Environmental and Socio-economic Impacts of River Sand and Gravel Mining: A Review

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This review compiles recent studies on the environmental and socio-economic effects of this harmful practice. We followed the PRISMA guidelines for this study. In this review, the problems and effects of sand and gravel mining are properly highlighted using a Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, and Threat (SWOT) analysis. Studies from all around the world that present an overview of sand and gravel market, highlighting the main trends, production, export and import are included in this review. Riverbed morphological changes, habitat degradation, and alterations in aquatic biodiversity are among the physical and ecological effects examined. Hydrological effects include changes in river flow patterns, sedimentation, water quality deterioration, determined by a thorough assessment of the existing literature. Socio-economically, this practice can simultaneously offer and impede local economic advantages. Furthermore, the informal practices associated with sand and gravel mining can result in disputes, uncontrolled exploitation, and adverse socio-economic effects. At the end of this research, a series of suggestions for developing global agenda related to sustainable sand and gravel extraction.Through this review, we aspire to contribute to informed decision-making and the pursuit of sustainable practices that can mitigate the challenges posed by river sand and gravel mining while fostering a harmonious coexistence between human development and nature. Sand Mining Environmental Socio-economic Habitat degradation Riverbed Morphology Sustainable Practices Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 1. Introduction People fundamentally interconnect with nature, relying on it to meet their diverse needs. Rivers play a crucial role in sustaining life and maintaining the balance of natural ecosystems. However, as the population grows and human needs expand, there has been a shift towards anthropocentrism, affecting our interaction with nature (Syah & Hartuti, 2018). Throughout history, rivers along with their floodplains, estuaries, and deltas have been central to human development, playing crucial roles in agriculture, transportation, industry, waste management, and habitation. Although rivers are vital for sustaining life and lush landscapes in tropical and subtropical regions, humans have extensively exploited these abundant natural resources without fully understanding the mechanisms that sustain the health and vitality of these ecosystems (Naiman et al., 1998; Robert J. Naiman and Henri Decamps, 1997). Globally, rivers are under significant stress from various human activities, with the indiscriminate extraction of sand and gravel being particularly destructive. This activity poses a severe threat to the survival of river ecosystems (Kondolf, 1994; Lu et al., 2007; Rovira et al., 2005). Sand is often characterised by its particle size, which falls within the range of 0.06 mm to 2 mm. It is smaller than gravel but bigger than silt (0.0078–0.0625 mm). It contains a combination of tiny rock grains and granular elements. Based on their grain size, we can classify five different types of sand: very coarse (1-2 mm), coarse (0.5-1 mm), medium (0.25-0.5 mm), fine (0.125-0.250 mm), and very fine (0.0625-0.0125 mm)(Wentworth, 1922). The nearby rock formations influence the sand's composition, with silica (silicon dioxide) being the predominant component. Typically, silica exists in the form of quartz. Locations such as floodplains, hills, oceans, streams, and rivers are all potential sources of sand (Kondolf, 1994) but most suitable sources of these materials are riverine deposits. Sand and gravel mining refers to the process of extracting sand and gravel from their original environment(Schouenborg et al., 2009). The extraction of sand and gravel is a worldwide practice that often takes place along riverbeds and along shorelines, where these areas naturally accumulate abundant raw materials (J & R Anilkuar, 2014). After water, sand ranks second in global resource extraction. The practice of sand mining has witnessed prosperous growth, generating billions of dollars in revenue. However, we are using sand faster than it can naturally replenish itself (Peduzzi, 2014). . Sand has attained a level of recognition that it is often referred to as "the new gold, and our environment is being devastated by the unsustainable mining of this new gold (Barton N. and Mini G., 2013). Sand and gravel mining is a globally significant industry that holds immense importance across various sectors, including construction, infrastructure, development, and manufacturing. Sand constitutes 75% of the concrete composition. House construction typically requires approximately 200 metric tons of sand, whereas road construction uses around 30,000 metric tons per kilometer, and the construction of a nuclear power plant requires a staggering 12 million metric tons of sand (Ludacer 2018). Because of the high demand for these aggregates, mining has emerged as a major socio-economic and environmental problem on a global scale (Asabonga et al., 2017). Sand mining can have both indirect and direct impacts on streams and rivers. The procedure for removing sand from rivers has significant effects on the physical environment, ecosystems, water levels, the quality of water, climate, landscape, culture, political dynamics, and economic and social activities (Boyd et al., 2005). Mining operations inherently cause significant environmental alterations, and in the absence of adequate law and control, the consequences may be disastrous (Rentier & Cammeraat, 2022). Several organisations, including WWF and UNEP, have recently highlighted the social and environmental problems caused by river sand and gravel exploitation. They ensure there is a lack of data that can help implement sustainable policies (Koehnken et al., 2020). However, several nations suffer from a dearth of sand and gravel mining regulations coupled with a soaring demand for sand, which leads to rampant and unlawful mining practices (Rentier & Cammeraat, 2022). Research on the environmental and socio-economic impacts of river sand and gravel mining reveals several significant gaps that need to be addressed for a comprehensive understanding. Furthermore, comparative studies across different geographical contexts are scarce, limiting the understanding of region- specific challenges and mitigation strategies. By combining previous research on this topic, we aim to provide a more thorough understanding of river sand and gravel mining, highlighting the interdependence of social and environmental elements. Through this review, we aspire to contribute to society through informed decision-making and the pursuit of sustainable practices that can mitigate the challenges posed by river sand and gravel mining. 2. Methodology In this segment, we delve into the approaches used to gather articles pertaining to the socio-economic and environmental impacts of sand and gravel mining. We utilised a systematic literature review (SLR) to consolidate empirical findings from past research, aiming to offer a comprehensive snapshot of the present status of these operations. Our SLR adhered to the guidelines outlined in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) standards, initially introduced in 2009 (Moher et al., 2009). 2.1 PRISMA: The current investigation utilised the PRISMA framework to guide the process of searching, filtering, selecting, and analysing the literature findings in accordance with the study's objectives. PRISMA provides systematic and stringent methodologies for reviewing studies based on a checklist of analyses (Moher et al., 2009). It comprises four key steps: identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion, which are essential for conducting a systematic literature review (Moher et al., 2009). The procedures were executed as follows: 2.1.1 Identification: In the initial phase, we identified several keywords to use as search strings for locating pertinent literature within the database. The literature search began in April 2023 and was repeated until the end of May 2024. Table 1 Criteria for selecting publications for review in this research Key words within abstract Sand and gravel extraction, environmental deterioration, socio-economic repercussions, alteration of stream channels, biodiversity loss, resource exhaustion, groundwater depletion, habitat fragmentation, erosion, sediment accumulation, changes in land use, degradation of water quality, infrastructure impairment, economic ramifications, and social tensions. Database Web of Science, Science Direct, Scopus, Wiley Online Library, and Google Scholar are widely recognized academic databases frequently used for search purposes. Documents Type Journal articles, conference papers, book chapters, authentic news articles, and annual reports, unpublished reports, Ph.D dissertation Peer-review status Only peer-reviewed articles Language English Publication date range 1922- 2024 till date 2.1.2 Screening: The search queries yielded a total of 200 articles from different databases, as previously mentioned. After the screening process, we removed 80 duplicate articles based on abstract and title reviews, leaving us with a total of 120 articles for the subsequent phase. Figure 1 Geographic spread of all studies. 2.1.3 Eligibility: Following a thorough full-text screening, the eligibility stage reduced the total number of articles to 80 based on specific criteria (Meline, 2006). Afterwards, we excluded 40 articles from the total. 2.1.4 Inclusion for the review process: Following the screening and eligibility phase, 65 out of 80 articles were considered suitable for inclusion (Robinson & Lowe, 2015), while 15 articles were excluded for various reasons. Subsequently, we thoroughly examined relevant publications and cited works, discovering an additional 5 articles. Ultimately, a total of 70 articles were chosen for this systematic review. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Executive Summary of Global Sand Market Dynamics : The global sand market has seen sustained growth over the last few decades due to its various applications. This study examines the worldwide sustainable sand market from every angle, including the most important trends, problems, and possibilities, as well as their social and environmental effects. In 2011, the global human population reached 7 billion, and since then it has continued to grow, leading to an increased need for sand and gravel (Dan Gavriletea, 2017 ). Developments in both urban areas and infrastructure are driving up the need for sand (Torres et al., 2021 ), the construction of enormous dams (Hackney et al., 2020 ). The widespread presence of sand is the reason for its extensive use in many industries, including construction, the manufacturing of transparent materials, electronic devices, cosmetics, and medicinal products (Bendixen et al., 2021 ). Currently, over 54% of the global population resides in urban regions. By 2050, it is estimated that this percentage will rise to 66% (Bocquier, 2005 ). There will be pressure on governments, businesses, and others to address urban development in a certain manner due to the ever-increasing pace of urbanisation and the perpetually rising global population. Because of these factors, concrete is considered the world's most popular building material (Meyer, 2009 ). Many building projects, including dams, skyscrapers, bridges, infrastructure, and residential construction, use concrete. The main constituents of concrete are cement, natural sand, crushed stone, and water. Approximately 66% of concrete's composition consists of sand. Regardless of the size, all construction projects need a substantial amount of sand (Dinh et al., 2022 ). We combine standardized volumetric amounts of sand, aggregates, cement, and water to create different grades of concrete. In the United Kingdom, the composition of concrete is often defined as consisting of the following components: 1.5% air, 10% cement, 18% water, 25% fine aggregate (sand), and 45% coarse aggregate (crushed rock or gravel) by volume (UNEP, 2019 ).The United States ranked first in terms of being the greatest manufacturer and purchaser of industrial sand and gravel, according to worldwide production estimates. Obtaining accurate information regarding the production of industrial sand and gravel in several countries is challenging due to the wide variety of languages and criteria used by various nations. The United States is known for producing high-quality industrial sand and gravel, which is in high demand worldwide. This is due to the use of innovative processing procedures. The United States offers a range of industrial sand and gravel grades that meet the needs for nearly every application (Lenhart, 1962 ). In the United States, the leading producers of sand and gravel include California, Texas, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and Washington, DC. Because of their high demand, these states still import a portion of their sand and gravel from Australia, Canada, and Mexico (Draggan, 2008 ). Poyong Lake in China mines the most aggregate sand and gravel, extracting 236 million m3 of sand annually (de Leeuw et al., 2010 ). According to estimates, the Mekong River in Cambodia and Vietnam is responsible for transporting up to thirty million metric tonnes of sand per year (Koehnken et al., 2020 ). The Loire River in France is the source of approximately 1.83 million metric tonnes of aggregate gravel and sand collected worldwide each year (Latapie et al., 2014 ). Table 1 Leading Producers of Sand and Gravel in World: Country Production in 2022 (in 1000 metric tons) United States 97000 China 88000 Netherlands 54000 Italy 14000 India 12000 France 12000 Germany 11000 Turkey 11000 Bulgaria 8600 Russia 7300 Source: ( Mineral Commodity Summaries 2023 | U.S. Geological Survey ). Sand extraction enterprises in emerging and developing nations frequently violate environmental management and extractive regulations. There have been reports of the social and environmental effects in China, India, and other parts of Asian, African, and South American countries (Dan Gavriletea, 2017 ). Both India and China are at the top of the list of areas where sand and gravel mining has a significant negative influence on water bodies, beaches, lakes, and rivers(Sreebha & Padmalal, 2011 ),the fact that these nations are world leaders in both building and infrastructure. Other nations affected by national and regional construction booms exhibit similar trends. A continuous imbalance between supply and demand has an impact on the global sand market. Below, we present the leading sand producers from 2019 to 2022 : Sand and gravel represent invaluable resources, pivotal to the economies of numerous nations. Investments in mining areas, sand exports, and the sand and gravel mining sector all contribute to the economy's growth and create job opportunities (Filho et al., 2021 ). The leading countries in the world that manufacture sand and gravel are the USA, Netherlands, Germany, Belgium, and Malaysia. Some of the countries that import the most sand and gravel include Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Singapore, China, and Canada ( Sand|OEC-The Observatory of Economic Complexity ). Moreover, it is noteworthy that sand exports typically constitute a minor fraction of the overall domestic sand production. This suggests that countries with significant export activities use the majority of their sand domestically. Data reveals that the leading sand and gravel-producing nations coincide with the top exporters globally. These nations include the USA, the Netherlands, Germany, Belgium, and France. Specifically, as of 2022, the United States of America, the Netherlands, Germany, Belgium, and Malaysia rank as the top five countries worldwide in terms of sand exports. Over three-fifths (62.5%) of the total value of natural sand delivered to overseas markets was accounted for by these five primary sand exporters combined (Workman, 2022). 3.2 Livelihood at Stake; Sand mining Scenario in India : As the demand for aggregate materials in India's building projects continues to rise, India's rivers are running out of gravel and sand at an alarming rate. According to the literature review, primary sources of sand in India include the Indus, Ganga, Yamuna, Beas, Satluj, Jhelum, and Chenab rivers in the northern region, alongside the Narmada, Son, Tapi, Indravati, Betwa, Mahanadi, and Chambal rivers in central India, and the Krishna, Kaveri, Godavari, Periyar, and Pennar rivers in the southern region. Currently boasting the second-highest population in the world, India is poised to surpass all other nations soon. Given India's ranking as the third-largest building industry, it has a significant and overwhelming need for sand and gravel, trailing only the United States and China (ITTO, 2024). Factors like urbanization, economic growth, and the need to build 60 million new affordable homes by 2024 are driving this demand (Gaurav & Karan, 2016). Padmalal et al. ( 2008 ) conducted a study examining the environmental impact of unregulated sand mining in small catchment rivers adjacent to the Vembanad Lake in southwest India. Each year, they extract a significant amount of sand, specifically 5.64 million metric tonnes from the Periyar River and 2 million metric tonnes from the Muvattupuzha. This sand predominantly originates from heavily industrialised and urbanised regions. Each year, the operational channels produce an average of 11.73 million metric tonnes of sand and gravel, with an additional 6.41 million metric tonnes sourced from river floodplains. Notably, in Kerala, the extraction rate has surpassed replenishment rates by a considerable margin (Padmalal et al., 2008 ). Numerous studies have documented the detrimental effects of this activity on the ecological balance of rivers like the Ithikkar in Kerala, posing threats to various species and habitats (Sheeba, 2009 ). Unlawful and too abundant extraction of sand, as seen in the Papagani catchment area in Karnataka and the Bharathapuzha river in Kerala, has led to groundwater depletion and environmental degradation in adjacent villages spanning Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka (Saviour, 2012 ). Furthermore, studies have linked sand mining to reduced water retention capacities in rivers, with Kerala's river serving as an example (Pitchaiah, 2017 ). The ramifications extend to altering water quality and zooplankton populations in locations such as Dal Lake in Kashmir (Musharaf et al., 2016) and exacerbating drought conditions by depleting water tables, as observed in the Godavari River (Bagchi, 2010 ). Reports of widespread illegal mining across river basins like the Narmada, Chambal, and Waingana in Madhya Pradesh demonstrate how pervasive the problem is (KuttiPuran, 2006 ). Widespread exploitation of sand and gravel on the Balason River, located in the Himalayan Piedmont region of India, has well-documented consequences. Over fewer than two decades, the river's water level has significantly diminished by approximately 1.3 meters, equivalent to an annual decrease of around 7 centimeters. The removal of an estimated 3 to 14 million cubic meters of sand from the riverbed is responsible for this decline (Wiejaczka et al., 2018 ). The extraction of river sand and gravel mining has led to the riverbed's increased coarseness and degradation, resulting in a decrease in the river's depth (Talukdar & Das, 2021 ). Studies in various regions, including the Dohan River tributary in Mahender Garh district, Haryana, show that sand mining has caused riverbed degradation, resulting in coarser and shallower riverbeds (Jaglan & Chaudhary, 2010 ). Similarly, the Himalayan region faces erosion and increased flood vulnerability due to sand-mining activities (Singh & Kumar, 2018 ). Based on a study regarding the impact of sand mining activities in the Ganga at Bhojpur village in District Haridwar, it has been found that extensive mining activities along the riverbed are leading to significant alterations in the channel morphology of the Ganga (Kamboj & Kamboj, 2019 ). Table 2 Sand mining in Indian rivers and its impacts: S. no Name of River Type of Mining Major Focuse Adverse Impact of sand and gravel Mining References 1. Ganga River Instream Mining Impacts of Sand Mining on Zooplankton Species Diversity and Abundance Reduction The consequences observed include sedimentation leading to water pollution and sand mining sites can significantly alter the amount and diversity of zooplankton in the Ganga River. (Nitin Kamboj, Arunima Pandey, Mob. Shoaib, 2012; Prabhakar et al., 2019 ) 2. Yumuna River Active Channel Mining Ecological impact assessment of mining project Sand extraction from rivers has a significant impact on the eco-biology of various terrestrial insects, whose life cycle begins in an aquatic environment.The transportation of sand and gravel by trucks or dumpers will disrupt the movement of wild animals. (Ashok, 2015 ; Mujaffar Ahmad, 2014 ; Singh & Kumar, 2018 ) 3. Son River Instream Mining Physio-chemical parameters assessment of sand mining The research provides an overview of the changes in river son's physiochemical characteristics over time due to instream sand mining. The profound disruption of sand mining sites is characterized by elevated turbidity, an increased presence of silica particles, and diminished solar radiation penetration. These factors collectively contribute to the degradation of water quality and a reduction in primary production. (D. Kumar & Singh, 2021 ) 4. Vembanad Lake Floodplain mining Various environmental impacts of unregulated sand mining Unregulated sand excavation exacerbates river degradation and contributes to the decline of riparian and instream vegetation. Furthermore, it has negative effects on water quality deterioration, land-based and nearshore marine environments, disrupting the feeding, reproduction, and spawning grounds of aquatic creatures, including fish. (Padmalal et al., 2008 ; Sajeev et al., 2020 ) 5. Kangsabati river Instream Mining Water quality and reduction of benthos community in alluvial reach area The physiochemical properties of river water undergo direct alterations due to sand mining processes, which subsequently disrupt the water's composition. The excessive exploitation of sand mining poses a threat to the habitat and livelihoods of fishing communities. Anguillidae and Mastacembelidae were two endangered species families. (R. K. Bhattacharya et al., 2016 ; Bhattacharya RajKumar, 2018; Bhattcharya et al., 2015 ; Mandal et al., 2021 ) 6. Kaveri River Channelbed mining Natural fluvial dynamics are altered by human intervention (Sand Mining) The massive sand mining from its channel bed severely strains the natural fluvial processes. The channel's lower carrying capacity, the development of channel-in-channel physiography, changes in the stream's shape, and variations in the textural properties of the stream bed sediments have all led to the loss of environmental integrity and a higher risk of flooding in the nearby areas. (Ramkumar et al., 2015 ; Sunil et al., 2010 , 2016 ) 7. Neyyar River Lower course floodplain mining Socio- environmental impact of sand mining The extraction of river sand poses significant challenges for both society and the environment, with notable repercussions such as river bank erosion, valley slumping, and river channel widening. The land use has changed, the water table has dropped, the water quality has gotten worse, and the study area's water stagnation has resulted in several health issues. Conflicts and alcoholism have also grown, endangering the public's well-being. (Badusha & Santhosh, 2018 ; Badusha et al., 2017; J & R Anilkuar, 2014 ) 8. Ramganga river Floodplain mining Properties of sediments Physical characteristics of sediments, such as particle size distribution, exhibit greater instability than chemical characteristics, such as water-soluble chloride due to sand mining. (Daityari & Khan, 2017 ) 9. Kaljani River Riverbed mining Environmental consequences Mining for sand and gravel in eastern Dooars, India, has resulted in a major loss of river ecology and permanent destruction of riverine ecosystems. (Das et al., 2023) 10. Other Rivers Instream mining, Open pit mining, Floodplain mining Physio-chemical consequences Sand mining effects on thalweg dynamics, instability of river bars, pool riffle sequence change, hydraulic variables of bed load transport and channel planeform, water color, low pH, high electrical conductivity, low dissolved oxygen (DO), elevated BOD levels, and acid mine drainage (AMD) contamination are indicators of water pollution. (R. Bhattacharya et al., 2019 ; Ghosh et al., 2016 ; M. Naveen Saviour, 2012 ; Mishra, 2018 ) 3.3 Effects of Sand and gravel Mining on the Physical Environment : The continuous flow of water and sediment from the source to the deposition areas characterises a river as a dynamic system, which, in conjunction with its floodplain, constitutes a unified hydrogeomorphic entity (Batalla, 2003 ). In the past few decades, man's understanding of the composition and operations of river ecosystems has grown significantly. Human selfishness and interference continue to damage rivers. Mining's reckless exploitation of sand and gravel poses a significant risk to the integrity and operation of river ecosystems. River flood plains or active channels immediately lose their sand. We refer to the former as "stream mining," while we refer to the latter as "flood plain mining" or "terrain mining"(Kondolf, 1994 ). The configuration of bed form units within a river channel can fluctuate depending on changes in flow energy and sediment discharge within the system (Padmalal & Maya, 2014 ). The unregulated extraction of sand and gravel ranks among the most detrimental human actions, disrupting the natural evolution of stream beds. To accurately discern the ramifications of such mining from other natural and anthropogenic influences, a thorough understanding of sedimentation's complete dispersion, origins, and ultimate outcomes is critical (Kondolf, 1997 ). Figure 6 River channels function as conveyors for silt, facilitating zones of erosion, transportation, and deposition. (Kondolf, 1997 ). Continuous runoff over an extended period causes erosion of the land surface, while the interconnected system of rivers carries away the eroded materials from every basin (Kondolf, 1997 ). Sediment deposition and erosion brought on by river flows maintain and strengthen river channels (Heede, 1987 ). As the river progresses from its source to downstream locations, it gradually erodes materials, supplying the sediment essential for maintaining dynamically stable channel-forming flows (Kondolf, 1997 ). The intricate interplay of factors such as river flow, channel morphology, sediment input from the watershed, and sediment discharge to downstream areas influences the stability of a specific river segment (Padmalal & Maya, 2014 ). Instream mining can cause channel instability by undermining banks through incision or by upsetting the equilibrium channel morphology. Incisions and channel instability resulting from gravel mining activities were responsible for the significant increase in sediment production in Blackwood Creek, California (Todd, 2015 ). According to Sandecki (1989), instream mining may include significant clearance, flow diversion, sediment stockpiling, and deep pit excavation, in addition to directly modifying the channel geometry and bed elevation. According to (Collins & Dunne, 1989 ) and (Erskine, 2008 ), instream mining causes channel instability either directly by disrupting the pre-existing channel geometry or indirectly via incision and associated undercutting of banks. The reduced accumulation of large woody debris within the channel, which serves as an essential fish habitat, represents a significant indirect consequence of instream mining (Sedell et al., 1988 ). Mining sand and gravel from riverbeds may cause lateral channel instability, increased bed roughness, and channel deepening, as well as directly modify the river ecosystem (Kondolf, 1994 ). Padmalal and Maya ( 2014 ) state that in the instance of sand mining, the river will erode downstream due to the silt being deposited in the pits. According to D. Padmalal ( 2014 ), removing sand from a small region causes the banks and bed to erode, which results in an increased amount of sediment being carried to the location after the first removal of sediment. Pit excavation and bar skimming are both sand mining methods that contribute to the riverbed's degradation (Padmalal & Maya, 2014 ). According to Rentier & Cammeraat,(2022), head cutting and hungry water are the two key factors that exacerbate riverbed deterioration. Mining activities create a nick point when they cause excavation in an active channel, which lowers the level of the stream bed and locally increases the steepness of the river's channel system (Kondolf, 1997 ). The nick point is the epicentre of bed erosion during high flows, and erosion slowly moves upstream by head-cutting (Hartfield, 1993 ; Kondolf, 1997 ). Head-cutting operations produce significant amounts of sediment in the stream bed, which is then carried downstream and deposited in the excavated areas (Kondolf, 1997 ). Head cutting, which results from sand and gravel mining, is a major contributor to riverbed degradation. This phenomenon is particularly prominent in streambeds and has severe detrimental effects on the river environment (Padmalal & Maya, 2014 ). Frequently, head cuttings cover considerable distances upstream and into tributaries (Hartfield, 1993 ). The process of bed deterioration and subsequent channel incision may be seen, even in regions where mining operations are not allowed, such as water intake units, bridges, and other man-made structures built to safeguard river ecosystems (Padmalal & Maya, 2014 ); The report provides evidence of a bridge collapse that occurred recently due to a channel incision in the Bharathapuzha River (SW India) near Shonur (Padmalal & Maya, 2014 ). Several elements influence the configuration of the channel cross-section at a specific location. These factors comprise flow velocity, the nature and volume of debris in motion, and the composition of materials found within the channel and its surrounding areas (Padmalal & Maya, 2014 ). Pitchaiah ( 2017 ) notes that sand mining also causes an increase in river flow velocity, which disrupts the flow regime and eventually erodes the river banks. The roughness of the streambed, which mostly governs the flow velocity and excavates sand and gravel in pits, determines the force's magnitude (Kondolf, 1997 ). Bank erosion and bank retreat are common in river segments where indiscriminate sand mining is occurring (Padmalal & Maya, 2014 ). Vegetation provides the river banks with a tremendous deal of resilience and erosion resistance (Gholami & Khaleghi, 2013 ). Uncontrolled sand mining and pit formation put the stabilized river banks at risk of channel erosion (Padmalal & Maya, 2014 ). For a very long time, people have used river basins as supplies of fine aggregate for construction projects. The geological and geomorphic conditions surrounding river sand mining may have detrimental long-term consequences for the ecosystem (UNEP, 2019 ). The continuous extraction of sand in alluvial areas has led to significant changes in the grain size properties of river sediments (Stevens et al. 1990 ). Unregulated mining of river sand and gravel has significantly altered the particle size distribution of sediments in the rivers of Manimala and Muvattupuzha in southern India (Anooja et al.,2011). Furthermore, insufficient sand in the sediment substratum may exacerbate the hungry water effect in rivers during periods of high flow (Padmalal & Maya, 2014 ). (Hackney et al., 2020 )conducted a quantitative investigation in the Mekong River region. Their findings revealed that extensive sand mining leads to a reduction in riverbed levels, thereby elevating the risk of significant riverbank collapses and instability. From 1998 to 2013, three specific cross sections of the Hukou Waterway showed noticeable alterations in the channel profile, demonstrating the influence of river sand mining near Puyon Lake, China (Lai et al., 2014 ). The extensive excavation of sand sediment from the Sadang River causes changes in flow patterns at multiple sites and reduces sediment deposition (Arsyad et al., 2020 ). When sand is taken out of the riverbed to make up for a shortage in supply, the sand-supply balance tends to move upstream, which erodes the riverbed (Knighton, 1999 ). Mining-released fine sediments accumulated in hydraulically quiescent areas, changing the spatial distribution of aquatic ecosystems (Freedman et al., 2013 ). These findings indicate that the extraction of sand may lead to channel incision. Moreover, there are numerous additional physical consequences associated with sand and gravel mining, which often vary depending on the specific site (Koehnken et al., 2020 ). 3.4 Effects of Sand and Gravel Mining on Biological Environment : Dumping waste materials from sand mining operations will degrade downstream water quality for communities and increase water treatment facility expenses (Hussain & Gowhar Rashid, 2022). The sand extraction procedure generates minute inorganic and organic particles (Barman et al., 2019 ). Removing sand from riverbeds causes sand particles to disperse downstream, ultimately creating sandbars. This process contributes to the natural construction of floodplains, as observed along the Periyar River in India (Babu and Sreebha, 2004 ). According to research, river sands can collect a variety of hazardous elements, including Cd, as well as finer pollutants (Kim et al., 2020 ). Many species are generally able to survive in a steady riverbed (both fauna and flora)(Hussain &, Gowhar Rashid, 2022). As per the findings of (Zou et al., 2019 ), extracting sand from a riverbed leads to destabilization, resulting in habitat depletion. Vegetation and animal species contribute to maintaining the ecological balance of riverine ecosystems, and when this equilibrium is upset, the environment may reach a breaking point (Padmalal & Maya, 2014 ). The Jhelum River's expanding river channel makes it difficult for different fish species to move between different currents and pools (Lawal, 2011). Padmalal and Maya ( 2014 ) assert that the extraction of sand and gravel leads to turbidity, hindering sunlight penetration and consequently reducing both respiration and photosynthesis. Sand mining in streams destroys aquatic and riparian habitat by altering riverine shape and lowering the water table, according to Stebbins ( 2006 ). It has been observed that changes in riverine ecology may cause harm to the entire food chain (Zou, et al., 2019 ). Deposits of silt and clay cover the riverbed, creating a blanket that can suffocate microorganisms such as fish eggs, macroinvertebrates, diatoms, and benthic algae (Barman et al., 2019 ). Mazumder et al.,(2014) conducted a study which revealed that the extraction of river sand and gravel posed a significant threat to the survival of the Ganges river dolphin, putting it at risk of extinction. The physical habitat characteristics play a significant role in shaping the distribution of various fish species within the Pamba, Periyar, and Chalakudy rivers (Renjithkumar et al., 2011 ). These research results show that irresponsible sand mining puts Labeo dussumieri, Puntius denisonii, Batasio travancoria, Horabagrus nigricollaris, and Lepidopygopsis typus in great danger. In the mining region of East Konga, Iceland, people interviewed stated that one of the main effects of the gravel extracted was the loss or reduction of farmlands. They additionally highlighted the origins of conflicts, erosion, and vegetation depletion. They also pointed out the formation of pits that serve as breeding grounds for mosquitoes, contributing to the transmission of numerous diseases (Musah et al., 2009 ). The heightened erosion of riverbeds and banks resulting from sand mining is the primary factor behind the elevated mean turbidity observed in both the mining sites and downstream areas. This, in turn, amplifies the concentration of suspended particles within the water (Nabegu, 2014 ). According to (Ac, Hemalatha, Chandrakanth, 2005) the unsustainable extraction of sand from dry riverbeds in riparian areas has led to an increase in premature and early irrigation well failures. This overexploitation of sand resources has practically depleted the available reserves, exacerbating the issue. The Velika Moraa at Ljubicevski has lower water levels due to sand mining, which has raised slopes and accelerated erosion of the Velika Moraa and its tributaries, in contrast to upstream gauging stations (Milan Kresojevi et al., 2023). Sand extraction from the river eliminates nutrients attached to the sediment and deposits the agitated particles on sand bars downstream (Babu and Sreebha, 2004 ). While these sandbars cannot support flora by themselves, the addition of a new layer of nutrients and minerals causes them to become a lush, green floodplain (Babu and Sreebha, 2004 ). While these seemingly innocuous "green sand bars" may not raise immediate concerns, they actually signify the depletion of nutrients within the river. This depletion results in the transfer of nutrients from terrestrial to marine habitats (Rentier & Cammeraat, 2022 ). Fuel and oil leakage, along with exhaust fumes from transportation and excavation equipment, significantly degrades the air and water quality (Rentier & Cammeraat, 2022 ). Researchers have identified significant factors associated with sand mining, such as increased scouring, diminished light penetration, and alterations in substrate composition, that contribute to alterations and a decline in aquatic plant communities (Kanehl, 1992 ). A phytosociological study was conducted in the vicinity of a riverine sand mine in Palri Bhoptan village, located in Rajasthan, India (N. K. and A. Kumar, 2014 ). Although the imme diate loss of vegetation was the main effect, mining and tailings dumping also modified the soil profiles, topography, hydrology, and substrate nutrient concentrations. The vegetation changes impacted the pace of carbon and nitrogen cycling, the ecosystem's productivity, and the composition of the microbial community (Koehnken et al., 2020 ). Research carried out on sand extraction in the Amite River, Louisiana, USA, has revealed a connection between reduced water levels caused by excavation and increased susceptibility to stranding and mortality among the Heelsplitter mussel (Potamilus inflatus)(Brown & Daniel, 2014 ). In areas where river velocities are low, channel expansion related to bar scalping has been linked to rising water temperatures (Kondolf, 1994 ). Higher temperatures may reduce dissolved oxygen concentrations and increase the harmful effects of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, and naturally occurring toxins. Additionally, these temperature shifts may diminish refuge availability and habitat suitability for riverine species (Heugens et al., 2001). 3.5. Impact of Sand and Gravel Mining On Socio-economic Environment: S. No Place Study variables Impact of sand and gravel Mining on Socio-economic Environment Supporting References 1. Warri river, Delta State Community perception Sand and gravel mining affects community roads, bridges, railroads and affects recreational activities along the river.People can get employment through sand and gravel mining operations and raises the community's standard of living. (Aghoghovwia et al., 2015 ; Tesi et al., 2018 ) 2. Kathmandu Valley, Nepal Area of Disturbance Due to the massive extraction of sand and gravel mining, operators approached residents near the village to relocate them to another location. After terrace sand mining began in the research area, the locals noticed a growing shortage of water. Mudslides and debris from the mining site spill into nearby fields. (Bajracharya & Tamrakar, 2007 ; Hatlebakk, 2023 ; Sada & Shrestha, 2013 ) 3. Mbiuni Ward within Mwala Constituency in Machakos County, Kenya Observable social impacts The study highlights various socio-economic impacts associated with sand and gravel mining, such as increased instances of drug and alcohol abuse, higher rates of school dropout, elevated levels of violence, and improved livelihoods. (Mbaka & Rono, 2022 ) 4. Tangail, Bangladesh Impacts in livelihoods Due to Bangladesh's rapid increase in the construction industry in recent years, sand has become a very desirable resource. Conversely, sand mining caused bank erosion during the rainy season, displacing dwellings and agricultural land. Other villagers' sale of sand also endangered them. (Bari & Haque, 2022 ; Khan & Sugie, 2015 ) 5. Wild Coast,South Africa Employment generation sand mining provides income for communities by creating employment opportunities for both young people and adults. The study further revealed that sand mining contributes to social issues, such as conflicts that emerge when government officials attempt to enforce environmental regulations without adequately consulting the community. (Mngeni et al., 2016 ) 6. North- Western Part of Iran Socio-environmental challenges The extraction of sand has led to significant environmental and social challenges, such as the destruction of agricultural land, pollution of water sources, and the emission of harmful pollutants into the air from truck transportation and adjacent conflicts. (Boloorani et al., 2021 ; Darvishi Boloorani et al., 2023 ; Farahani & Bayazidi, 2018 ) 7. Busoa Village in the Batauga District of Buton Regency Occupational mobility The miners' families initially benefited financially from sand mining because, although their income was unstable, they were able to offer a more steady source of income after moving from seasonal farming and fishing to sand mining. Second, sand mining operations can enhance the welfare of the workers' families. (Rais et al., 2019 ) 8. Victory River in Port Harcourt, Nigeria Socio-economic consequences The livelihoods of individuals have been adversely affected by continual river sand mining, leading to an increase in poverty rates and associated social issues, along with a decline in purchasing power. Economic and social advantages, such as jobs and community money creation, were also noted. (Johnbull & Brown, 2017 ) 9. Sedau Village, Narmada District, Indonesia Improvement in economic welfare Because of social factors, the community may see an increase in income, more ways to make a living besides farming and raising animals, and a greater understanding of how society works. Sand mines also make it easier for the community to meet its needs and make sure that their children can go to school until they graduate from high school. Additionally, they can raise their standard of living by transforming their homes into better places to live than they were before. (Saputra et al., 2023 ) 10. Vindhyan Region, Uttar Pradesh Livelihood vulnerability Researchers have conducted studies on the socioeconomic impacts of mining and associated regulations on the livelihoods of local communities in the mining areas of Allahabad, Mirzapur, and Sonabhadra within the Vindhyan region of Uttar Pradesh. With a significant portion of the population being illiterate, there was a vulnerability to exploitation by mining corporations, leaseholders, and contractors operating in these villages. (Dubey, 2017 ) 11. Peri-Urban areas of Karnataka, India Assessment of economic loss Estimates place the annual direct losses due to the abandonment of dry land crops and the reduction in animal numbers due to sand mining at Rs. 0.38 million and Rs. 1.83 million, respectively. Apart from adversely affecting natural resources and disrupting the social fabric of farming communities, this phenomenon poses a threat to the availability of cattle feed and human food security. (Govindaraj et al., 2013 ) 12. Kerala, India Mobility of coastal livelihood Research has shown that the escalation of sand extraction in both freshwater and coastal regions negatively impacts the delicate balance of livelihoods and ecosystems, posing a threat to the provision of essential commodities and services necessary for sustaining livelihoods. (Matovu et al., 2024 ; Padmalal et al., 2008 ; Sreebha & Padmalal, 2011 ) 4. SWOT analysis of sand and gravel mining SWOT analysis is a popular method for environmental planning and natural resource management that is helpful for planning, development, and decision-making (Andika & Partarini, 2023 ; Ghazinoory et al., 2011 ). A SWOT analysis evaluates both internal and external variables along with current and potential future results (Jain & Dohare, 2022 ). A SWOT analysis assists in establishing the optimal alignment between external trends (opportunities and threats) and internal capabilities, thus supporting a strategic approach to administration. When doing a SWOT analysis, it's important to reduce or stay away from both threats and weaknesses. It is important to turn weaknesses into strengths. We should also transform threats into opportunities (Danca, 2013 ). This section highlights the problems, opportunities, and limitations related to sand mining using a SWOT analysis. A review of several papers, news articles, and works of literature by various writers adequately illustrates the significant environmental risk that river sand and gravel mining poses through SWOT analysis. Strength Weakness • We remove sand from river channels to make river water easier to navigate (Jain & Dohare, 2022 ). • The removal of sediment from river and flood control channels is frequently necessary for maintaining or increasing channel capacity. Despite the potential advantages of in-stream sand and gravel mining for flood control and improving river stability, especially in rivers experiencing aggradation, this approach remains widely used (Kondolf, 1994 ). • The sand and gravel mining industry is leading to an increase in employment opportunities (Mensah, 1997 ). • Sand exports contribute to the nation's economic growth (Dan Gavriletea, 2017 ). • Sand mining fulfilled the sand demand in worldwide (Katz-Lavigne et al., 2022 ). • The people's standard of living had increased as a result of sand mining (Carrere, 2004). • Instream gravel mining may disrupt the pre-existing channel geometry, resulting in channel instability (Collins & Dunne, 1989 ). • Incisions made as a result of instream mining are noted as possibly endangered by incisions connected to adjacent instream mining (Kondolf, 1994 ). • The uncontrolled and illegal mining of sand and gravel has a significant influence on both surface water and groundwater systems (Milan Kresojevi et al., 2023). • The expansion of sand mining activities is leading to a rise in threats to human health and the accumulation of air pollutants (A. et al., 2014). • There has been a degradation in water quality, a rise in salinity, a change in water sources, and an increase in water treatment expenses (Yen & Rohasliney, 2013 ). • Fish populations change, and weed infestation rates rise due to sand minning (Koehnken et al., 2020 ). Opportunities Threats • Sand mining is the process of infilling and replenishing river sand (Haghnazar et al., 2020 ). • Sand mining creates additional water reservoirs and supply structures (ELAW, 2010). • To create more stable channels, reduce bedload by increasing sinuosity and decreasing the width-depth ratio (Chang, Rong-Chun, 1980 ). • People may find employment in sand mining operations. Sand mining improves the community's standard of living (Tesi & Enete, 2018). • Enhancing community awareness, public education, and attitudes toward illegal sand mining (Rochayati et al., 2020 ) • We anticipate positive changes in mining operations in terms of EIA processes and laws (Yıldız, 2021 ) • Mining activity level and intensity influenced suspended sediment particle size (Sadeghi et al., 2018 ). • Sand mining can impact aquatic animal activity by increasing water turbidity, decreasing light penetration, and lowering oxygen levels (Rentier & Cammeraat, 2022 ; Saviour, 2012 ). • Sand mining has a negative impact on bank stability and directly contributes to riverbank erosion (Tran et al., 2023 ) • Mining of sand has increased the sand particle size, which causes a decline in species richness and abundance as well as a change in beach conditions (on a beach where wave energy and tidal range have stayed constant) (McLachlan, 1996 ) • Environmental dust poses a threat to both human and animal health. Living things around mining sites have breathing difficulties. 5. Conclusion and Recommendations : Sand and gravel are an essential component in supporting the provision of ecological services, the preservation of biodiversity, the advancement of economic development, and the maintenance of livelihoods within local communities. It has some sort of direct or indirect connection to each of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Peduzzi, 2014 ; UNEP, 2019 ). Despite the growing global reliance on sand and the substantial extraction of sand and gravel, there are significant environmental consequences and socio-economic challenges linked to their mining and utilisation. However, policymakers have largely disregarded these urgent issues, and public awareness of them is often insufficient (Filho et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, this review examined the effects of river sand mining on the physical, biological, and anthropogenic environments. However, to advance sustainable mining policies, it is essential to also consider political and economic impacts and involve various stakeholder groups. Both governments and the private sector need to boost investment in research and development while finding sustainable alternatives to common sand and gravel. The present analysis suggests the need for swiftly creating an international framework for sustainable sand and gravel mining. When addressing environmental sustainability, the global sand agenda must align with principles of justice, equity, and a comprehensive understanding of technical, economic, and political factors. Below are strategic suggestions to prevent a disaster with sand and sustainability. These suggestions aim to bring together the knowledge of sand and sustainability from various fields, highlight the effects of current exploitation, use, and mismanagement, and propose courses of action for establishment. Raising public awareness about the adverse effects of sand and gravel mining will enhance understanding of associated socioeconomic and environmental issues. Including governmental bodies, organisations, and local residents in surveillance and monitoring efforts to spot the risks that sand mining operations pose to the environment and the community. Establish and implement environmental laws, regulations, and standards pertaining to the mining industry. We need to establish a robust legal structure to regulate sand mining activities and to halt or prohibit illicit mining and allow sand mining operations based on a valid license. Minimizing the amount of sand used in various sectors by replacing substitute supplies for natural sand (M-sand). To support mining companies in accessing clean technologies, it is crucial for them to understand and comply with environmental regulations, prioritize investments in clean technologies, and mitigate potential environmental impacts resulting from their extraction processes. Declarations Author Contribution All authors made substantial contributions to this article. Manirul Mia: Conceptualisation, Writing Original Draft, Methodology, Formal Analysis, Software, Validation. Basir Ali Karikar and Sk Mohibul: Software and visualization. Mohammad Itahdur Ali and Nazreen Khanam:Writing-review and editing. Lubna Siddiqui: Writing- review and editing, visualization, conceptualisation and supervision. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank Jamia Millia Islamia University for the support in research work .I wish to extend my heartfelt thanks to Subham Mukherjee from the Institute of Geographical Sciences, Physical Geography, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany, for his invaluable contribution and insightful guidance in shaping this review paper. His expertise and unwavering support have significantly enriched the quality and depth of this work. References Anooja, S., Baijulal, B., Maya, K., Sreebha, S., Padmalal, D., 2011. Impact of sand mining on river bed changes and bed material characteristics—a case analysis. National Seminar on Mining of River Sand And Its Impacts on the Environment. CWRDM, pp. 173–181. Babu, K. N., & Sreebha, S. (2004). Evaluation of nutrient budget of the rivers and adjoining back water–near shore systems of Kerala (unpublished report). Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, India , 118 . Bagchi, P. (2010). 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06:32:34","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4942545/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4942545/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-025-02370-4","type":"published","date":"2026-01-30T15:58:10+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":64864538,"identity":"285d7c0a-ae3b-48f7-8a3f-beeb070fab43","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-19 17:46:51","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":264096,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeographic spread of all studies.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4942545/v1/122d533d1d4b0670cb0c9f4b.jpeg"},{"id":64864537,"identity":"677652bd-61c3-47ff-95cc-2388fbab8fdb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-19 17:46:51","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":812537,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource:\u003c/strong\u003e flow chart of the selection of studies ( based on Page et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnnumbered image in the \u003cstrong\u003eMethodology \u003c/strong\u003esection.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4942545/v1/a61fa3d0ce29685a1384065d.jpeg"},{"id":64864535,"identity":"9f4c5a4f-66e0-4edb-92be-e8f95a2b1e6d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-19 17:46:51","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":114971,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGlobally requirement of sand for every Construction Purpose \u0026nbsp;(Dinh et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4942545/v1/223cad2a5317e7a07106baf6.jpeg"},{"id":64864536,"identity":"1aab06dd-5aba-4a3d-b25e-8f5eb2553988","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-19 17:46:51","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27856,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTop 10 induistrial sand and gravel producing Countries from 2020 to 2023 ( Million Metric Tons).\u003cstrong\u003eSource: \u003c/strong\u003eChart made by the authors(\u003cem\u003eMineral Commodity Summaries 2023 | U.S. Geological Survey\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4942545/v1/824d89f196a5aba45ba81e7a.png"},{"id":64864867,"identity":"0e452176-831d-4c7e-8b5e-435bab40f62f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-19 17:54:51","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":10579,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGlobal sand export share 2022, by leading countries\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e(\u003cem\u003eSand Exporting Countries Global Value Ranking 2022 | Statista\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinedrawingimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4942545/v1/781f1d3dac22a303317b3579.png"},{"id":64864868,"identity":"23f6cbb8-455f-4cd7-85d8-0bd0dd7b18a1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-19 17:54:51","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":193545,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSand \u0026nbsp;demand and supply \u0026nbsp;in \u0026nbsp;selected \u0026nbsp;states in India (Krishnaswamy et al., 2020; Mahadevan, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4942545/v1/ff78fd46ae6c86087c4825f1.jpeg"},{"id":64864541,"identity":"3e68cb4c-8964-4acf-8e1b-446314d9e038","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-19 17:46:51","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":97805,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRiver channels function as conveyors for silt, facilitating zones of erosion, transportation, and deposition. (Kondolf, 1997).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4942545/v1/02378becd5819944bfed237f.png"},{"id":64864540,"identity":"80d69d88-c13c-44b7-a5c5-0890556f3b19","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-19 17:46:51","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":34968,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(A) \u003c/strong\u003eExtracting sand and gravel from actively flowing streambeds\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eas a result\u003cstrong\u003e (B) \u003c/strong\u003eNick Point Migration due to Headcutting and Riverbed Degradation(ABDULAZEEZ, 2016a)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4942545/v1/0aacc6b5e7fa1b4107745ff0.jpeg"},{"id":64864543,"identity":"e5a449a1-6f7a-4478-99b9-02382aad2108","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-19 17:46:51","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":34334,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparing the cross-sections of the channels. In (a), a typical sand-gravel bar is seen inside the low-flow channel; in (b), the effects of uncontrolled mining are seen, leading to a huge shallow channel with significant bank erosion (ABDULAZEEZ, 2016).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4942545/v1/c2cffdf63b476b5a887ea489.jpeg"},{"id":101690421,"identity":"d61c4bed-bb25-4abc-aa42-6d979c69905f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-02 16:01:53","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2943554,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4942545/v1/6564db11-48cb-48dd-af63-6b194ee0414f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Environmental and Socio-economic Impacts of River Sand and Gravel Mining: A Review","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePeople fundamentally interconnect with nature, relying on it to meet their diverse needs. Rivers play a crucial role in sustaining life and maintaining the balance of natural ecosystems. However, as the population grows and human needs expand, there has been a shift towards anthropocentrism, affecting our interaction with nature\u0026nbsp;(Syah \u0026amp; Hartuti, 2018).\u0026nbsp;Throughout history, rivers along with their floodplains, estuaries, and deltas have been central to human development, playing crucial roles in agriculture, transportation, industry, waste management, and habitation. Although rivers are vital for sustaining life and lush landscapes in tropical and subtropical regions, humans have extensively exploited these \u0026nbsp;abundant natural resources without fully understanding the mechanisms that sustain the health and vitality of these ecosystems\u0026nbsp;(Naiman et al., 1998; Robert J. Naiman and Henri Decamps, 1997).\u0026nbsp;Globally, rivers are under significant stress from various human activities, with the indiscriminate extraction of sand and gravel being particularly destructive. This activity poses a severe threat to the survival of river ecosystems\u0026nbsp;(Kondolf, 1994; Lu et al., 2007; Rovira et al., 2005).\u0026nbsp;Sand is often characterised by its particle size, which falls within the range of 0.06 mm to 2 mm. It is smaller than gravel but bigger than silt (0.0078\u0026ndash;0.0625 mm). It contains a combination of tiny rock grains and granular elements. Based on their grain size, we can classify five different types of sand: very coarse (1-2 mm), coarse (0.5-1 mm), medium (0.25-0.5 mm), fine (0.125-0.250 mm), and very fine (0.0625-0.0125 mm)(Wentworth, 1922).\u0026nbsp;The nearby rock formations influence the sand\u0026apos;s composition, with silica (silicon dioxide) being the predominant component. Typically, silica exists in the form of quartz. Locations such as floodplains, hills, oceans, streams, and rivers are all potential sources of sand\u0026nbsp;(Kondolf, 1994)\u0026nbsp;but most suitable sources of these materials are riverine deposits.\u0026nbsp;Sand and gravel mining refers to the process of extracting sand and gravel from their original environment(Schouenborg et al., 2009). The extraction of sand and gravel is a worldwide practice that often takes place along riverbeds and along shorelines, where these areas naturally accumulate abundant raw materials\u0026nbsp;(J \u0026amp; R Anilkuar, 2014).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter water, sand ranks second in global resource extraction. The practice of sand mining has witnessed prosperous growth, generating billions of dollars in revenue. However, we are using sand faster than it can naturally replenish itself (Peduzzi, 2014).\u003csup\u003e.\u003c/sup\u003e Sand has attained a level of recognition that it is often referred to as \u0026quot;the new gold, and our environment is being devastated by the unsustainable mining of this new gold (Barton N. and Mini G., 2013). Sand and gravel mining is a globally significant industry that holds immense importance across various sectors, including construction, infrastructure, development, and manufacturing. Sand constitutes 75% of the concrete composition. House construction typically requires approximately 200 metric tons of sand, whereas road construction uses around 30,000 metric tons per kilometer, and the construction of a nuclear power plant requires a staggering 12 million metric tons of sand (Ludacer 2018). Because of the high demand for these aggregates, mining has emerged as a major socio-economic and environmental problem on a global scale (Asabonga et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSand mining can have both indirect and direct impacts on streams and rivers. The procedure for removing sand from rivers has significant effects on the physical environment, ecosystems, water levels, the quality of water, climate, landscape, culture, political dynamics, and economic and social activities (Boyd et al., 2005). Mining operations inherently cause significant environmental alterations, and in the absence of adequate law and control, the consequences may be disastrous (Rentier \u0026amp; Cammeraat, 2022). Several organisations, including WWF and UNEP, have recently highlighted the social and environmental problems caused by river sand and gravel exploitation. They ensure there is a lack of data that can help implement sustainable policies (Koehnken et al., 2020). However, several nations suffer from a dearth of sand and gravel mining regulations coupled with a soaring demand for sand, which leads to rampant and unlawful mining practices (Rentier \u0026amp; Cammeraat, 2022). Research on the environmental and socio-economic impacts of river sand and gravel mining reveals several significant gaps that need to be addressed for a comprehensive understanding. Furthermore, comparative studies across different geographical contexts are scarce, limiting the understanding of region- specific challenges and mitigation strategies. By combining previous research on this topic, we aim to provide a more thorough understanding of river sand and gravel mining, highlighting the interdependence of social and environmental elements. Through this review, we aspire to contribute to society through informed decision-making and the pursuit of sustainable practices that can mitigate the challenges posed by river sand and gravel mining.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this segment, we delve into the approaches used to gather articles pertaining to the socio-economic and environmental impacts of sand and gravel mining. We utilised a systematic literature review (SLR) to consolidate empirical findings from past research, aiming to offer a comprehensive snapshot of the present status of these operations. Our SLR adhered to the guidelines outlined in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) standards, initially introduced in 2009\u0026nbsp;(Moher et al., 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;2.1 PRISMA:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe current investigation utilised the PRISMA framework to guide the process of searching, filtering, selecting, and analysing the literature findings in accordance with the study\u0026apos;s objectives. PRISMA provides systematic and stringent methodologies for reviewing studies based on a checklist of analyses (Moher et al., 2009).\u0026nbsp;It comprises four key steps: identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion, which are essential for conducting a systematic literature review (Moher et al., 2009). The procedures were executed as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.1 Identification:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eIn the initial phase, we identified several keywords to use as search strings for locating pertinent literature within the database.\u0026nbsp;The literature search began in April 2023 and was repeated until the end of May 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Table\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eCriteria for selecting publications for review in this research\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKey words \u0026nbsp;within abstract\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSand and gravel extraction, environmental deterioration, socio-economic repercussions, alteration of stream channels, biodiversity loss, resource exhaustion, groundwater depletion, habitat fragmentation, erosion, sediment accumulation, changes in land use, degradation of water quality, infrastructure impairment, economic ramifications, and social tensions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDatabase\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeb of Science, Science Direct, Scopus, Wiley Online Library, and Google Scholar are widely recognized academic databases frequently used for search purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDocuments Type\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJournal articles, conference papers, book chapters, authentic news articles, and annual reports, unpublished reports, Ph.D dissertation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeer-review status\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOnly peer-reviewed articles\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLanguage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnglish\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePublication date range\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1922- 2024 till date\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.2 Screening:\u003c/strong\u003e The search queries yielded a total of 200 articles from different databases, as previously mentioned. After the screening process, we removed 80 duplicate articles based on abstract and title reviews, leaving us with a total of 120 articles for the subsequent phase.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eGeographic spread of all studies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.3 Eligibility:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eFollowing a thorough full-text screening, the eligibility stage reduced the total number of articles to 80 based on specific criteria\u0026nbsp;(Meline, 2006). Afterwards, we excluded 40 articles from the total.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.4 Inclusion for the review process:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eFollowing the screening and eligibility phase, 65 out of 80 articles were considered suitable for inclusion (Robinson \u0026amp; Lowe, 2015), while 15 articles were excluded for various reasons. Subsequently, we thoroughly examined relevant publications and cited works, discovering an additional 5 articles. Ultimately, a total of 70 articles were chosen for this systematic review.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Executive Summary of Global Sand Market Dynamics\u003c/strong\u003e: The global sand market has seen sustained growth over the last few decades due to its various applications. This study examines the worldwide sustainable sand market from every angle, including the most important trends, problems, and possibilities, as well as their social and environmental effects. In 2011, the global human population reached 7 billion, and since then it has continued to grow, leading to an increased need for sand and gravel (Dan Gavriletea, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Developments in both urban areas and infrastructure are driving up the need for sand (Torres et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), the construction of enormous dams (Hackney et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The widespread presence of sand is the reason for its extensive use in many industries, including construction, the manufacturing of transparent materials, electronic devices, cosmetics, and medicinal products (Bendixen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Currently, over 54% of the global population resides in urban regions. By 2050, it is estimated that this percentage will rise to 66% (Bocquier, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). There will be pressure on governments, businesses, and others to address urban development in a certain manner due to the ever-increasing pace of urbanisation and the perpetually rising global population. Because of these factors, concrete is considered the world\u0026apos;s most popular building material (Meyer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Many building projects, including dams, skyscrapers, bridges, infrastructure, and residential construction, use concrete. The main constituents of concrete are cement, natural sand, crushed stone, and water. Approximately 66% of concrete\u0026apos;s composition consists of sand. Regardless of the size, all construction projects need a substantial amount of sand (Dinh et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe combine standardized volumetric amounts of sand, aggregates, cement, and water to create different grades of concrete. In the United Kingdom, the composition of concrete is often defined as consisting of the following components: 1.5% air, 10% cement, 18% water, 25% fine aggregate (sand), and 45% coarse aggregate (crushed rock or gravel) by volume (UNEP, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).The United States ranked first in terms of being the greatest manufacturer and purchaser of industrial sand and gravel, according to worldwide production estimates. Obtaining accurate information regarding the production of industrial sand and gravel in several countries is challenging due to the wide variety of languages and criteria used by various nations. The United States is known for producing high-quality industrial sand and gravel, which is in high demand worldwide. This is due to the use of innovative processing procedures. The United States offers a range of industrial sand and gravel grades that meet the needs for nearly every application (Lenhart, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1962\u003c/span\u003e). In the United States, the leading producers of sand and gravel include California, Texas, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and Washington, DC. Because of their high demand, these states still import a portion of their sand and gravel from Australia, Canada, and Mexico (Draggan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Poyong Lake in China mines the most aggregate sand and gravel, extracting 236 million m3 of sand annually (de Leeuw et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). According to estimates, the Mekong River in Cambodia and Vietnam is responsible for transporting up to thirty million metric tonnes of sand per year (Koehnken et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The Loire River in France is the source of approximately 1.83 million metric tonnes of aggregate gravel and sand collected worldwide each year (Latapie et al.,\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeading Producers of Sand and Gravel in World:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCountry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduction in 2022 (in 1000 metric tons)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnited States\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNetherlands\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItaly\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGermany\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTurkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulgaria\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8600\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRussia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7300\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: (\u003cem\u003eMineral Commodity Summaries 2023 | U.S. Geological Survey\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSand extraction enterprises in emerging and developing nations frequently violate environmental management and extractive regulations. There have been reports of the social and environmental effects in China, India, and other parts of Asian, African, and South American countries (Dan Gavriletea, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Both India and China are at the top of the list of areas where sand and gravel mining has a significant negative influence on water bodies, beaches, lakes, and rivers(Sreebha \u0026amp; Padmalal, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e),the fact that these nations are world leaders in both building and infrastructure. Other nations affected by national and regional construction booms exhibit similar trends. A continuous imbalance between supply and demand has an impact on the global sand market. Below, we present the leading sand producers from 2019 to 2022 :\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSand and gravel represent invaluable resources, pivotal to the economies of numerous nations. Investments in mining areas, sand exports, and the sand and gravel mining sector all contribute to the economy\u0026apos;s growth and create job opportunities (Filho et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The leading countries in the world that manufacture sand and gravel are the USA, Netherlands, Germany, Belgium, and Malaysia. Some of the countries that import the most sand and gravel include Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Singapore, China, and Canada (\u003cem\u003eSand|OEC-The Observatory of Economic Complexity\u003c/em\u003e). Moreover, it is noteworthy that sand exports typically constitute a minor fraction of the overall domestic sand production. This suggests that countries with significant export activities use the majority of their sand domestically. Data reveals that the leading sand and gravel-producing nations coincide with the top exporters globally. These nations include the USA, the Netherlands, Germany, Belgium, and France. Specifically, as of 2022, the United States of America, the Netherlands, Germany, Belgium, and Malaysia rank as the top five countries worldwide in terms of sand exports. Over three-fifths (62.5%) of the total value of natural sand delivered to overseas markets was accounted for by these five primary sand exporters combined (Workman, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 Livelihood at Stake; Sand mining Scenario in India\u003c/strong\u003e: As the demand for aggregate materials in India\u0026apos;s building projects continues to rise, India\u0026apos;s rivers are running out of gravel and sand at an alarming rate. According to the literature review, primary sources of sand in India include the Indus, Ganga, Yamuna, Beas, Satluj, Jhelum, and Chenab rivers in the northern region, alongside the Narmada, Son, Tapi, Indravati, Betwa, Mahanadi, and Chambal rivers in central India, and the Krishna, Kaveri, Godavari, Periyar, and Pennar rivers in the southern region.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCurrently boasting the second-highest population in the world, India is poised to surpass all other nations soon. Given India\u0026apos;s ranking as the third-largest building industry, it has a significant and overwhelming need for sand and gravel, trailing only the United States and China (ITTO, 2024). Factors like urbanization, economic growth, and the need to build 60\u0026nbsp;million new affordable homes by 2024 are driving this demand (Gaurav \u0026amp; Karan, 2016). Padmalal et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a study examining the environmental impact of unregulated sand mining in small catchment rivers adjacent to the Vembanad Lake in southwest India. Each year, they extract a significant amount of sand, specifically 5.64 million metric tonnes from the Periyar River and 2 million metric tonnes from the Muvattupuzha. This sand predominantly originates from heavily industrialised and urbanised regions. Each year, the operational channels produce an average of 11.73 million metric tonnes of sand and gravel, with an additional 6.41 million metric tonnes sourced from river floodplains. Notably, in Kerala, the extraction rate has surpassed replenishment rates by a considerable margin (Padmalal et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Numerous studies have documented the detrimental effects of this activity on the ecological balance of rivers like the Ithikkar in Kerala, posing threats to various species and habitats (Sheeba, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Unlawful and too abundant extraction of sand, as seen in the Papagani catchment area in Karnataka and the Bharathapuzha river in Kerala, has led to groundwater depletion and environmental degradation in adjacent villages spanning Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka (Saviour, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, studies have linked sand mining to reduced water retention capacities in rivers, with Kerala\u0026apos;s river serving as an example (Pitchaiah, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The ramifications extend to altering water quality and zooplankton populations in locations such as Dal Lake in Kashmir (Musharaf et al., 2016) and exacerbating drought conditions by depleting water tables, as observed in the Godavari River (Bagchi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Reports of widespread illegal mining across river basins like the Narmada, Chambal, and Waingana in Madhya Pradesh demonstrate how pervasive the problem is (KuttiPuran, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Widespread exploitation of sand and gravel on the Balason River, located in the Himalayan Piedmont region of India, has well-documented consequences. Over fewer than two decades, the river\u0026apos;s water level has significantly diminished by approximately 1.3 meters, equivalent to an annual decrease of around 7 centimeters. The removal of an estimated 3 to 14 million cubic meters of sand from the riverbed is responsible for this decline (Wiejaczka et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The extraction of river sand and gravel mining has led to the riverbed\u0026apos;s increased coarseness and degradation, resulting in a decrease in the river\u0026apos;s depth (Talukdar \u0026amp; Das, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Studies in various regions, including the Dohan River tributary in Mahender Garh district, Haryana, show that sand mining has caused riverbed degradation, resulting in coarser and shallower riverbeds (Jaglan \u0026amp; Chaudhary, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the Himalayan region faces erosion and increased flood vulnerability due to sand-mining activities (Singh \u0026amp; Kumar, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Based on a study regarding the impact of sand mining activities in the Ganga at Bhojpur village in District Haridwar, it has been found that extensive mining activities along the riverbed are leading to significant alterations in the channel morphology of the Ganga (Kamboj \u0026amp; Kamboj, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSand mining in Indian rivers and its impacts:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS. no\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eName of River\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eType of Mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMajor Focuse\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdverse Impact of sand and gravel Mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReferences\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGanga River\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInstream Mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImpacts of Sand Mining on Zooplankton Species Diversity and Abundance Reduction\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe consequences observed include sedimentation leading to water pollution and sand mining sites can significantly alter the amount and diversity of zooplankton in the Ganga River.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Nitin Kamboj, Arunima Pandey, Mob. Shoaib, 2012; Prabhakar et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYumuna River\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eActive Channel Mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEcological impact assessment of mining project\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSand extraction from rivers has a significant impact on the eco-biology of various terrestrial insects, whose life cycle begins in an aquatic environment.The transportation of sand and gravel by trucks or dumpers will disrupt the movement of wild animals.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Ashok, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Mujaffar Ahmad, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Singh \u0026amp; Kumar, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSon River\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInstream Mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhysio-chemical parameters assessment of sand mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe research provides an overview of the changes in river son\u0026apos;s physiochemical characteristics over time due to instream sand mining. The profound disruption of sand mining sites is characterized by elevated turbidity, an increased presence of silica particles, and diminished solar radiation penetration. These factors collectively contribute to the degradation of water quality and a reduction in primary production.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(D. Kumar \u0026amp; Singh, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVembanad Lake\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFloodplain mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVarious environmental impacts of unregulated sand mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnregulated sand excavation exacerbates river degradation and contributes to the decline of riparian and instream vegetation. Furthermore, it has negative effects on water quality deterioration, land-based and nearshore marine environments, disrupting the feeding, reproduction, and spawning grounds of aquatic creatures, including fish.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Padmalal et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Sajeev et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKangsabati river\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInstream Mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater quality and reduction of benthos community in alluvial reach area\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe physiochemical properties of river water undergo direct alterations due to sand mining processes, which subsequently disrupt the water\u0026apos;s composition. The excessive exploitation of sand mining poses a threat to the habitat and livelihoods of fishing communities. Anguillidae and Mastacembelidae were two endangered species families.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(R. K. Bhattacharya et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Bhattacharya RajKumar, 2018; Bhattcharya et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Mandal et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKaveri River\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChannelbed mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNatural fluvial dynamics are altered by human intervention (Sand Mining)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe massive sand mining from its channel bed severely strains the natural fluvial processes. The channel\u0026apos;s lower carrying capacity, the development of channel-in-channel physiography, changes in the stream\u0026apos;s shape, and variations in the textural properties of the stream bed sediments have all led to the loss of environmental integrity and a higher risk of flooding in the nearby areas.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Ramkumar et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Sunil et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNeyyar River\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLower course floodplain mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocio- environmental impact of sand mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe extraction of river sand poses significant challenges for both society and the environment, with notable repercussions such as river bank erosion, valley slumping, and river channel widening. The land use has changed, the water table has dropped, the water quality has gotten worse, and the study area\u0026apos;s water stagnation has resulted in several health issues. Conflicts and alcoholism have also grown, endangering the public\u0026apos;s well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Badusha \u0026amp; Santhosh, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Badusha et al., 2017; J \u0026amp; R Anilkuar, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRamganga river\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFloodplain mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProperties of sediments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhysical characteristics of sediments, such as particle size distribution, exhibit greater instability than chemical characteristics, such as water-soluble chloride due to sand mining.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Daityari \u0026amp; Khan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKaljani River\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRiverbed mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental consequences\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMining for sand and gravel in eastern Dooars, India, has resulted in a major loss of river ecology and permanent destruction of riverine ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Das et al., 2023)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOther Rivers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInstream mining, Open pit mining, Floodplain mining\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhysio-chemical consequences\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSand mining effects on thalweg dynamics, instability of river bars, pool riffle sequence change, hydraulic variables of bed load transport and channel planeform, water color, low pH, high electrical conductivity, low dissolved oxygen (DO), elevated BOD levels, and acid mine drainage (AMD) contamination are indicators of water pollution.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(R. Bhattacharya et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Ghosh et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; M. Naveen Saviour, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Mishra, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 Effects of Sand and gravel Mining on the Physical Environment\u003c/strong\u003e: The continuous flow of water and sediment from the source to the deposition areas characterises a river as a dynamic system, which, in conjunction with its floodplain, constitutes a unified hydrogeomorphic entity (Batalla, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). In the past few decades, man\u0026apos;s understanding of the composition and operations of river ecosystems has grown significantly. Human selfishness and interference continue to damage rivers. Mining\u0026apos;s reckless exploitation of sand and gravel poses a significant risk to the integrity and operation of river ecosystems. River flood plains or active channels immediately lose their sand. We refer to the former as \u0026quot;stream mining,\u0026quot; while we refer to the latter as \u0026quot;flood plain mining\u0026quot; or \u0026quot;terrain mining\u0026quot;(Kondolf, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). The configuration of bed form units within a river channel can fluctuate depending on changes in flow energy and sediment discharge within the system (Padmalal \u0026amp; Maya, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The unregulated extraction of sand and gravel ranks among the most detrimental human actions, disrupting the natural evolution of stream beds. To accurately discern the ramifications of such mining from other natural and anthropogenic influences, a thorough understanding of sedimentation\u0026apos;s complete dispersion, origins, and ultimate outcomes is critical (Kondolf, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 6\u003c/strong\u003e River channels function as conveyors for silt, facilitating zones of erosion, transportation, and deposition. (Kondolf, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eContinuous runoff over an extended period causes erosion of the land surface, while the interconnected system of rivers carries away the eroded materials from every basin (Kondolf, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Sediment deposition and erosion brought on by river flows maintain and strengthen river channels (Heede, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). As the river progresses from its source to downstream locations, it gradually erodes materials, supplying the sediment essential for maintaining dynamically stable channel-forming flows (Kondolf, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). The intricate interplay of factors such as river flow, channel morphology, sediment input from the watershed, and sediment discharge to downstream areas influences the stability of a specific river segment (Padmalal \u0026amp; Maya, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Instream mining can cause channel instability by undermining banks through incision or by upsetting the equilibrium channel morphology. Incisions and channel instability resulting from gravel mining activities were responsible for the significant increase in sediment production in Blackwood Creek, California (Todd, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). According to Sandecki (1989), instream mining may include significant clearance, flow diversion, sediment stockpiling, and deep pit excavation, in addition to directly modifying the channel geometry and bed elevation. According to (Collins \u0026amp; Dunne, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e) and (Erskine, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), instream mining causes channel instability either directly by disrupting the pre-existing channel geometry or indirectly via incision and associated undercutting of banks. The reduced accumulation of large woody debris within the channel, which serves as an essential fish habitat, represents a significant indirect consequence of instream mining (Sedell et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e). Mining sand and gravel from riverbeds may cause lateral channel instability, increased bed roughness, and channel deepening, as well as directly modify the river ecosystem (Kondolf, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). Padmalal and Maya (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) state that in the instance of sand mining, the river will erode downstream due to the silt being deposited in the pits. According to D. Padmalal (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), removing sand from a small region causes the banks and bed to erode, which results in an increased amount of sediment being carried to the location after the first removal of sediment. Pit excavation and bar skimming are both sand mining methods that contribute to the riverbed\u0026apos;s degradation (Padmalal \u0026amp; Maya, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to Rentier \u0026amp; Cammeraat,(2022), head cutting and hungry water are the two key factors that exacerbate riverbed deterioration. Mining activities create a nick point when they cause excavation in an active channel, which lowers the level of the stream bed and locally increases the steepness of the river\u0026apos;s channel system (Kondolf, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). The nick point is the epicentre of bed erosion during high flows, and erosion slowly moves upstream by head-cutting (Hartfield, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Kondolf, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Head-cutting operations produce significant amounts of sediment in the stream bed, which is then carried downstream and deposited in the excavated areas (Kondolf, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Head cutting, which results from sand and gravel mining, is a major contributor to riverbed degradation. This phenomenon is particularly prominent in streambeds and has severe detrimental effects on the river environment (Padmalal \u0026amp; Maya, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Frequently, head cuttings cover considerable distances upstream and into tributaries (Hartfield, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). The process of bed deterioration and subsequent channel incision may be seen, even in regions where mining operations are not allowed, such as water intake units, bridges, and other man-made structures built to safeguard river ecosystems (Padmalal \u0026amp; Maya, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e); The report provides evidence of a bridge collapse that occurred recently due to a channel incision in the Bharathapuzha River (SW India) near Shonur (Padmalal \u0026amp; Maya, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Several elements influence the configuration of the channel cross-section at a specific location. These factors comprise flow velocity, the nature and volume of debris in motion, and the composition of materials found within the channel and its surrounding areas (Padmalal \u0026amp; Maya, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Pitchaiah (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) notes that sand mining also causes an increase in river flow velocity, which disrupts the flow regime and eventually erodes the river banks. The roughness of the streambed, which mostly governs the flow velocity and excavates sand and gravel in pits, determines the force\u0026apos;s magnitude (Kondolf, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Bank erosion and bank retreat are common in river segments where indiscriminate sand mining is occurring (Padmalal \u0026amp; Maya, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Vegetation provides the river banks with a tremendous deal of resilience and erosion resistance (Gholami \u0026amp; Khaleghi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUncontrolled sand mining and pit formation put the stabilized river banks at risk of channel erosion (Padmalal \u0026amp; Maya, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). For a very long time, people have used river basins as supplies of fine aggregate for construction projects. The geological and geomorphic conditions surrounding river sand mining may have detrimental long-term consequences for the ecosystem (UNEP, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The continuous extraction of sand in alluvial areas has led to significant changes in the grain size properties of river sediments (Stevens et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). Unregulated mining of river sand and gravel has significantly altered the particle size distribution of sediments in the rivers of Manimala and Muvattupuzha in southern India (Anooja et al.,2011). Furthermore, insufficient sand in the sediment substratum may exacerbate the hungry water effect in rivers during periods of high flow (Padmalal \u0026amp; Maya, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). (Hackney et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)conducted a quantitative investigation in the Mekong River region. Their findings revealed that extensive sand mining leads to a reduction in riverbed levels, thereby elevating the risk of significant riverbank collapses and instability. From 1998 to 2013, three specific cross sections of the Hukou Waterway showed noticeable alterations in the channel profile, demonstrating the influence of river sand mining near Puyon Lake, China (Lai et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The extensive excavation of sand sediment from the Sadang River causes changes in flow patterns at multiple sites and reduces sediment deposition (Arsyad et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). When sand is taken out of the riverbed to make up for a shortage in supply, the sand-supply balance tends to move upstream, which erodes the riverbed (Knighton, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). Mining-released fine sediments accumulated in hydraulically quiescent areas, changing the spatial distribution of aquatic ecosystems (Freedman et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). These findings indicate that the extraction of sand may lead to channel incision. Moreover, there are numerous additional physical consequences associated with sand and gravel mining, which often vary depending on the specific site (Koehnken et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.4 Effects of Sand and Gravel Mining on Biological Environment\u003c/strong\u003e: Dumping waste materials from sand mining operations will degrade downstream water quality for communities and increase water treatment facility expenses (Hussain \u0026amp; Gowhar Rashid, 2022). The sand extraction procedure generates minute inorganic and organic particles (Barman et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Removing sand from riverbeds causes sand particles to disperse downstream, ultimately creating sandbars. This process contributes to the natural construction of floodplains, as observed along the Periyar River in India (Babu and Sreebha, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). According to research, river sands can collect a variety of hazardous elements, including Cd, as well as finer pollutants (Kim et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Many species are generally able to survive in a steady riverbed (both fauna and flora)(Hussain \u0026amp;, Gowhar Rashid, 2022). As per the findings of (Zou et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), extracting sand from a riverbed leads to destabilization, resulting in habitat depletion. Vegetation and animal species contribute to maintaining the ecological balance of riverine ecosystems, and when this equilibrium is upset, the environment may reach a breaking point (Padmalal \u0026amp; Maya, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The Jhelum River\u0026apos;s expanding river channel makes it difficult for different fish species to move between different currents and pools (Lawal, 2011). Padmalal and Maya (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) assert that the extraction of sand and gravel leads to turbidity, hindering sunlight penetration and consequently reducing both respiration and photosynthesis. Sand mining in streams destroys aquatic and riparian habitat by altering riverine shape and lowering the water table, according to Stebbins (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). It has been observed that changes in riverine ecology may cause harm to the entire food chain (Zou, et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Deposits of silt and clay cover the riverbed, creating a blanket that can suffocate microorganisms such as fish eggs, macroinvertebrates, diatoms, and benthic algae (Barman et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Mazumder et al.,(2014) conducted a study which revealed that the extraction of river sand and gravel posed a significant threat to the survival of the Ganges river dolphin, putting it at risk of extinction. The physical habitat characteristics play a significant role in shaping the distribution of various fish species within the Pamba, Periyar, and Chalakudy rivers (Renjithkumar et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). These research results show that irresponsible sand mining puts Labeo dussumieri, Puntius denisonii, Batasio travancoria, Horabagrus nigricollaris, and Lepidopygopsis typus in great danger. In the mining region of East Konga, Iceland, people interviewed stated that one of the main effects of the gravel extracted was the loss or reduction of farmlands. They additionally highlighted the origins of conflicts, erosion, and vegetation depletion. They also pointed out the formation of pits that serve as breeding grounds for mosquitoes, contributing to the transmission of numerous diseases (Musah et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The heightened erosion of riverbeds and banks resulting from sand mining is the primary factor behind the elevated mean turbidity observed in both the mining sites and downstream areas. This, in turn, amplifies the concentration of suspended particles within the water (Nabegu, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). According to (Ac, Hemalatha, Chandrakanth, 2005) the unsustainable extraction of sand from dry riverbeds in riparian areas has led to an increase in premature and early irrigation well failures. This overexploitation of sand resources has practically depleted the available reserves, exacerbating the issue. The Velika Moraa at Ljubicevski has lower water levels due to sand mining, which has raised slopes and accelerated erosion of the Velika Moraa and its tributaries, in contrast to upstream gauging stations (Milan Kresojevi et al., 2023). Sand extraction from the river eliminates nutrients attached to the sediment and deposits the agitated particles on sand bars downstream (Babu and Sreebha, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). While these sandbars cannot support flora by themselves, the addition of a new layer of nutrients and minerals causes them to become a lush, green floodplain (Babu and Sreebha, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). While these seemingly innocuous \u0026quot;green sand bars\u0026quot; may not raise immediate concerns, they actually signify the depletion of nutrients within the river. This depletion results in the transfer of nutrients from terrestrial to marine habitats (Rentier \u0026amp; Cammeraat, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Fuel and oil leakage, along with exhaust fumes from transportation and excavation equipment, significantly degrades the air and water quality (Rentier \u0026amp; Cammeraat, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Researchers have identified significant factors associated with sand mining, such as increased scouring, diminished light penetration, and alterations in substrate composition, that contribute to alterations and a decline in aquatic plant communities (Kanehl, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). A phytosociological study was conducted in the vicinity of a riverine sand mine in Palri Bhoptan village, located in Rajasthan, India (N. K. and A. Kumar, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Although the imme diate loss of vegetation was the main effect, mining and tailings dumping also modified the soil profiles, topography, hydrology, and substrate nutrient concentrations. The vegetation changes impacted the pace of carbon and nitrogen cycling, the ecosystem\u0026apos;s productivity, and the composition of the microbial community (Koehnken et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Research carried out on sand extraction in the Amite River, Louisiana, USA, has revealed a connection between reduced water levels caused by excavation and increased susceptibility to stranding and mortality among the Heelsplitter mussel (Potamilus inflatus)(Brown \u0026amp; Daniel, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). In areas where river velocities are low, channel expansion related to bar scalping has been linked to rising water temperatures (Kondolf, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). Higher temperatures may reduce dissolved oxygen concentrations and increase the harmful effects of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, and naturally occurring toxins. Additionally, these temperature shifts may diminish refuge availability and habitat suitability for riverine species (Heugens et al., 2001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Impact of Sand and Gravel Mining On Socio-economic Environment:\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS. No\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlace\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudy variables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImpact of sand and gravel Mining on Socio-economic Environment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSupporting References\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWarri river, Delta State\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommunity perception\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSand and gravel mining affects community roads, bridges, railroads and affects recreational activities along the river.People can get employment through sand and gravel mining operations and raises the community\u0026apos;s standard of living.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Aghoghovwia et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Tesi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKathmandu Valley, Nepal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArea of Disturbance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDue to the massive extraction of sand and gravel mining, operators approached residents near the village to relocate them to another location. After terrace sand mining began in the research area, the locals noticed a growing shortage of water. Mudslides and debris from the mining site spill into nearby fields.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Bajracharya \u0026amp; Tamrakar, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Hatlebakk, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Sada \u0026amp; Shrestha, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMbiuni Ward within Mwala Constituency in Machakos County, Kenya\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eObservable social impacts\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe study highlights various socio-economic impacts associated with sand and gravel mining, such as increased instances of drug and alcohol abuse, higher rates of school dropout, elevated levels of violence, and improved livelihoods.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Mbaka \u0026amp; Rono, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTangail, Bangladesh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImpacts in livelihoods\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDue to Bangladesh\u0026apos;s rapid increase in the construction industry in recent years, sand has become a very desirable resource. Conversely, sand mining caused bank erosion during the rainy season, displacing dwellings and agricultural land. Other villagers\u0026apos; sale of sand also endangered them.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Bari \u0026amp; Haque, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Khan \u0026amp; Sugie, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWild Coast,South Africa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmployment generation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esand mining provides income for communities by creating employment opportunities for both young people and adults. The study further revealed that sand mining contributes to social issues, such as conflicts that emerge when government officials attempt to enforce environmental regulations without adequately consulting the community.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Mngeni et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNorth- Western Part of Iran\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocio-environmental challenges\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe extraction of sand has led to significant environmental and social challenges, such as the destruction of agricultural land, pollution of water sources, and the emission of harmful pollutants into the air from truck transportation and adjacent conflicts.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Boloorani et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Darvishi Boloorani et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Farahani \u0026amp; Bayazidi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBusoa Village in the Batauga District of Buton Regency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOccupational mobility\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe miners\u0026apos; families initially benefited financially from sand mining because, although their income was unstable, they were able to offer a more steady source of income after moving from seasonal farming and fishing to sand mining. Second, sand mining operations can enhance the welfare of the workers\u0026apos; families.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Rais et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVictory River in Port Harcourt, Nigeria\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocio-economic consequences\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe livelihoods of individuals have been adversely affected by continual river sand mining, leading to an increase in poverty rates and associated social issues, along with a decline in purchasing power. Economic and social advantages, such as jobs and community money creation, were also noted.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Johnbull \u0026amp; Brown, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSedau Village, Narmada District, Indonesia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImprovement in economic welfare\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBecause of social factors, the community may see an increase in income, more ways to make a living besides farming and raising animals, and a greater understanding of how society works. Sand mines also make it easier for the community to meet its needs and make sure that their children can go to school until they graduate from high school. Additionally, they can raise their standard of living by transforming their homes into better places to live than they were before.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Saputra et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVindhyan Region, Uttar Pradesh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLivelihood vulnerability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResearchers have conducted studies on the socioeconomic impacts of mining and associated regulations on the livelihoods of local communities in the mining areas of Allahabad, Mirzapur, and Sonabhadra within the Vindhyan region of Uttar Pradesh. With a significant portion of the population being illiterate, there was a vulnerability to exploitation by mining corporations, leaseholders, and contractors operating in these villages.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Dubey, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e11.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeri-Urban areas of Karnataka, India\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssessment of economic loss\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEstimates place the annual direct losses due to the abandonment of dry land crops and the reduction in animal numbers due to sand mining at Rs. 0.38\u0026nbsp;million and Rs. 1.83\u0026nbsp;million, respectively. Apart from adversely affecting natural resources and disrupting the social fabric of farming communities, this phenomenon poses a threat to the availability of cattle feed and human food security.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Govindaraj et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e12.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKerala, India\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMobility of coastal livelihood\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResearch has shown that the escalation of sand extraction in both freshwater and coastal regions negatively impacts the delicate balance of livelihoods and ecosystems, posing a threat to the provision of essential commodities and services necessary for sustaining livelihoods.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Matovu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Padmalal et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Sreebha \u0026amp; Padmalal, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. SWOT analysis of sand and gravel mining","content":"\u003cp\u003eSWOT analysis is a popular method for environmental planning and natural resource management that is helpful for planning, development, and decision-making (Andika \u0026amp; Partarini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Ghazinoory et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). A SWOT analysis evaluates both internal and external variables along with current and potential future results (Jain \u0026amp; Dohare, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). A SWOT analysis assists in establishing the optimal alignment between external trends (opportunities and threats) and internal capabilities, thus supporting a strategic approach to administration. When doing a SWOT analysis, it's important to reduce or stay away from both threats and weaknesses. It is important to turn weaknesses into strengths. We should also transform threats into opportunities (Danca, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). This section highlights the problems, opportunities, and limitations related to sand mining using a SWOT analysis. A review of several papers, news articles, and works of literature by various writers adequately illustrates the significant environmental risk that river sand and gravel mining poses through SWOT analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabc\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrength\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeakness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; We remove sand from river channels to make river water easier to navigate (Jain \u0026amp; Dohare, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; The removal of sediment from river and flood control channels is frequently necessary for maintaining or increasing channel capacity. Despite the potential advantages of in-stream sand and gravel mining for flood control and improving river stability, especially in rivers experiencing aggradation, this approach remains widely used (Kondolf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; The sand and gravel mining industry is leading to an increase in employment opportunities (Mensah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Sand exports contribute to the nation's economic growth (Dan Gavriletea, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Sand mining fulfilled the sand demand in worldwide (Katz-Lavigne et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; The people's standard of living had increased as a result of sand mining (Carrere, 2004).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Instream gravel mining may disrupt the pre-existing channel geometry, resulting in channel instability (Collins \u0026amp; Dunne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Incisions made as a result of instream mining are noted as possibly endangered by incisions connected to adjacent instream mining (Kondolf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; The uncontrolled and illegal mining of sand and gravel has a significant influence on both surface water and groundwater systems (Milan Kresojevi et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; The expansion of sand mining activities is leading to a rise in threats to human health and the accumulation of air pollutants (A. et al., 2014).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; There has been a degradation in water quality, a rise in salinity, a change in water sources, and an increase in water treatment expenses (Yen \u0026amp; Rohasliney, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR139\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Fish populations change, and weed infestation rates rise due to sand minning (Koehnken et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOpportunities\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThreats\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Sand mining is the process of infilling and replenishing river sand (Haghnazar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Sand mining creates additional water reservoirs and supply structures (ELAW, 2010).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; To create more stable channels, reduce bedload by increasing sinuosity and decreasing the width-depth ratio (Chang, Rong-Chun, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; People may find employment in sand mining operations. Sand mining improves the community's standard of living (Tesi \u0026amp; Enete, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Enhancing community awareness, public education, and attitudes toward illegal sand mining\u0026nbsp;(Rochayati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; We anticipate positive changes in mining operations in terms of EIA processes and laws (Yıldız, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR140\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Mining activity level and intensity influenced suspended sediment particle size (Sadeghi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR116\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Sand mining can impact aquatic animal activity by increasing water turbidity, decreasing light penetration, and lowering oxygen levels (Rentier \u0026amp; Cammeraat, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR110\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Saviour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR121\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Sand mining has a negative impact on bank stability and directly contributes to riverbank erosion (Tran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR135\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Mining of sand has increased the sand particle size, which causes a decline in species richness and abundance as well as a change in beach conditions (on a beach where wave energy and tidal range have stayed constant) (McLachlan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Environmental dust poses a threat to both human and animal health. Living things around mining sites have breathing difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e5. Conclusion and Recommendations\u003c/b\u003e : Sand and gravel are an essential component in supporting the provision of ecological services, the preservation of biodiversity, the advancement of economic development, and the maintenance of livelihoods within local communities. It has some sort of direct or indirect connection to each of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Peduzzi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; UNEP, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR136\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Despite the growing global reliance on sand and the substantial extraction of sand and gravel, there are significant environmental consequences and socio-economic challenges linked to their mining and utilisation. However, policymakers have largely disregarded these urgent issues, and public awareness of them is often insufficient (Filho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, this review examined the effects of river sand mining on the physical, biological, and anthropogenic environments. However, to advance sustainable mining policies, it is essential to also consider political and economic impacts and involve various stakeholder groups. Both governments and the private sector need to boost investment in research and development while finding sustainable alternatives to common sand and gravel. The present analysis suggests the need for swiftly creating an international framework for sustainable sand and gravel mining. When addressing environmental sustainability, the global sand agenda must align with principles of justice, equity, and a comprehensive understanding of technical, economic, and political factors. Below are strategic suggestions to prevent a disaster with sand and sustainability. These suggestions aim to bring together the knowledge of sand and sustainability from various fields, highlight the effects of current exploitation, use, and mismanagement, and propose courses of action for establishment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaising public awareness about the adverse effects of sand and gravel mining will enhance understanding of associated socioeconomic and environmental issues.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncluding governmental bodies, organisations, and local residents in surveillance and monitoring efforts to spot the risks that sand mining operations pose to the environment and the community.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstablish and implement environmental laws, regulations, and standards pertaining to the mining industry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe need to establish a robust legal structure to regulate sand mining activities and to halt or prohibit illicit mining and allow sand mining operations based on a valid license.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimizing the amount of sand used in various sectors by replacing substitute supplies for natural sand (M-sand).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo support mining companies in accessing clean technologies, it is crucial for them to understand and comply with environmental regulations, prioritize investments in clean technologies, and mitigate potential environmental impacts resulting from their extraction processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll authors made substantial contributions to this article. Manirul Mia: Conceptualisation, Writing Original Draft, Methodology, Formal Analysis, Software, Validation. Basir Ali Karikar and Sk Mohibul: Software and visualization. Mohammad Itahdur Ali and Nazreen Khanam:Writing-review and editing. Lubna Siddiqui: Writing- review and editing, visualization, conceptualisation and supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank Jamia Millia Islamia University for the support in research work .I wish to extend my heartfelt thanks to Subham Mukherjee from the Institute of Geographical Sciences, Physical Geography, Freie Universit\u0026auml;t Berlin, Germany, for his invaluable contribution and insightful guidance in shaping this review paper. 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Science of the Total Environment, 144(2), 105134. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2021.105134\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.envsoft.2021.105134\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-management","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"emvm","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Management](http://link.springer.com/journal/267)","snPcode":"267","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/267/3","title":"Environmental Management","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Sand Mining, Environmental, Socio-economic, Habitat degradation, Riverbed Morphology, Sustainable Practices","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4942545/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4942545/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSand and gravel mining is an extensive human activity that is vital to supplying the world's need for infrastructure development as well as construction. This review compiles recent studies on the environmental and socio-economic effects of this harmful practice. We followed the PRISMA guidelines for this study. In this review, the problems and effects of sand and gravel mining are properly highlighted using a Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, and Threat (SWOT) analysis. Studies from all around the world that present an overview of sand and gravel market, highlighting the main trends, production, export and import are included in this review. Riverbed morphological changes, habitat degradation, and alterations in aquatic biodiversity are among the physical and ecological effects examined. Hydrological effects include changes in river flow patterns, sedimentation, water quality deterioration, determined by a thorough assessment of the existing literature. Socio-economically, this practice can simultaneously offer and impede local economic advantages. Furthermore, the informal practices associated with sand and gravel mining can result in disputes, uncontrolled exploitation, and adverse socio-economic effects. At the end of this research, a series of suggestions for developing global agenda related to sustainable sand and gravel extraction.Through this review, we aspire to contribute to informed decision-making and the pursuit of sustainable practices that can mitigate the challenges posed by river sand and gravel mining while fostering a harmonious coexistence between human development and nature.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Environmental and Socio-economic Impacts of River Sand and Gravel Mining: A Review","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-09-19 17:46:46","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4942545/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-05-03T13:23:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-29T08:44:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-26T11:37:20+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"283804044603045217034076915249974416325","date":"2025-04-09T23:39:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"275160646450394910997843643234274467335","date":"2025-04-08T03:25:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-08-28T04:40:34+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"186504269026665027465301911266438251934","date":"2024-08-28T01:29:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"340143880703571344671983945811151346968","date":"2024-08-27T13:01:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-08-26T22:01:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-08-25T16:39:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-08-21T05:14:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Management","date":"2024-08-20T06:31:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-management","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"emvm","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Management](http://link.springer.com/journal/267)","snPcode":"267","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/267/3","title":"Environmental Management","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"43a4bb35-84cb-4bd3-929d-659159dd38ec","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 19th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-02T16:00:11+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4942545","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-025-02370-4","journal":{"identity":"environmental-management","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Environmental Management"},"publishedOn":"2026-01-30 15:58:10","publishedOnDateReadable":"January 30th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-09-19 17:46:46","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s00267-025-02370-4","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-025-02370-4","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4942545","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4942545","identity":"rs-4942545","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}