 9kg/m 3 ). Nevertheless, as the latter is very light, it is also more fragile. It will therefore be necessary to modify the blending time to obtain denser foam. The use of a whisk saves manufacturing time, and therefore the energy required to produce mineral foam. However, although the density has decreased considerably, this also reduces the foam’s fluidity. As a result, we can observe a 9.2% reduction in flowability (from 249 + 2mm for Mix B to 226 + 2mm for Mix W). Table 8: Composition of the final formulation using blade or whisk in the production process Formulations Mixing conditions Weight ratios Water/Binder LCF (%/Binder) SAC (%/(Binder + LCF)) Superplasticizer (%/(Binder + SAC)) Mix B Blade 1 25 12.5 0.6 Mix W Whisk 1 25 12.5 0.6 3.2. Hardened properties of Mix B and Mix W Regarding to the previous part, Mix B and Mix W are the optimized mixes from the parametric study. Their hardened properties are now discussed. 3.2.1. Microscopic and tomographic observations A first distinction between the two mixes is already visible to the naked eye. In fact, as visible on Figure 10, the replacement of the blade by a whisk increases pore size increasing the inclusion of air in the mineral foam. These two photography represent the external part of the hardened foam samples (Numerical microscope Keyence VHX-7100). The microscopic observations reveal larger pores for Mix W than Mix B which can explain a lighter density for Mix W. However, microscopic observations do not give any information about the internal structure of the foams and especially about the foam’s homogeneity. Thus, the produced foams (Mix B and Mix W) have been studied by X-rays with a tomograph. 3 small cylindrical molds (f 100mm; H40mm) were produced for each mix in order to analyze porosity. For each of these reduced volumes (Fig. 12), the porosity, obtained by VGStudio Max from image analyses and surface determination, is presented in Table 9 and compared to the overall porosity of the sample measured on the entire cylinder. Table 9 Global porosity and porosity per sub-volumes for Mix B and Mix W Mix Global porosity (%) Studied part of sample Porosity (%) Mix B 86.2 ± 0.3 Central cylinder 88.3 ± 0.4 Top disk 86.0 ± 4.2 Bottom disk 88.6 ± 4.2 Mix W 89.4 ± 0.4 Central cylinder 93.0 ± 0.2 Top Disk 89.2 ± 0.1 Bottom disk 93.4 ± 0.4 The 3D scans show that foam’s porosity is predominantly open (95% for Mix B and 98% for Mix W of the total porosity was determined with a nitrogen pycnometer according to ASTM D6226-21). In addition, the pore diameter distribution was determined using tomographic measurements (Fig. 11). Thus, pore sizes are between 0.13mm and 4.71mm with a big majority of 0.4mm to 1.6mm pores (80%). Combined with the X-ray observations, this confirms that the material is homogeneous, and the results obtained (thermal, mechanical and acoustic) are representative. The equivalent diameter (Eq. 3), presented in the figure below, corresponds to the diameter of a sphere having an identical volume, the median diameter D50 corresponding to the diameter at 50% of the maximum volume. EDia = 2 (\(\:\frac{\text{P}\text{V}}{4\pi\:/3}\)) 1/3 (3) With: EDia, equivalent diameter (mm); PV, pore volume (mm 3 ) A higher disparity can be noted for the sub-volumes of Mix B than those of Mix W. Overall, the three sub-volumes have porosities comparable to those measured on the whole samples except for the Mix B bottom disk, induced to a local collapse phenomenon in the bottom of the sample. The distribution of pore volumes by size (Fig. 13) shows that a major part of the pores has a volume between 0.1 and 10 mm 3 . Mix W has a higher proportion of pores between 1 and 10 mm 3 than Mix B. A foam analysis module in the image analysis software makes it possible to obtain the geometric properties of each pore, in particular its volume by the number of voxels and the resolution (Eq. 4), and the sphericity (Eq. 5) representing a geometric shape factor considering that a sphere has a sphericity of 1. PV = NV x R 3 (4) With: PV, pore volume (mm 3 ); NV, number of voxels; R, resolution (mm) which is 0,039 mm. Sph = \(\:\frac{4{\pi\:}.\left(\raisebox{1ex}{$\text{E}\text{D}\text{i}\text{a}$}\!\left/\:\!\raisebox{-1ex}{$2$}\right.\right)²}{\text{M}\text{S}}\) (5) With: Sph, sphericity; EDia, mean equivalent diameter (mm); MS, measured surface (mm²) Table 10 and Fig. 11 confirm the observation of Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 on the distribution of pores by volume: Mix B pores are smaller volumes than Mix W. Indeed, the average diameter is between 0.746 mm and 0.774 mm for Mix B and is between 1.012 mm and 1.113 mm for Mix W. The median diameters give similar values. The sphericity shows that the pores have shapes that are not very close to a perfect sphere. Visual observations (Figs. 12 and 13) show pores with random shapes. Figures 12 and 13 also show a fairly good distribution of pores according to their volumes, with a better homogeneous distribution for Mix W than for Mix B as already shown in Table 9. Table 10 Geometric parameters for pores within Mix B and Mix W Equivalent diameter (mm) Median diameter (mm) Sphericity Mix B Central cylinder 0.774 ± 0.031 0.717 ± 0.030 0.502 ± 0.008 Top disk 0.746 ± 0.037 0.697 ± 0.033 0.509 ± 0.008 Bottom disk 0.762 ± 0.070 0.706 ± 0.064 0.505 ± 0.011 Mix W Central cylinder 1.076 ± 0.017 1.009 ± 0.017 0.452 ± 0.001 Top disk 1.1012 ± 0.013 0.948 ± 0.011 0.463 ± 0.001 Bottom disk 1.113 ± 0.022 1.047 ± 0.022 0.460 ± 0.001 3.2.2. Thermal conductivities The results obtained by manufacturers and various studies tend to show that the evolution of density is linearly linked to the product density (the linear regression does not consider the measurements made on the foams produced for this study). As it can be seen on the graph below (Fig. 14), whatever the type of binder used, cement [20], [38], [39], lime or gypsum [40], the thermal conductivity of foams seems to depend on their density, and therefore on the amount of air they contain. The lime foams tested here (Mix B and Mix W) achieve good results (0.067 ± 0.003 W/m/K and 0.053 ± 0.002 W/m/K respectively). This once again underlines the benefits of using the whisk (Mix W), which enables better foaming and therefore better thermal performance. The regression coefficient from the empirical law shows a relative coherence between our results and the bibliography. Mix B and Mix W shows better values of thermal conductivity than the bibliography for similar density. 3.2.3. Mechanical strength Mechanical strength is not linearly related to product density, although a higher density tends to strengthen a product of identical composition. Regarding the general evolution of mechanical strength of industrial and bibliographic mineral foams (Fig. 15), they are linked to their mass by an exponential law. However, compressive strength is dependent on the chemical bonds created in the Mix by the binder. Thus, the nature of the binder will also have an impact on the strength of the final material. This explains the results of the foams produced in this study compared with the bibliographic foams, which are based on lime with a mechanical strength of 12 MPa at 28 days, compared with 50 MPa for the cement used here and 30 MPa for the plaster. As visible on Fig. 15, for an identical composition, the denser foam is therefore slightly stronger (0.227 ± 0.022 MPa) than the second foam made with the whisk (0.161 ± 0.042 MPa). It can be added that, as shown on the graphic below, the majority of mineral foams using cement (OPC and SAC) are above the regression curve and the majority of plaster/gypsum foams are under the curve. Indeed, binder seems to have a significant impact on mechanical strength especially for mineral foams (from 400 kg/m 3 to 800 kg/m 3 ) and less for light mineral foams (from 160 kg/m 3 to 400 kg/m 3 ). 3.2.4. Mechanical strength problematic: SAC additional use As explained before, on Figs. 16 and 17, Mix B and Mix W does not satisfy both thermal and mechanical objectives. In fact, Mixt B does not reach the limit of 0.065W/m/K, unlike Mix W which is more light but also more fragile. Thus, Mix W does not reach 0.2MPa. In order to increase the mechanical resistance of the foam is has been decided to reduce water use. As explained in part 3.1.4. “Water decreases by superplasticizer use”, superplasticizer allows a reduction of water. The use of 0,6% was selected because no significant change was observed increasing the amount of superplasticizer. The ratio of 1.2% was therefore tested, allowing a reduction of water of 20% (Table 11). As already highlighted by numerous studies, decreasing the water/binder ratio tends to improve the mechanical strength [41], [42], [43]. However, using superplasticizer tends also to increase the setting time start and modify the setting kinetics (Fig. 16). In fact, as visible on the graphic, for the formulations Mix SAC and Mix LCF the setting is rising almost linearly, but with the use of superplasticizer (Mix W) it is more a sigmoid curve. Using superplasticizer almost increases the setting time start to 20%. Thus, the amount of SAC can be increased until an optimum of 25% (as find in the literature [27] with cement as binder). As visible on the Fig. 18, this new formulation (Mix Z) presents a setting time slightly higher than 3 hours instead of 12h30, so a reduction of 75%. Table 11 Composition of the optimized final formulation Formulations Mixing conditions Weight ratios Water/Binder LCF (%/Binder) SAC (%/(Binder + LCF)) Superplasticizer (%/(Binder + SAC)) Mix Z Whisk 0.8 25 25 1.2 Replacing lime with SAC has also had an impact on mechanical strength. In fact, three modulations of density were tested (Fig. 17) by modifying the mixing time at Vmax to 15min to 20min and 10min. The results show a foaming decrease cause the density is 17% higher with the same mixing time (Vmax = 15min) but the conductivity is sufficient (0.064 ± 0.003 W/m/K). The mechanical strength is significantly improved to 0.382 ± 0.055 MPa. With a mixing time of 10min, the density is 9.2% lighter than Mix W and still more resistant (0.178 ± 0.040 MPa). In addition, compared to the average regression curve, Mix Z is above the curve instead of Mix B and Mix W. 3.2.5. Acoustic absorptions An acoustic impedance tube was used to determine the acoustic absorption of the foams produced (Fig. 18). To compare results, aerated concrete (YTONG Compact 15 TE with a density of 350kg/m 2 ) was tested on the same equipment. Thus, Mix B, Mix Z and Mix W exhibit a better acoustic absorption coefficient than aerated concrete. Their acoustic activities \(\:{\alpha\:}_{a},\) defined as the area under the absorption curve normalized by the frequency range [44], being more than five times higher. This result can be explained by a higher porosity for this three formulations and the internal structure of the foams [28], [45]. In fact, the minerals foams produced in this study have a quite important open porosity which can provide a better sound absorption thanks to the irregularity of their pores [46]. Nevertheless, Fig. 18 shows two different absorption syntheses for the two foams Mix B and Mix W. As shown by tomographic observations (Figs. 14 &15), Mix W has a larger porosity size than Mix B, with a slightly higher pore count (3.2%) and a slightly open porosity (3%). These findings are consistent with the acoustic behavior of Mix W which is more effective in low frequencies where Mix B allows better performance as the frequency increases. This opens up particularly interesting perspectives on hybrid mixtures making it possible to obtain an inhomogeneous pore structure depending on mixing parameters differentiated by height. In addition, evolution of Mix Z is very similar to the two other foams and stays between their results. This can be explained by Mix Z density, which is between the densities of Mix B and Mix W. Finally, these results and more especially Mix W and Mix Z ones are quite interesting because on-road vehicle engines produce a noise range from 0Hz to 1000Hz [47]. So, Mix W and Mix Z may considerably reduce the audible vehicle engine noise in a building. 3.3. Environmental impacts 3.3.1. Carbon footprint production Table 11 presents a variety of insulating materials currently used in the building industry for wall insulation. It shows the carbon footprints per cubic meter over the entire life cycle of each one of insulating materials. The different results are computed from data drawn from French public database Inies [48]. This database collects the so-called FDES ( Fiche de Données Environnementales et Sanitaire for Environmental and Sanitary Data Sheets). In order to calculate the CO 2 eq emission of the insulating foams produced for this study, a set of data was considered. The data corresponding to lime were retrieved from the FDES for hemp concrete (composed of lime considered equivalent in environmental terms) [49], [50]. Both SAC and superplasticizer carbon footprint Environmental data were obtained from the supplier. Environmental data for LCF and foaming agent were treated as nil, as these products are qualified as waste in the current state of the system. In order to estimate the environmental footprint of the production process, it was assimilated as the production process of vegetal concrete [49]. The same process had been used for Mix B and Mix W even if the tool was different, as the same mixer was used. The service lifetime of the foams was likewise estimated equivalent to the other market mineral foams, to 50 years. Table 11 Carbon footprint of insulating materials per cubic meter Insulation products for walls Thermal conductivity (W/m/K) Carbon footprint (KgCO 2 eq/m 3 ) Petro-sourced insulation Expanded polystyrene [51] 0,038 79.29 Extruded polystyrene [52] 0,035 50.4 Mineral insulation Bulk perlite [53] 0.056 220.17 Expanded perlite panel [54] 0.05 365 Bulk vermiculite [55] 0.072 283.56 Glass wool [56] 0.036 94.11 Rock wool [57] 0.034 195 Bulk rock wool [58] 0.046 27.85 Aerated concrete Ytong Energy 20 [59] 0,09 98.5 Mineral foam Airium Lafarge [60] 0,055 81,05 Mineral foam Mix B 0,067 60.20 Mineral foam Mix W 0.053 45.25 Mineral foam Mix Z 0.064 51.60 As exhibited on Table 11, insulating polystyrene, which is widely used in the building sector, has the second lowest impact (among the considered insulating materials, after bulk rock wool). The polystyrene is available in two different forms, depending on the production process used (Extruded polystyrene = 50.4 kgCO 2 eq/m 3 and Expanded polystyrene = 79.29 kgCO 2 eq/m 3 ). There are also many different forms of mineral insulation. Indeed, they are not always in the form of rigid blocks as they can be used in bulk such as perlite, vermiculite and rock wool. Moreover, rock wool, glass wool and perlite can be used in the form of semi-rigid boards. The thermal performance of these different insulating materials varies, particularly in terms of their conductivity in relation to their density, as showed on Fig. 16. Indeed, rock wool has a very high carbon footprint (195 KgCO 2 eq/m 3 ), far higher than the most commonly used glass wool (94.11 KgCO 2 eq/m 3 ). Among mineral insulating products, there is bulk perlite and bulk vermiculite (respectively 220.17 kgCO 2 eq/m 3 and 283.56 kgCO 2 eq/m 3 ), which have the advantage of being able to fill any kind of space in any shape but are subject to settling over time. Aerated concrete, although slightly denser (350kg/m 3 ) than the others and therefore with a higher thermal conductivity (0.09W/m/K), is very similar to mineral foams in the form of rigid blocks. Despite its higher density, its carbon footprint is only slightly higher than the one of glass wool (98.5 kgCO 2 eq/m 3 ). As already mentioned, Portland cement-based mineral insulating foams are also available on the building market. In particular, Lafarge AIRIUM foam has a lower carbon footprint than all the other insulating materials mentioned so far (81.05 kgCO 2 eq/m 3 ) excepted bulk rock wool (27.85kgCO 2 eq/m 3 ). The foam produced for this study has properties similar to those of the AIRIUM foam produced by Lafarge, in terms of mechanical properties and thermal performances. The foam Mix W from the present study has one of the lowest carbon footprints (45.25 kgCO 2 eq/m 3 ). This stems from (i) the replacement of cement by lime (which has a carbon footprint half of Portland cement one) and (ii) the addition of Limestone Clay Fines, whose carbon footprint is considered zero (as it comes from a different manufacturing/construction process and it is therefore a waste product of these processes). As explained before, the emissions of CO 2 eq corresponding to the mineral foam of the present study were estimated. However, because the production process was assimilated to the one for vegetal concrete, (which contained both mixing and pressing process) it was overestimated. In fact, foam production does not need a pressing process and can be easily molded or eventually cast directly on site. However, each insulating material presents its own thermal performances. And that has practical consequences in terms of insulating thickness in order to reach a given thermal resistance. Indeed, a variation of thickness results in a variation both of the insulating material volume and of the corresponding CO 2 eq gas emissions. Instead of comparing the different insulating material using the carbon footprint per cubic meter, it is more pertinent to compare them using the carbon footprint per square meter for the desired thermal resistance. All computed data, regarding carbon footprint for a thermal resistance of 3.7 K.m 2 /W (which is the limit fixed by the RE2020 in France for walls) are presented on Table 12. Those data allow a more pertinent comparison of insulating materials for the same insulation performance. Thus, those with very low thermal conductivity correspond to a much lower environmental impact to ensure a thermal resistance of 3.7 K.m 2 /W. This makes glass wool the insulating material with the lowest environmental impact. Nevertheless, comparing materials with similar thermal resistance shows that Mix W has a lower impact on the Environment than any other mineral insulating materials, excepted glass wool and Bulk rock wool. However, GES emissions are higher than for polystyrenes (11.15 kgCO 2 eq/m 3 and 6.53 kgCO 2 eq/m 3 ). Regarding Mix Z, which contain more SAC than Mix W and Mix B, the impact is lower than Mix B, thanks to its lower density and also because the impact of CO 2 eq of SAC is close to the one of the lime used in this study. Mix B emissions are higher than Mix W because of its density, involving a higher thermal conductivity. Whatever the Mix produced (Mix B or Mix W or Mix Z), they all present lower emissions than the mineral market foam (Airium) and the aerated concrete (Ytong Energy 20). Table 12 Carbon footprint of insulating materials for R = 3.7 K.m 2 /W Insulation products for walls Thermal conductivity (W/m/k) Carbon footprint for R = 3.7 K.m 2 /W (KgCO 2 eq/m 2 ) Thickness (m) Petro-sourced insulation Expanded polystyrene [51] 0,038 11.15 0.14 Extruded polystyrene [52] 0,035 6.53 0.13 Mineral insulation Bulk perlite [53] 0.056 45.62 0.21 Expanded perlite panel [54] 0.05 67.525 0.19 Bulk vermiculite [55] 0.072 75.54 0.27 Glass wool [56] 0.036 4.55 0.13 Rock wool [57] 0.034 24.53 0.13 Bulk rock wool [58] 0.046 4.74 0.17 Aerated concrete Ytong Energy 20 [59] 0,09 32.80 0.33 Mineral foam Airium Lafarge [60] 0,055 16.49 0.20 Mineral foam Mix B 0,067 14.94 0.25 Mineral foam Mix W 0.053 9.73 0.20 Mineral foam Mix Z 0,064 12.2 0.24 Environmental impact is nowadays an important characteristic of building materials, but it is highly dependent on the thermal conductivity of the materials and therefore on their density. Indeed, a lightweight material with good thermal performance will require less product to achieve the desired thermal resistance. Thus, the studied formulations revealed one of the lower carbon footprints. This one can be reduced by decreasing the density of mineral foam. 3.3.2. Impact on net drinking water consumption Drinking water is becoming an increasingly scarce resource, and therefore it presents an increasing environmental interest in relation to the more and more frequent periods of extreme heat. Once again, drinking water consumption may vary extremely from one insulating material to another. It is illustrated by the set of data drawn from the Inies database [48], which are presented in Table 13. As explained before for our insulating foam global warming potential, the drinking water consumption of our foams were estimated similarly. The data corresponding to lime were retrieved from the FDES for hemp concrete [49], [50]. Data for SAC and LCF were not available so the same data as for lime were used. Drinking water data for superplasticizer were obtained from the supplier and data for the foaming agent were assimilated. Table 13 Drinking net water consumption for some isolation materials Insulation products for walls Drinking net water use (m 3 water /m 3 product ) Drinking net water use for R = 3.7 K.m 2 /W (m 3 water ) Petro-sourced insulation Expanded polystyrene 1.64 0.23 Extruded polystyrene 1.58 0.21 Mineral insulation Bulk perlite 1.22 0.25 Expanded perlite panel 4.15 0.77 Bulk vermiculite 0.90 0.24 Glass wool 0.24 0.03 Rock wool 0.52 0.07 Bulk rock wool 0.09 0.02 Aerated concrete Ytong Energy 20 1.15 0.38 Mineral foam Airium Lafarge 0.77 0.16 Mineral foam Mix B 0.49 0.12 Mineral foam Mix W 0.39 0.09 Mineral foam Mix Z 0.45 0.11 As can be seen from Table 13, the drinking water consumption of the various types of insulations varies, from 4.15 water m 3 /product m 3 of water for expanded perlite panel to 0.09m 3 of water for Bulk rock wool. Generally speaking, semi-rigid mineral insulants (glass wool and rock wool) consume less drinking water than other mineral insulants. Then, there is aerated concrete, which consumes 5 times more water than glass wool, but almost 13 times more than Bulk rock wool (0.09m 3 ). This is mainly due to the way the material is manufactured. Cellular concrete requires kilns to trigger the alkaline chemical reaction of aluminum, which generates gas and thus pores, and autoclaves (steam generators) to achieve final strengths. The present study mineral foams, Mix B and Mix W, consume less water than the AIRIUM mineral foam, thanks to the use of lime instead of cement and the substitution of a proportion of binder by limestone clay fines. Of course, Mix W has a lower impact than Mix B due to its lower density. In addition, the use of a superplasticizer enables to reduce water use, but as visible for Mix Z, the impact is not significantly lower than Mix B and still higher than Mix W. It can be explained due to the water consumption of the raw materials, especially the superplasticizer and the sulfo-aluminous cement, which both used a significant amount of water to their production. Thus, the formulation Mix W is one of the lower water consumptions insulating material, just behind rock and glass wool. However, compared only with the rigid insulating foams, it is better than market mineral foam and aerated concrete. 4. Conclusion There is a large number of mineral insulating materials, available in different forms and with different implementation procedures. The main advantage of using mineral foams is that they are easy to adapt to different surfaces and volumes, due to their fluidity at fresh state (AIRIUM Lafarge and Aerolithys foams for example). In addition, these foams are rigid in their hardened state, so they won’t be subject to the setting that decreases the performances of bulk and semi-rigid mineral insulating materials. The production of such material includes a binder, water and a foaming adjuvant. In order to limit the environmental impact, lime and limestone clay fines were used instead of cement. The addition of sulfo-aluminous cement was necessary to stabilize the final foam and prevent settling. Nevertheless, mineral foams currently on the market, like those produced in this study, are not so as thermally efficient as glass wool or polystyrene. The very nature of their components means that, for the time being, they do not offer equivalent performance with sufficient mechanical strength without increasing the amount of SAC and thus the amount of superplasticizer. However, the results obtained for Mix W and Mix Z mean that they can be considered as good thermal insulators under RT 2012, with satisfactory mechanical resistance for this type of use. The benefit of mineral insulating foam also lies in its environmental performances. Indeed, this is an increasingly important issue, and one that is subject to ever stricter regulations. These foams produced have a similar carbon foot print (for R value of 3.7 K.m 2 /W) as polystyrene and a lower carbon footprint than Lafarge AIRIUM mineral foam and aerated concrete. Also, for water consumption, an increasingly scarce resource necessary for life, the produced foams reveal a lower consumption than any other material excepted glass and rock wool. Indeed, regarding carbon foot print and water consumption, the foams produced present three of the lowest impacts, especially for Mix W because it has a lower density. The increase of SAC, in order to improve mechanical strength, does not significantly impact GES emissions and water consumption. The acoustic absorption coefficient also reveals good capacities for the foam produced to block the sound propagation (more than 80%) in the low frequencies (between 600 and 900 Hz). As a result, the final foam (Mix Z) produced for this study achieves satisfactory thermal conductivity (0.064 W.m − 1 .K-1) and compressive strength performances exceeding the set limit of 0.2MPa, as it is obtained for cement or gypsum based mineral foams from the bibliography and produced on the market. Also, its environmental performance (carbon footprint and net drinking water consumption) is better than that of the other mineral insulants studied here. It could therefore be interesting to continue studying this product’s various thermo-hydric and acoustic characteristics, and the possible improvement of mechanical resistance with another binder composition. Recommendation and prospect 1) The chemical bonds created between the limestone clay fines and the binder need further investigation. This will allow to manage more precisely the quantity of LCF in the Mix, in order to minimize conductivity and maximize compressive strength. 2) The composition and the chemical interaction of the foaming admixture need to be determined, to adjust the quantity. 3) Acoustic performances need to be further studied. In this study, acoustic adsorption has only been studied between 50 and 1600 Hz for normative considerations (ISO standards). It would be interesting to measure the absorption until the maximum hearing frequency (20kHz). In addition, physical analysis with Xray Tomograph could allow the acoustic absorption according to the regularity of the porosity and pore shapes. 4) Hydric performances need to be studied for this mineral insulating foam, in order to know how it could be used in a building and if it could help to manage humidity in the buildings. 5) The carbon footprint of the three foams, identified as Mix B, Mix W and Mix Z, could be further studied, especially by assessing the exact energy consumption required to produce a mineral foam of the same density using a blade or a whisk. 6) The introduction of vegetal particles, as in vegetal concretes, could be tested. The low density of these particles would be useful to reduce the conductivity. In addition, the introduction of plant matter could add good hydrothermal performances to the product. Finally, the plant matter is also a way to stock CO 2 , so, it could reduce the environmental impact too. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Région Hauts-de-France & Artois University for their financial supports and the Laboratoire de Génie Civil et géo-Environnement for its technical support. Author contributions ‘Not Applicable’ Conflicts of interest or competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Data and code availability ‘Not Applicable’ Supplementary information ‘Not Applicable’ Ethical approval ‘Not Applicable’ References A. Lopez-Claros, A. L. Dahl, and M. Groff, Global Governance and the Emergence of Global Institutions for the 21st Century , 1st ed. Cambridge University Press, 2020. doi: 10.1017/9781108569293. C. K. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7148977","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":488560030,"identity":"da3a5f29-55b1-4db0-984b-44bf3e31fe01","order_by":0,"name":"Matthieu 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13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1275620,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMix B; Transverse section of global sample, Transverse section on three sub-volumes with pore analysis including coloring of pores according to their size and 3D VGStudio rebuilding\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7148977/v1/a09fcdd7b5ed250b0af3668c.png"},{"id":87433133,"identity":"826e79e0-698b-4565-b07f-554b1a377dad","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 18:02:13","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":199599,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThermal conductivities of the produced mineral foams Mix B and Mix W compared to market and foams from bibliography\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"14.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7148977/v1/1988d57907f70f6ceddb8b9c.png"},{"id":87433127,"identity":"9cbecd44-0046-4037-891f-ee02c0a1b80b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 18:02:13","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":589939,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMechanical strength of Mix B and Mix W compared to market and mineral foams from bibliography, versus density\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"15.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7148977/v1/5a84b90cd3fae2899fcc73f9.png"},{"id":87433758,"identity":"43d0793e-84fa-4abe-bd1a-f0b2cd9f92e2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 18:10:14","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"Figure 16","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":216804,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSetting time test on the mineral foams produced (Vicat's cone method, EN 13279-2:2014)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"16.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7148977/v1/9eaf132e5afcff391159bd98.png"},{"id":87433745,"identity":"555ce080-aa4a-4878-a55f-30e0e933ee2e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 18:10:13","extension":"png","order_by":17,"title":"Figure 17","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":349154,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMechanical strength of Mix B, Mix W and Mix Z compared to market and mineral lightweight foams from bibliography versus density\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"17.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7148977/v1/9016197122b3f3a6cfbaaba4.png"},{"id":87435193,"identity":"feba9a2a-e43d-4b51-bdcc-563aff3035c7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 18:34:14","extension":"png","order_by":18,"title":"Figure 18","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":226261,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparison of the acoustic absorption coefficient of the foams produced for this study and aerated concrete\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"18.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7148977/v1/a1ce6b5525e12524515e351c.png"},{"id":101151950,"identity":"2f73707b-40ca-4804-898a-8c06e92bc219","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-26 16:08:39","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":13083281,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7148977/v1/a11cf0b5-1625-4ea8-a36d-e59204ca5ab3.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Mix design and characterization of a low-carbon insulation foam","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThermal conductivity of the studied foams reaches until 0.053W/m/K;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAcoustic absorption is above 80% between 400Hz and 1500Hz;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eA foam was designed with a carbon footprint of 10.63\u0026nbsp;KgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe greatest challenge of the XXI century is not inventing but adapting [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. In fact, fossil energy stocks are decreasing very quickly and they are limited, so government policies are trending towards energy sobriety and a reduction of human impact on the Environment. Building sector is behind 32% of the annual consumption of natural resources and 75% of its waste production are not recovered. Regarding the World building activity, it represents 35% of the total waste production. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Europe, human activity resulted in an emission of 3.138 MT of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eEq in 2022 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Building sector is behind 250 MT of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eEq. In addition, building emissions represent 40% of the 926 MT of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eEq generated by energy consumption. This means building sector and building use account for a third of the annual emissions of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eEq. The first two carbon-intensive construction materials are cement and steel, which respectively represent 2% and 1.8% of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eEq of the total European emissions.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e] Regarding world production, concrete, the most building material use, represent more than 8% of the total annual emission of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThus, actual policies and laws aim at reducing the building sector impact on the Environment, using energy consumption regulations such as Europe\u0026rsquo;s REPowerEU in European Union [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e] or the Environmental Regulation (RE 2020) in France [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. For this reason, the development of high performance, low-carbon building insulating materials can be used in both new-building and renovation projects, and are increasingly sought-after. There are many different types of insulating products: synthetic ones, mineral ones, plant-based ones and animal-based ones. One of mineral insulating products is the mineral foam. It is manufactured from binder paste (cement, lime, plaster, etc\u0026hellip;) into which a high proportion of air is mixed (around 90% of the volume) thanks to the addition of foaming agent and mechanical air drive [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. However, there are three different methods for generating mineral foam. Two by mechanical inclusion of air through agitation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], and one by chemical reaction causing gas to form in the material[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, in the first case, it is possible to mix all the materials together to generate the final foam (Direct Foaming Method) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], or just water and the foaming agent, which is then mixed with cement slurry (Prefoaming Method) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. In the latter case, a material (generally aluminum for cellular concrete production) is added to the slurry in order to chemically react in the mixture and to produce gaz resulting in the formation of bubbles inside the blend and so creating a mineral foam [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. These mineral insulating foams are quite fluid from start and they stiffen when drying, unlike mineral wools which, as their names suggest, are fibers bonded together and therefore highly flexible. The very low density of mineral foams (between 30 to 800 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) provides a good insulation, while remaining rigid after curing (which prevents settling over time). They are also water-resistant, non-flammable and resistant to rodents, insects and fungi.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor this study, carbon impact is therefore a key factor to justify the choice of one product over another. French thermal regulation, RE2020, provides a framework for the performance objectives of the material studied, regarding insulation. Thermal resistance depends both on thickness and on material thermal conductivity. The latter defines a material as insulating or not, as long as its conductivity is low enough to meet the required thermal resistance, for a maximum thickness of 30 cm (set by RE2020 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]). In addition, the reference of 0.065 W/m/K defining a building material as a \u0026ldquo;good insulator\u0026rdquo; (according to the RT 2012 - French thermal regulations preceding the RE2020) can also be generally used. Regarding to the RE2020, thermal performances depend on the type of insulation considered (low floor, wall, converted attic, lost attic, etc.\u0026hellip;).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMineral foams are divided, according to their dry density, into three groups named: mineral foam (from 400kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e to 800 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e), light mineral foam (from 160kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e to 400 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) and ultra-light mineral foam (under 160 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. As shown on other material, mineral foams thermal performances depend on their density. Thus, their thermal conductivity is linearly linked to their density [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Consequently, in order to be used as good insulating material for buildings, light and ultra-light mineral foams have to be produced.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, mineral foams, as many building materials, are the subject of research aimed at reducing their carbon footprint. It consists in binder replacement (Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) replaced by lime, plaster, etc\u0026hellip;) or binder composition modification (using silica fume, ground granulated blast furnace slag, flash ash, sugarcane filter cake waste in substitution of OPC) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Other components, without any binder activity can also be used to reduce the carbon impact of the mineral foam, like using vegetal particles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. However, these modifications tend to decrease the mechanical strength of mineral foams, which is already weak. Thus, alternative binders like calcium sulpho-aluminate cement (which need a clinkerization temperature of 1250\u0026deg;C and a lower amount of limestone than OPC), can be use, replacing a quarter of OPC [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e], which is a step towards low-carbon mineral foam.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this matter, this research aims to find a formulation of light mineral foam with a lower carbon footprint, using lime in place of OPC, Sulfo-Aluminous Cement (SAC) preventing foam collapse and limestone clay fines (LCF) to substitute a part of lime. Foam\u0026rsquo;s resistance to collapse, thermal conductivity and mechanical strength will therefore be precisely studied to meet the various normative criteria. Acoustic absorption will also be discussed as a possible benefit of using that type of material, with an important volume of air and in particular interconnected pores [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo this end, comparisons will be made with mineral insulation foams, for walls, already sold on the building market and foams based on bibliographic public data.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Raw materials\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1.1. White hydraulic lime\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsed as the main binder, it is similar to the limes used in the production of hemp concrete. Rénocal HL5 Calcia white hydraulic lime is composed of ⅔ white lime, ⅓ white cement combined with additives. It also contains 20% free lime. It has been chosen for its rapid setting and high mechanical resistance [29]. In addition, due to its composition, it has a lower carbon footprint than the Portland cement one, commonly used in mineral foam formulations. Furthermore, its absolute density (2.7 ± 0.07 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) is lower than cement (3.2 ± 0.005 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e for CEMI 52.5 R) which can participate to the foaming process easier. Investigations with plaster were also carried out, but due to its neutral pH, the produced foams were prone to mold. Plants are a natural support for fungal species, which, with lime’s basic pH (pH = 12), are unable to grow. The composition of the lime used is available in Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1: Rénocal HL5 White Hydraulic Lime properties (from Calcia)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cimg 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\"\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1.2. Sulfo-Aluminous Cement\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSupplied by VICAT [30], and known to reduce concrete shrinkage, ALPENAT UP Sulfo-aluminous cement introduction into the foam has several interests/advantages:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- fast-setting, allowing foam to set before the surfactant loses its activity;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- rapid build-up of resistance for faster handling of foam blocks;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- a carbon footprint 30% smaller than Portland cement, commonly used for mineral foams;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- an insensitivity to many setting inhibitors;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- reducing shrinkage.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn addition, SAC has already been used in substitution to OPC in the production of mineral foam and shows satisfactory results (with an optimal substitution rate of 25%) [27].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe main component of Sulfo-Aluminous Cement (SAC) is calcium oxide with nearly 44.5%. SAC also contains significant quantities of aluminum oxide or alumina (over 23%), silicon dioxide or silica (over 11.5%), iron (III) oxide or ferric oxide (nearly 10.2%) and sulfur trioxide or sulfuric anhydride (nearly 7.5%). However, SAC, contains little or no anhydrite. It is therefore added to enable the formation of gypsum by hydration, which in turn enables the formation of ettringite by hydration of yeelimite. Other properties of the SAC are available in Table\u0026nbsp;2.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eALPENAT UP Sulfo-Aluminous Cement composition (from Vicat)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChemical characteristics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMolecules\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStandard deviation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFeO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMgO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eK\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMnO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSrO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChlorides (CI)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFire lost (950°C)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineralogical composition (by X ray diffraction)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral phase\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStandard deviation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecifications\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCa\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eAl\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e12\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYeelimite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≥ 50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS β\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBelite β\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS α‘\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBelite α\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnhydrite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFree lime\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOther phases\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1.3. Limestone Clay Fines\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduced by washing limestone aggregates, the main characteristic of these fines is their clay content (determined by the Illite and Kaolinite content). The higher the clay content, the greater the water retention at wet state. But it also improves particle cohesion when it is hard/dry. In this study, the limestone clay fines come from Carrières du Boulonnais (LCF) which have a clay content of 19% and a true density of 2.75 ± 0.03 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. The composition of the LCF is available in Table\u0026nbsp;3.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLimestone Clay Fines composition from Carrières du Boulonnais\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLimestone Clay Fines\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLimestone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKaolinite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIllite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuartz\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGoethite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDolomite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComposition (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe main advantages of LCF are its local production, the presence of a large quantity of this material, the stock and production homogeneity. Moreover, it is also basically a manufacturing waste, meaning it can be considered as having no environmental impact.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1.4. Water (tap)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater composition on 2024/01/31 was recorded as shown below (Table\u0026nbsp;4). The analysis was warried out by C.A.B.B.A.L.R., responsible for the public water distribution service in the city sector of Béthune (France) [31].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater tap composition\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eValue\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuality limit\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuality reference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal Chlorine\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,53 mg (Cl2) /L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHydrogen carbonates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e376,0 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarbonates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 mg (CO3) /L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7,2 pH unities\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≥ 6,5 and ≤ 9 pH unities\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePotassium\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5,2 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSodium\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32,5 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≤ 200 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSulfates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≤ 250 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChlorides\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≤ 250 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConductivity at 25°C\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e910 µS/cm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≥ 200 and ≤ 1100 µS/cm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFer total\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23 µg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≤ 200 µg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAmmonium (NH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0,05 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≥ and ≤ mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≥ and ≤ 0,1 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNitrites (NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0,02 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≤ 0,1 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNitrates/50 + Nitrites/3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,03 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≤ 1 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNitrates (NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,5 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≤ 50 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal organic carbon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,55 mg(C)/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≤ 2 mg(C)/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNickel\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20 µg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≤ 20 µg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs shown in the table, water complies with French regulations for drinking water.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1.5. A foaming agent\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor this study, a potato protein hydrolysate surfactant supplied by Roquette industrial company was used. This co-product of starch processing has been tested beforehand, revealing an optimum foaming at FA/B = 0.7%. This ratio has been used for all formulations of this study. Pre-tests also show an improvement in foam up to 15min of mixing. After this point, there is no more visible improvement in foaming. The main advantage of hydrolysable potato protein surfactant is that it is bio-sourced, biodegradable, from local production and it is a co-product so that means the major part of the corresponding carbon footprint comes from the final product.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1.6. A superplasticizer\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA superplasticizer, Sika® ViscoCrete®-850 Végétal [32], based on polycarboxylates synthesized from bio-sourced plant matter was used. This product is particularly recommended for buildings and structures with low environmental impact in the manufacture of concrete (using cement).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\"\u003eTable 5: ViscoCrete®-850 Végétal superplasticizer specificities by Sika\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAspect/Color\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYellowish liquid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDensity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.070 ± 0.020g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDry extract\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.0 ± 1.5% (NF EN 480-8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.0 ± 1.5% (halogen method according to NF 085)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epH value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.0 ± 1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal amount of chloride ion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≤ 0.1%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSodium oxide equivalent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e≤ 1.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDosage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDosage range: 0.1 to 5% by weight of binder or cement, depending on fluidity and desired performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Production process\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn order to generate the foam, a Perrier high-performance automatic mixer for standardized mortars was used with two reference speeds: Vmin = 100 rpm and Vmax = 200 rpm. For the production process, a protocol based on the results obtained by \u003cem\u003eMAZIAN \u0026amp; al.\u003c/em\u003e in 2022 [8] was used: mix dry materials for 30sec at Vmin, then add water for 30s also at Vmin; then change the speed to Vmax during 30s and change back to Vmin for 90s. A 30s pause is then imposed to scrape the sides of the bowl to ensure that all the material is thoroughly mixed. Finally, everything is mixed for 15min at Vmax.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Mix design: modulation of key parameters and hardened properties\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study is divided into two parts: first, a parametric study which aims to find the best compromise between the proportions of the foam components to allow a high level of foamability without collapse; then, the study of hardened properties for the optimal mix, considering that the thermal conductivity has to be under 0.065 W.m\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e.K\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e to consider the foam such as an insulating material and a compressive strength upper 0.2 MPa to ensure the capacity of the foam to be handled and to bring a supplementary comfort performances. Other parameters are measured such as setting kinetic and acoustic absorption. Porosity is a key parameter in the level of these performances, so tomography is used to observe the internal architecture of pores (size, numbers, shape). Finally, carbon footprint and water consumption are compared to those of conventional insulating materials, in order to quantify a possible improvement.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn the first part, several formulations were studied, Table\u0026nbsp;6, starting with a simple combination of water and binder was adjusted with the mixtures named “Wa”. Then, lime has been gradually replaced by Limestone Clay Fines (LCF) and this was tested with mixtures named as “LCF”. Next, the foam was stabilized with a substitution of lime by Sulfo-Aluminous Cement in mixtures named as “SAC”. Finally, a part of water has been replaced thanks to the addition of superplasticizer in the mixtures named “SVV”.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompositions and mixing conditions of studied mixes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFormulations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMixing conditions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeight ratios\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater/Binder\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLCF (%/Binder)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSAC (%/(Binder + LCF))\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSuperplasticizer (%/(Binder + SAC))\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Wa1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Wa2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Wa3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Wa4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.9\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Wa5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Wa6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Wa7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix LCF1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix LCF2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix LCF3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e50\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix LCF4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix SAC 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix SAC 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix SAC 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e12.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix SAC 4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix SVV1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix SVV2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix SVV3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Study equipment\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOnce the foam produced, it undergoes a spreading test using a flow table (NF EN 1015-3) (15 shocks are applied and the spreading diameter is measured every 120°). Then, the foam is introduced into cylindrical molds (f110mm; H227mm) to check for possible collapse, and into metal prismatic molds 40x40x160mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e for thermal testing using the hot-wire method, followed by bending and compression tests using a 50kN electromechanical press. For each formulation, 3 cylindrical molds and 6 prismatic molds were produced. In addition, 3 small cylindrical molds (f100mm; H40mm) were produced for some mixes (Mix B and Mix W), in order to analyze porosity by tomography and to investigate acoustic absorption using an impedance tube.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNon-invasive technique was used to determine the distribution and size of the pores. Tests were done with the tomograph Nikon XT H 225 ST on cylinders with a diameter of 100 mm and a height of 40 mm. The resolution was 39 µm. The shooting and acquisition parameters are 85 kV voltage and 2 seconds exposure time. The images reconstruction, by Nikon Inspect-X software, allows the 3D volume to be obtained from the 2D images recorded by the tomograph. After reconstruction, the volume file is analyzed by the VGStudio Max (Volume Graphics software), as visible on Fig.\u0026nbsp;2.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBefore doing an image analysis, a surface determination must be performed, indicating to the analysis software the material areas and void areas in the image. Here, the mineral foams studied can be considered as two-phase systems: material or air void. The verification of a correct surface determination is done by comparing the porosity, previously determined, with the porosity established from the object properties defined by the VGStudio Max software.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor a cylinder of 100 mm diameter and 40 mm height, therefore 314 159 mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, at a resolution of 0.039 mm, the demand is too high for the CPU of the workstation and requires reducing the volume to analyze. The cylinder was therefore cut into three smaller sub-volumes: a central cylinder of 28 ± 1 mm diameter and 36 ± 1.5 mm height, as well as a lower disk and an upper disk of 85 ± 3 mm diameter and 10 ± 0.5 mm height.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThermal tests were then carried out on small samples (40x40x160mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) using the hot-wire method (recognized by standards NF EN ISO 12570, NF EN ISO 22007-1 and NF EN ISO 483), using an FP2C probe supplied by NeoTIM (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3) [33], [34]. The hot-wire probe was used to determine the thermal conductivity of the materials. Each formulation was tested ten times on the side and bottom faces of the produced samples (as they were perfectly flat). Before testing the samples, reference products with known conductivity were tested. The reference results were identical to those expected at ± 0.002 W/m/K.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn addition, mechanical strength (flexural and compressive) tests are carried out on the produced insulating foams at 28 days, in accordance with NF EN 196 [9], [35]. A 50KN electromechanical press (Shimadzu AG-Xplus) was used for the mechanical strength tests (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4) [36]. This equipment ensures a satisfactory level of precision (± 0.5% between 0 and 0.5 kN and ± 0.3% between 0.5 kN and 50 kN) for the non-bearing products. Bending tests (3 per formulation) and compressive tests (6 per formulation) are carried out on 40x40x160mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMechanical strength is determined with the flexural strength \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e (N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) and the compressive strength \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e (N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) with:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = \\(\\:\\frac{1.5\\times\\:{F}_{f}\\times\\:l}{{b}^{3}}\\)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e= \\(\\:\\frac{{F}_{c}}{{b}^{2}}\\)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWhere F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003eis the strength applied to the middle of the prism at breakage (N); l is the distance between supports (mm); FC is the maximum breaking strength (N); and b is the dimension of the square section of the prism (mm)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo characterize the absorption coefficients of the developed materials, an impedance tube was employed in accordance with the ISO 10534-2 standard [37]. Only normal incidence acoustic absorption between 50Hz and 1600Hz was investigated, as this provides sufficient information regarding the ability of a material to deal with an incoming sound. Consequently, this test is the most commonly used for the purpose of acoustically characterizing materials intended for common use, such as in civil engineering [38].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results below are going to show several parameters of the production of a mineral insulating foam. All the foam densities refer to fresh product in the part 3.1. and to dry final product in the part 3.2.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Mix design of lime-based mineral foam: foamability and stability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.1. Proportions W/B (Water/Binder)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe W/B ratio was determined on the basis of the water quantities recommended for the R\u0026eacute;nocal HL5 Calcia lime use. At low W/B ratios (0.6 and 0.7), the mixture of water, lime and foaming agent allowed part of the binder to foam. Nevertheless, some of it remained stuck to the bottom of the bowl (33% of total mass for Mix Wa1 and 27% of total mass for Mix Wa2). For this two first Mix, thus, it is impossible to know if the mineral composition of the foam and stuck mix are homogenous. Therefore, these two Mixes cannot be selected. Increasing the ratio, results first in an augmentation of the density and a homogenous mix and then in a drastic decrease in density (1325Kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e to 760Kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) and a stability of the final product (very low collapse). Thus, by increasing the amount of water, as it is possible to observe from Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, it improves foaming. However, as visible on the same graphic, the use of W/B ratio over 1.1 results in a decrease of density but associated with foam collapse. The addition of too much water, as visible for W/B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2, carries on destabilizing the foam and separating two matter phases. One of the latter is a really light foam and the other one lies underneath corresponding to a very fluid and dense paste. A significant variation in foam density stems from a mix heterogeneity which itself is associated with a low value of W/B ratio.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe value of W/B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.1 was therefore selected as giving the best foaming without collapse.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.2. Mineral addition of Limestone Clay Fines (LCF)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe main aim of replacing part of the binder with limestone clay fines was to reduce the carbon footprint of the final product. However, it turns out that the fines also improve the foaming of the mix. Indeed, as can be seen from the graph below (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e), foaming is considerably improved; up to 72% lighter with the addition of 25% fines. It can also be seen that above 25% fines, foaming seems to improve only slightly, while collapse increases. Indeed, already at 25%, collapse is multiplied by 5. The unique use of LCF with water and foaming adjuvant results in the formation of a very short-lived, unstable foam, which forms a very compact product as soon as it is poured. Similarly, the brittleness of the foam is visible at 50% of LCF, resulting in a very fragile final product that can barely support its own weight. Using only LCF and no other binder allows a foam formation only during the mixing time. When the mixer stops the foam quickly collapses, giving a very fluid and dense paste. Thus, without lime as a binder in the mix, mineral foam cannot be created.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe addition of Limestone Clay Fines (25% of the binder content) was chosen as it significantly improves the foaming process. The aim is to stop foam from collapsing, so as to obtain a product that is stable over time.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.3. Foam stabilization by SAC use\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn order to stabilize the foam, several admixtures were tested with the aim of improving the stability of the foaming agent. However, none were able to reduce the collapse. Nevertheless, to halt collapse, another possibility is to accelerate the setting of the binder so as to set the finished product before collapse occurs. For this purpose, Sulfo-Aluminous Cement (SAC) was used. As can be seen from Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, the addition of SAC rapidly reduced the collapse of the mix. Nonetheless, it does result in an increase in density (+\u0026thinsp;48%), but completely halts the collapse of the foam at 15% of SAC used in relation to the binder (LCF is considered here as a binder, even if its effect is very limited at this level). This increase in density occurs up to 10% SAC, after which the density remains stable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt 15% SAC, setting is very fast (30 min), which could raise the question of the manufacture of larger quantities of this product and the time needed to set up the foam where it has to. It was therefore decided to use 12.5% SAC, considering collapse was negligible (0.44%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.4. Water decreases by superplasticizer use\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe use of superplasticizers has two objectives: firstly, to liquefy the mix in order to make the product placement easier, and secondly, to reduce water consumption (an increasingly important resource currently and for the future). As shown below (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e), the addition of a small amount of superplasticizer (recommended dosage between 0.1% and 5%) improves mix fluidity, on the flow table, by more than 51% before impacts and by more than 44% after impacts (with 1.2% of superplasticizer). However, the addition of superplasticizer also increases foam density (by almost 6%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn fact, by bonding on the binder, the superplasticizer temporarily limits the amount of water bound by the binder, leaving more free water and therefore too much water for optimum foaming.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn view of these results, it was decided to reduce the water content of a constant amount of superplasticizer. Given that the addition of 0.6% superplasticizer results in a post-impact spread almost identical to the 1.2% dosage, the first dosage will be retained.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, the superplasticizer aims to replace water, that is why new formulations were tested (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) in order to decrease water consumption for the formulation Mix SVV2.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComposition of water-regulated studied mixes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFormulations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMixing conditions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeight ratios\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater/Binder\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLCF (%/Binder)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSAC (%/(Binder\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;LCF))\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuperplasticizer (%/(Binder\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SAC))\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMix SSV2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMix B1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.9\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMix B\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMix B2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlade\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThus, the water content of the 0.6% superplasticizer formulation was adjusted. As can be seen from the graph below (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e), increasing the water content (W/B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.3) does not significantly affect the density of the foam, but does improve its flowability (+\u0026thinsp;13%). However, two phases can be distinguished in the foam made: a very light phase with high porosity, and a second, denser phase. By decreasing the water content, a spreading reduction can be observed (from 6% at W/B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1, then 18% at W/B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.9). In addition, a decrease in density is observed (16%) at W/B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1, which does not seem to persist thereafter, as the quantity of water becomes too low to allow the same amount of foaming. Thus, the addition of 0.6% superplasticizer saves 10% water used.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.1.5. Blade and whisk foam production\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\"\u003eUntil now, the protocol for mineral foam production has been to use a mortar mixer blade. However, the equipment now includes a whisk that can be installed instead of the blade. A test was carried out to demonstrate the positive impact of this modification to the mixing system. As visible in Table 8, Mix B and Mix W have the same composition and respectively used a blade and a whisk for the production process. With a strictly identical protocol, the foam obtained with the whisk was 28% lighter at fresh state (Mix B is 356 \u003cu\u003e+\u003c/u\u003e 5kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and Mix W is 258 \u003cu\u003e+\u003c/u\u003e 9kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e). Nevertheless, as the latter is very light, it is also more fragile. It will therefore be necessary to modify the blending time to obtain denser foam. The use of a whisk saves manufacturing time, and therefore the energy required to produce mineral foam. However, although the density has decreased considerably, this also reduces the foam\u0026rsquo;s fluidity. As a result, we can observe a 9.2% reduction in flowability (from 249 \u003cu\u003e+\u003c/u\u003e 2mm for Mix B to 226 \u003cu\u003e+\u003c/u\u003e 2mm for Mix W).\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"char\"\u003eTable 8: Composition of the final formulation using blade or whisk in the production process\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tabc\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFormulations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMixing conditions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeight ratios\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater/Binder\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLCF (%/Binder)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSAC (%/(Binder\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;LCF))\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSuperplasticizer (%/(Binder\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SAC))\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBlade\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhisk\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Hardened properties of Mix B and Mix W\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegarding to the previous part, Mix B and Mix W are the optimized mixes from the parametric study. Their hardened properties are now discussed.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1. Microscopic and tomographic observations\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA first distinction between the two mixes is already visible to the naked eye. In fact, as visible on Figure 10, the replacement of the blade by a whisk increases pore size increasing the inclusion of air in the mineral foam. These two photography represent the external part of the hardened foam samples (Numerical microscope Keyence VHX-7100).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe microscopic observations reveal larger pores for Mix W than Mix B which can explain a lighter density for Mix W. However, microscopic observations do not give any information about the internal structure of the foams and especially about the foam\u0026rsquo;s homogeneity. Thus, the produced foams (Mix B and Mix W) have been studied by X-rays with a tomograph. 3 small cylindrical molds (f 100mm; H40mm) were produced for each mix in order to analyze porosity.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor each of these reduced volumes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;12), the porosity, obtained by VGStudio Max from image analyses and surface determination, is presented in Table\u0026nbsp;9 and compared to the overall porosity of the sample measured on the entire cylinder.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 9\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGlobal porosity and porosity per sub-volumes for Mix B and Mix W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGlobal porosity (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudied part of sample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePorosity (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCentral cylinder\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTop disk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBottom disk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCentral cylinder\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTop Disk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBottom disk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe 3D scans show that foam\u0026rsquo;s porosity is predominantly open (95% for Mix B and 98% for Mix W of the total porosity was determined with a nitrogen pycnometer according to ASTM D6226-21). In addition, the pore diameter distribution was determined using tomographic measurements (Fig.\u0026nbsp;11). Thus, pore sizes are between 0.13mm and 4.71mm with a big majority of 0.4mm to 1.6mm pores (80%). Combined with the X-ray observations, this confirms that the material is homogeneous, and the results obtained (thermal, mechanical and acoustic) are representative. The equivalent diameter (Eq.\u0026nbsp;3), presented in the figure below, corresponds to the diameter of a sphere having an identical volume, the median diameter D50 corresponding to the diameter at 50% of the maximum volume.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEDia\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2 (\\(\\:\\frac{\\text{P}\\text{V}}{4\\pi\\:/3}\\))\u003csup\u003e1/3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWith: EDia, equivalent diameter (mm); PV, pore volume (mm\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA higher disparity can be noted for the sub-volumes of Mix B than those of Mix W. Overall, the three sub-volumes have porosities comparable to those measured on the whole samples except for the Mix B bottom disk, induced to a local collapse phenomenon in the bottom of the sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe distribution of pore volumes by size (Fig.\u0026nbsp;13) shows that a major part of the pores has a volume between 0.1 and 10 mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. Mix W has a higher proportion of pores between 1 and 10 mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e than Mix B. A foam analysis module in the image analysis software makes it possible to obtain the geometric properties of each pore, in particular its volume by the number of voxels and the resolution (Eq. 4), and the sphericity (Eq. 5) representing a geometric shape factor considering that a sphere has a sphericity of 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePV\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;NV x R\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWith: PV, pore volume (mm\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e); NV, number of voxels; R, resolution (mm) which is 0,039 mm.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSph = \\(\\:\\frac{4{\\pi\\:}.\\left(\\raisebox{1ex}{$\\text{E}\\text{D}\\text{i}\\text{a}$}\\!\\left/\\:\\!\\raisebox{-1ex}{$2$}\\right.\\right)\u0026sup2;}{\\text{M}\\text{S}}\\)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWith: Sph, sphericity; EDia, mean equivalent diameter (mm); MS, measured surface (mm\u0026sup2;)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;10 and Fig.\u0026nbsp;11 confirm the observation of Fig.\u0026nbsp;12 and Fig.\u0026nbsp;13 on the distribution of pores by volume: Mix B pores are smaller volumes than Mix W. Indeed, the average diameter is between 0.746 mm and 0.774 mm for Mix B and is between 1.012 mm and 1.113 mm for Mix W. The median diameters give similar values. The sphericity shows that the pores have shapes that are not very close to a perfect sphere. Visual observations (Figs.\u0026nbsp;12 and 13) show pores with random shapes. Figures\u0026nbsp;12 and 13 also show a fairly good distribution of pores according to their volumes, with a better homogeneous distribution for Mix W than for Mix B as already shown in Table\u0026nbsp;9.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 10\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeometric parameters for pores within Mix B and Mix W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEquivalent diameter (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedian diameter (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSphericity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCentral cylinder\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.774\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.717\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.502\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTop disk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.746\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.037\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.697\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.033\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.509\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBottom disk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.762\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.706\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.505\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCentral cylinder\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.076\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.009\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.452\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTop disk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1012\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.948\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.463\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBottom disk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.113\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.047\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.460\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2. Thermal conductivities\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe results obtained by manufacturers and various studies tend to show that the evolution of density is linearly linked to the product density (the linear regression does not consider the measurements made on the foams produced for this study). As it can be seen on the graph below (Fig.\u0026nbsp;14), whatever the type of binder used, cement [20], [38], [39], lime or gypsum [40], the thermal conductivity of foams seems to depend on their density, and therefore on the amount of air they contain. The lime foams tested here (Mix B and Mix W) achieve good results (0.067\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.003 W/m/K and 0.053\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.002 W/m/K respectively). This once again underlines the benefits of using the whisk (Mix W), which enables better foaming and therefore better thermal performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe regression coefficient from the empirical law shows a relative coherence between our results and the bibliography. Mix B and Mix W shows better values of thermal conductivity than the bibliography for similar density.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2.3. Mechanical strength\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMechanical strength is not linearly related to product density, although a higher density tends to strengthen a product of identical composition. Regarding the general evolution of mechanical strength of industrial and bibliographic mineral foams (Fig.\u0026nbsp;15), they are linked to their mass by an exponential law. However, compressive strength is dependent on the chemical bonds created in the Mix by the binder. Thus, the nature of the binder will also have an impact on the strength of the final material. This explains the results of the foams produced in this study compared with the bibliographic foams, which are based on lime with a mechanical strength of 12 MPa at 28 days, compared with 50 MPa for the cement used here and 30 MPa for the plaster. As visible on Fig.\u0026nbsp;15, for an identical composition, the denser foam is therefore slightly stronger (0.227\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.022 MPa) than the second foam made with the whisk (0.161\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.042 MPa). It can be added that, as shown on the graphic below, the majority of mineral foams using cement (OPC and SAC) are above the regression curve and the majority of plaster/gypsum foams are under the curve. Indeed, binder seems to have a significant impact on mechanical strength especially for mineral foams (from 400 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e to 800 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) and less for light mineral foams (from 160 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e to 400 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2.4. Mechanical strength problematic: SAC additional use\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs explained before, on Figs. 16 and 17, Mix B and Mix W does not satisfy both thermal and mechanical objectives. In fact, Mixt B does not reach the limit of 0.065W/m/K, unlike Mix W which is more light but also more fragile. Thus, Mix W does not reach 0.2MPa. In order to increase the mechanical resistance of the foam is has been decided to reduce water use. As explained in part 3.1.4. \u0026ldquo;Water decreases by superplasticizer use\u0026rdquo;, superplasticizer allows a reduction of water. The use of 0,6% was selected because no significant change was observed increasing the amount of superplasticizer. The ratio of 1.2% was therefore tested, allowing a reduction of water of 20% (Table 11). As already highlighted by numerous studies, decreasing the water/binder ratio tends to improve the mechanical strength [41], [42], [43]. However, using superplasticizer tends also to increase the setting time start and modify the setting kinetics (Fig. 16). In fact, as visible on the graphic, for the formulations Mix SAC and Mix LCF the setting is rising almost linearly, but with the use of superplasticizer (Mix W) it is more a sigmoid curve. Using superplasticizer almost increases the setting time start to 20%. Thus, the amount of SAC can be increased until an optimum of 25% (as find in the literature [27] with cement as binder). As visible on the Fig. 18, this new formulation (Mix Z) presents a setting time slightly higher than 3 hours instead of 12h30, so a reduction of 75%.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 11\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComposition of the optimized final formulation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFormulations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMixing conditions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeight ratios\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater/Binder\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLCF (%/Binder)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSAC (%/(Binder\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;LCF))\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSuperplasticizer (%/(Binder\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SAC))\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Z\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhisk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReplacing lime with SAC has also had an impact on mechanical strength. In fact, three modulations of density were tested (Fig.\u0026nbsp;17) by modifying the mixing time at Vmax to 15min to 20min and 10min. The results show a foaming decrease cause the density is 17% higher with the same mixing time (Vmax\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15min) but the conductivity is sufficient (0.064\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.003 W/m/K). The mechanical strength is significantly improved to 0.382\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.055 MPa. With a mixing time of 10min, the density is 9.2% lighter than Mix W and still more resistant (0.178\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.040 MPa). In addition, compared to the average regression curve, Mix Z is above the curve instead of Mix B and Mix W.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2.5. Acoustic absorptions\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAn acoustic impedance tube was used to determine the acoustic absorption of the foams produced (Fig.\u0026nbsp;18). To compare results, aerated concrete (YTONG Compact 15 TE with a density of 350kg/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) was tested on the same equipment. Thus, Mix B, Mix Z and Mix W exhibit a better acoustic absorption coefficient than aerated concrete. Their acoustic activities \\(\\:{\\alpha\\:}_{a},\\) defined as the area under the absorption curve normalized by the frequency range [44], being more than five times higher. This result can be explained by a higher porosity for this three formulations and the internal structure of the foams [28], [45]. In fact, the minerals foams produced in this study have a quite important open porosity which can provide a better sound absorption thanks to the irregularity of their pores [46]. Nevertheless, Fig.\u0026nbsp;18 shows two different absorption syntheses for the two foams Mix B and Mix W. As shown by tomographic observations (Figs.\u0026nbsp;14 \u0026amp;15), Mix W has a larger porosity size than Mix B, with a slightly higher pore count (3.2%) and a slightly open porosity (3%). These findings are consistent with the acoustic behavior of Mix W which is more effective in low frequencies where Mix B allows better performance as the frequency increases. This opens up particularly interesting perspectives on hybrid mixtures making it possible to obtain an inhomogeneous pore structure depending on mixing parameters differentiated by height. In addition, evolution of Mix Z is very similar to the two other foams and stays between their results. This can be explained by Mix Z density, which is between the densities of Mix B and Mix W. Finally, these results and more especially Mix W and Mix Z ones are quite interesting because on-road vehicle engines produce a noise range from 0Hz to 1000Hz [47]. So, Mix W and Mix Z may considerably reduce the audible vehicle engine noise in a building.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Environmental impacts\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1. Carbon footprint production\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;11 presents a variety of insulating materials currently used in the building industry for wall insulation. It shows the carbon footprints per cubic meter over the entire life cycle of each one of insulating materials. The different results are computed from data drawn from French public database Inies [48]. This database collects the so-called FDES (\u003cem\u003eFiche de Donn\u0026eacute;es Environnementales et Sanitaire\u003c/em\u003e for Environmental and Sanitary Data Sheets). In order to calculate the CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq emission of the insulating foams produced for this study, a set of data was considered. The data corresponding to lime were retrieved from the FDES for hemp concrete (composed of lime considered equivalent in environmental terms) [49], [50]. Both SAC and superplasticizer carbon footprint Environmental data were obtained from the supplier. Environmental data for LCF and foaming agent were treated as nil, as these products are qualified as waste in the current state of the system. In order to estimate the environmental footprint of the production process, it was assimilated as the production process of vegetal concrete [49]. The same process had been used for Mix B and Mix W even if the tool was different, as the same mixer was used. The service lifetime of the foams was likewise estimated equivalent to the other market mineral foams, to 50 years.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 11\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarbon footprint of insulating materials per cubic meter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInsulation products for walls\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThermal conductivity (W/m/K)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarbon footprint (KgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePetro-sourced insulation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExpanded polystyrene [51]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,038\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExtruded polystyrene [52]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral insulation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulk perlite [53]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e220.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExpanded perlite panel [54]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e365\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulk vermiculite [55]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e283.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGlass wool [56]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRock wool [57]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e195\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulk rock wool [58]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAerated concrete Ytong Energy 20 [59]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral foam Airium Lafarge [60]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81,05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral foam Mix B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,067\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral foam Mix W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral foam Mix Z\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs exhibited on Table\u0026nbsp;11, insulating polystyrene, which is widely used in the building sector, has the second lowest impact (among the considered insulating materials, after bulk rock wool). The polystyrene is available in two different forms, depending on the production process used (Extruded polystyrene\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;50.4 kgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and Expanded polystyrene\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;79.29 kgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThere are also many different forms of mineral insulation. Indeed, they are not always in the form of rigid blocks as they can be used in bulk such as perlite, vermiculite and rock wool. Moreover, rock wool, glass wool and perlite can be used in the form of semi-rigid boards. The thermal performance of these different insulating materials varies, particularly in terms of their conductivity in relation to their density, as showed on Fig.\u0026nbsp;16. Indeed, rock wool has a very high carbon footprint (195 KgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e), far higher than the most commonly used glass wool (94.11 KgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e). Among mineral insulating products, there is bulk perlite and bulk vermiculite (respectively 220.17 kgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and 283.56 kgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e), which have the advantage of being able to fill any kind of space in any shape but are subject to settling over time.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAerated concrete, although slightly denser (350kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) than the others and therefore with a higher thermal conductivity (0.09W/m/K), is very similar to mineral foams in the form of rigid blocks. Despite its higher density, its carbon footprint is only slightly higher than the one of glass wool (98.5 kgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e). As already mentioned, Portland cement-based mineral insulating foams are also available on the building market. In particular, Lafarge AIRIUM foam has a lower carbon footprint than all the other insulating materials mentioned so far (81.05 kgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) excepted bulk rock wool (27.85kgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe foam produced for this study has properties similar to those of the AIRIUM foam produced by Lafarge, in terms of mechanical properties and thermal performances. The foam Mix W from the present study has one of the lowest carbon footprints (45.25 kgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e). This stems from (i) the replacement of cement by lime (which has a carbon footprint half of Portland cement one) and (ii) the addition of Limestone Clay Fines, whose carbon footprint is considered zero (as it comes from a different manufacturing/construction process and it is therefore a waste product of these processes). As explained before, the emissions of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq corresponding to the mineral foam of the present study were estimated. However, because the production process was assimilated to the one for vegetal concrete, (which contained both mixing and pressing process) it was overestimated. In fact, foam production does not need a pressing process and can be easily molded or eventually cast directly on site.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHowever, each insulating material presents its own thermal performances. And that has practical consequences in terms of insulating thickness in order to reach a given thermal resistance. Indeed, a variation of thickness results in a variation both of the insulating material volume and of the corresponding CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq gas emissions. Instead of comparing the different insulating material using the carbon footprint per cubic meter, it is more pertinent to compare them using the carbon footprint per square meter for the desired thermal resistance. All computed data, regarding carbon footprint for a thermal resistance of 3.7 K.m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/W (which is the limit fixed by the RE2020 in France for walls) are presented on Table\u0026nbsp;12. Those data allow a more pertinent comparison of insulating materials for the same insulation performance. Thus, those with very low thermal conductivity correspond to a much lower environmental impact to ensure a thermal resistance of 3.7 K.m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/W. This makes glass wool the insulating material with the lowest environmental impact. Nevertheless, comparing materials with similar thermal resistance shows that Mix W has a lower impact on the Environment than any other mineral insulating materials, excepted glass wool and Bulk rock wool. However, GES emissions are higher than for polystyrenes (11.15 kgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and 6.53 kgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e). Regarding Mix Z, which contain more SAC than Mix W and Mix B, the impact is lower than Mix B, thanks to its lower density and also because the impact of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq of SAC is close to the one of the lime used in this study. Mix B emissions are higher than Mix W because of its density, involving a higher thermal conductivity. Whatever the Mix produced (Mix B or Mix W or Mix Z), they all present lower emissions than the mineral market foam (Airium) and the aerated concrete (Ytong Energy 20).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab10\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 12\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarbon footprint of insulating materials for R\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.7 K.m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInsulation products for walls\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThermal conductivity (W/m/k)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarbon footprint for R\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.7 K.m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(KgCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThickness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(m)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePetro-sourced insulation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExpanded polystyrene [51]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,038\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExtruded polystyrene [52]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral insulation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulk perlite [53]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExpanded perlite panel [54]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.525\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulk vermiculite [55]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGlass wool [56]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRock wool [57]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulk rock wool [58]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAerated concrete Ytong Energy 20 [59]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral foam Airium Lafarge [60]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral foam Mix B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,067\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral foam Mix W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral foam Mix Z\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental impact is nowadays an important characteristic of building materials, but it is highly dependent on the thermal conductivity of the materials and therefore on their density. Indeed, a lightweight material with good thermal performance will require less product to achieve the desired thermal resistance. Thus, the studied formulations revealed one of the lower carbon footprints. This one can be reduced by decreasing the density of mineral foam.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3.2. Impact on net drinking water consumption\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDrinking water is becoming an increasingly scarce resource, and therefore it presents an increasing environmental interest in relation to the more and more frequent periods of extreme heat. Once again, drinking water consumption may vary extremely from one insulating material to another. It is illustrated by the set of data drawn from the Inies database [48], which are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;13. As explained before for our insulating foam global warming potential, the drinking water consumption of our foams were estimated similarly. The data corresponding to lime were retrieved from the FDES for hemp concrete [49], [50]. Data for SAC and LCF were not available so the same data as for lime were used. Drinking water data for superplasticizer were obtained from the supplier and data for the foaming agent were assimilated.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab11\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 13\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDrinking net water consumption for some isolation materials\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInsulation products for walls\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDrinking net water use (m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003ewater\u003c/sub\u003e/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003eproduct\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDrinking net water use for R\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.7 K.m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/W (m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003ewater\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePetro-sourced insulation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExpanded polystyrene\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExtruded polystyrene\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral insulation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulk perlite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExpanded perlite panel\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulk vermiculite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGlass wool\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRock wool\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulk rock wool\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAerated concrete Ytong Energy 20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral foam Airium Lafarge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral foam Mix B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral foam Mix W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral foam Mix Z\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs can be seen from Table\u0026nbsp;13, the drinking water consumption of the various types of insulations varies, from 4.15 water m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/product m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e of water for expanded perlite panel to 0.09m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e of water for Bulk rock wool. Generally speaking, semi-rigid mineral insulants (glass wool and rock wool) consume less drinking water than other mineral insulants.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThen, there is aerated concrete, which consumes 5 times more water than glass wool, but almost 13 times more than Bulk rock wool (0.09m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e). This is mainly due to the way the material is manufactured. Cellular concrete requires kilns to trigger the alkaline chemical reaction of aluminum, which generates gas and thus pores, and autoclaves (steam generators) to achieve final strengths.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe present study mineral foams, Mix B and Mix W, consume less water than the AIRIUM mineral foam, thanks to the use of lime instead of cement and the substitution of a proportion of binder by limestone clay fines. Of course, Mix W has a lower impact than Mix B due to its lower density. In addition, the use of a superplasticizer enables to reduce water use, but as visible for Mix Z, the impact is not significantly lower than Mix B and still higher than Mix W. It can be explained due to the water consumption of the raw materials, especially the superplasticizer and the sulfo-aluminous cement, which both used a significant amount of water to their production.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThus, the formulation Mix W is one of the lower water consumptions insulating material, just behind rock and glass wool. However, compared only with the rigid insulating foams, it is better than market mineral foam and aerated concrete.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThere is a large number of mineral insulating materials, available in different forms and with different implementation procedures. The main advantage of using mineral foams is that they are easy to adapt to different surfaces and volumes, due to their fluidity at fresh state (AIRIUM Lafarge and Aerolithys foams for example). In addition, these foams are rigid in their hardened state, so they won\u0026rsquo;t be subject to the setting that decreases the performances of bulk and semi-rigid mineral insulating materials. The production of such material includes a binder, water and a foaming adjuvant. In order to limit the environmental impact, lime and limestone clay fines were used instead of cement. The addition of sulfo-aluminous cement was necessary to stabilize the final foam and prevent settling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, mineral foams currently on the market, like those produced in this study, are not so as thermally efficient as glass wool or polystyrene. The very nature of their components means that, for the time being, they do not offer equivalent performance with sufficient mechanical strength without increasing the amount of SAC and thus the amount of superplasticizer. However, the results obtained for Mix W and Mix Z mean that they can be considered as good thermal insulators under RT 2012, with satisfactory mechanical resistance for this type of use.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe benefit of mineral insulating foam also lies in its environmental performances. Indeed, this is an increasingly important issue, and one that is subject to ever stricter regulations. These foams produced have a similar carbon foot print (for R value of 3.7 K.m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/W) as polystyrene and a lower carbon footprint than Lafarge AIRIUM mineral foam and aerated concrete. Also, for water consumption, an increasingly scarce resource necessary for life, the produced foams reveal a lower consumption than any other material excepted glass and rock wool. Indeed, regarding carbon foot print and water consumption, the foams produced present three of the lowest impacts, especially for Mix W because it has a lower density. The increase of SAC, in order to improve mechanical strength, does not significantly impact GES emissions and water consumption.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe acoustic absorption coefficient also reveals good capacities for the foam produced to block the sound propagation (more than 80%) in the low frequencies (between 600 and 900 Hz).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs a result, the final foam (Mix Z) produced for this study achieves satisfactory thermal conductivity (0.064 W.m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e.K-1) and compressive strength performances exceeding the set limit of 0.2MPa, as it is obtained for cement or gypsum based mineral foams from the bibliography and produced on the market. Also, its environmental performance (carbon footprint and net drinking water consumption) is better than that of the other mineral insulants studied here. It could therefore be interesting to continue studying this product\u0026rsquo;s various thermo-hydric and acoustic characteristics, and the possible improvement of mechanical resistance with another binder composition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecommendation and prospect\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1) The chemical bonds created between the limestone clay fines and the binder need further investigation. This will allow to manage more precisely the quantity of LCF in the Mix, in order to minimize conductivity and maximize compressive strength.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2) The composition and the chemical interaction of the foaming admixture need to be determined, to adjust the quantity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3) Acoustic performances need to be further studied. In this study, acoustic adsorption has only been studied between 50 and 1600 Hz for normative considerations (ISO standards). It would be interesting to measure the absorption until the maximum hearing frequency (20kHz). In addition, physical analysis with Xray Tomograph could allow the acoustic absorption according to the regularity of the porosity and pore shapes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4) Hydric performances need to be studied for this mineral insulating foam, in order to know how it could be used in a building and if it could help to manage humidity in the buildings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5) The carbon footprint of the three foams, identified as Mix B, Mix W and Mix Z, could be further studied, especially by assessing the exact energy consumption required to produce a mineral foam of the same density using a blade or a whisk.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6) The introduction of vegetal particles, as in vegetal concretes, could be tested. The low density of these particles would be useful to reduce the conductivity. In addition, the introduction of plant matter could add good hydrothermal performances to the product. Finally, the plant matter is also a way to stock CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, so, it could reduce the environmental impact too.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the R\u0026eacute;gion Hauts-de-France \u0026amp; Artois University for their financial supports and the Laboratoire de G\u0026eacute;nie Civil et g\u0026eacute;o-Environnement for its technical support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Author contributions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lsquo;Not Applicable\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConflicts of interest or competing Interest\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared\u0026nbsp;to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData and code availability\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lsquo;Not Applicable\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupplementary information\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lsquo;Not Applicable\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lsquo;Not Applicable\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eA. 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Available: https://base-inies.fr/consultation/infos-produit/29293\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Lightweight mineral foam, Insulating material, Low carbon, Sulfo-Aluminous Cement","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7148977/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7148977/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eBuilding insulation is currently one of the biggest challenges to reduce energy consumption. Saving energy also means reducing the human impact on Environment. In order to reduce this impact, the manufacturing of the building materials is of importance. Moreover, policies, laws and regulations keep evolving in this direction. Mineral insulations and more precisely mineral insulating foams meet these two objectives. Indeed, in this research, replacing cement by lime and adding Limestone Clay Fines (LCF) enable the production of a mineral foam with comparative thermal and mechanical performances as mineral insulating market products, i.e. respectively under 0.065W/m/K and at least 0.2MPa. Sulfo-Aluminous Cement (SAC) was used to reach both criteria and it shows a key role in the setting. Mixing process choices and more precisely mixing equipment, can also have a significant impact. Indeed, the use of whisk, in place of a blade, produces more quickly a 28% lighter foam. Comparing with other insulating materials, this mineral foam presents one of the lowest CO2 equivalent emissions and also one of the lowest drinking net water consumptions. Additionally, the specificities of this insulation foam pores give to this new material interesting acoustic performances. Indeed, the processed foams are five times better acoustically than aerated concrete. In fact, the internal structure of the mineral foam absorbs up to 80% of low wavelengths.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Mix design and characterization of a low-carbon insulation foam","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-23 18:02:08","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7148977/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f679e5c8-a7f4-4239-aecc-3429a026f394","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 23rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-26T16:04:46+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7148977","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40712-025-00393-7","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-materials-science-materials-in-engineering","isVorOnly":true,"title":"Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Engineering"},"publishedOn":"2026-01-23 15:59:20","publishedOnDateReadable":"January 23rd, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-23 18:02:08","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s40712-025-00393-7","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40712-025-00393-7","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7148977","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7148977","identity":"rs-7148977","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}