Associations Between Ergometer Performance, Postural Stability, Cognitive Function, and Physical Performance in Elite Adolescent Rowers

Associations Between Ergometer Performance, Postural Stability, Cognitive Function, and Physical Performance in Elite Adolescent Rowers | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Associations Between Ergometer Performance, Postural Stability, Cognitive Function, and Physical Performance in Elite Adolescent Rowers Birgul Dingirdan Gultekinler, Volga Bayrakcı Tunay This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8256632/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 18 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation → Version 1 posted 14 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Rowing is an Olympic sport that simultaneously encompasses multiple components of physical performance, including anaerobic endurance, strength endurance, and maximal strength. Aim The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between rowing-specific performance, as assessed by ergometer testing, and physical performance, cognitive function, and reaction time in elite adolescent rowers. Methods A total of 28 adolescent rowing athletes were included in this study. The assessments were conducted at Hereke Nuh Çimento Rowing Club and Beşiktaş Rowing Club. Static balance was evaluated using the GYKO inertial sensor system, while dynamic balance was assessed with the Y Balance Test. Reaction time was measured using the BlazePod light-based sensor system, and muscle strength was assessed with the Meloq EasyForce dynamometer. Cognitive function was evaluated using the Stroop test. Results A negative relationship was observed between ergometer performance time and muscle strength (r = − 0.875 to − 0.591, p < 0.01) reaction time repetition count (r = -0.657 to -0.574, p = 0.01) and static postural stability (r = -0.474, -0.447, p = 0.01). Conclusion These findings indicate that ergometer performance in adolescent rowers is associated with muscle strength, reaction time, and static postural stability, whereas dynamic balance and cognitive performance show no significant relationship with ergometer outcomes. Water sports physical functional performance postural balance Introduction Rowing is an Olympic sport that simultaneously encompasses multiple components of physical performance, including anaerobic endurance, strength endurance, and maximal strength ( 1 ). Research has shown that lower and upper limb strength endurance is significantly associated with 2000-m rowing ergometer performance in elite rowers ( 2 , 3 ). Although the direction of causality has not been established, this relationship indicates that athletes with higher levels of physical performance tend to achieve superior rowing outcomes ( 4 , 5 ). Accordingly, improvements in physical performance may be associated with enhancements in rowing performance. Muscle strength is a key determinant in generating the propulsive force required for effective boat acceleration and for maintaining stroke power throughout the race ( 6 ). Rowing is a power-endurance sport that relies on the synchronized activation of the legs, trunk, and arms, which collectively determine stroke efficiency and overall boat velocity ( 6 , 7 ). Several studies have reported strong correlations between rowing ergometer performance and both maximal and endurance strength measures, particularly in leg press and bench pull exercises ( 8 , 9 ). The development of maximal strength not only increases the amount of force generated per stroke but also reduces relative strength demands, thereby enabling rowers to sustain performance during prolonged efforts ( 6 , 10 ). Consequently, maintaining high levels of muscular strength is crucial for maximizing rowing performance and meeting the physiological and biomechanical demands of the sport ( 10 , 11 ). Postural stability refers to the ability to maintain the center of gravity within the base of support with minimal body sway ( 12 ). Effective postural stability depends on the integrated functioning of the sensory systems (visual, somatosensory, and vestibular), cognitive processes, and appropriate motor strategies ( 12 , 13 ). Balance control is a complex sensorimotor process that integrates vestibular, visual, and somatosensory inputs to generate context-specific motor responses ( 14 ). This integration ensures the maintenance of postural alignment and gaze stability against the effects of gravity ( 12 , 14 ). Postural stability is essential not only for daily functional activities but also for achieving optimal performance across nearly all sports ( 15 ). The balance demands vary among different sports, depending on the specific physical and biomechanical characteristics of each discipline ( 15 , 16 ). Rowing involves propelling a boat across the water using one or two oars. Safe and effective boat propulsion in rowing requires a high degree of balance and stability ( 12 ). Therefore, proper control of the center of mass is crucial for optimal rowing performance ( 17 ). Physical activity has been shown to exert beneficial effects not only on physical health but also on cognitive and neural functions ( 18 – 20 ). Adaptive, individualized training programs can enhance cognitive performance by progressively increasing task difficulty and encouraging athletes to explore different strategies to master complex motor tasks ( 18 , 21 ). Elite athletes represent a unique population in which extreme physical fitness and high cognitive skill training are integrated into their daily routines ( 18 ). Through long-term training exposure, they develop the ability to perform automatic and efficient physical and mental responses while continuously adapting to dynamic environmental demands during both practice and competition ( 22 ). Reaction time refers to the period between the perception of a stimulus and the execution of a response, representing the individual’s ability to detect, process, and respond appropriately to external stimuli ( 23 , 24 ). Reaction time allows for the objective evaluation of the cognitive–motor abilities that determine athletic performance and reflects an individual’s capacity for rapid and effective decision-making and action execution ( 24 – 26 ). However, studies directly examining reaction time in rowing athletes remain limited, and its specific contribution to rowing performance has yet to be clearly established. The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between rowing-specific performance, as assessed by ergometer testing, and physical performance, cognitive function, and reaction time in elite adolescent rowers. The hypothesis of this study is that there is a significant relationship between ergometer performance and physical performance, cognitive function, and postural stability in elite adolescent rowers. Materials and methods The study was conducted with athletes from the Beşiktaş Rowing Club and the Hereke Nuh Çimento Rowing Club. Since the participants were adolescent athletes, written informed consent was obtained from both the athletes and their parents or legal guardians. The ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Sakarya University of Applied Sciences (approval number: 61/03, approval date: 18/09/2025). The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. 2.1. Participants Inclusion criteria Rowing athletes aged 12–18 years, who had been actively training in rowing for at least one year and participated in training sessions a minimum of two days per week. Exclusion criteria : Participants were excluded from the study if any of the following conditions were present: unwillingness to participate in the study, a history of upper or lower extremity surgery within the past year, or the presence of any neurological disorder. 2.3. Procedures 2.3.1. Physical performance assessment Muscle strength assessment The muscle strength of the quadriceps, hamstrings, biceps, triceps, and deltoid muscles, which play an active role in rowing performance, was evaluated. Muscle strength was assessed using the Meloq EasyForce dynamometer ( 27 ). Muscle strength assessments were conducted in accordance with the test application procedures demonstrated in the EasyForce dynamometer instructional videos ( 28 ). During the assessment of quadriceps muscle strength, the athlete was seated in the leg extension machine in an upright position. The hip joint was positioned at approximately 90° of flexion, and the knee joint was also maintained at 90° of flexion. The back was kept upright and supported, while the arms were crossed over the chest. The EasyForce dynamometer was attached to the distal portion of the tibia, just above the ankle, approximately 2–3 cm proximal to the malleolus. The device’s fixation strap was secured to the metal frame of the leg extension machine. The test procedure was clearly explained to the athlete, who was instructed to exert maximum effort to extend the knee without producing any joint movement. The athlete was asked to maintain this isometric contraction for 3–5 seconds. The measurement was performed three times, and the highest recorded value was used for analysis. During the assessment of hamstring muscle strength, the athlete was positioned in a prone lying position. The knee joint was flexed to approximately 90°. The EasyForce dynamometer was attached to the distal portion of the tibia, just above the ankle, approximately 2–3 cm proximal to the malleolus. The device’s fixation strap was secured around the tester’s torso to provide stabilization. The test procedure was clearly explained to the athlete, who was instructed to exert maximum effort to flex the knee without producing any joint movement. The measurement was performed three times, and the highest recorded value was used for analysis. During the assessment of biceps muscle strength, the athlete was seated with the back supported in an upright position. The elbow joint was positioned at 90° of flexion, the shoulder in a neutral position, and the forearm in supination. The EasyForce dynamometer was placed on the forearm, near the wrist, over the radial–ulnar junction. The device’s fixation strap was secured to the metal frame of the chair to ensure stability. The test procedure was clearly explained to the athlete, who was instructed to exert maximum effort to flex the elbow and to maintain this isometric contraction for 3–5 seconds. The measurement was performed three times, and the highest recorded value was used for analysis. During the assessment of triceps muscle strength, the athlete was positioned in a supine lying position. The shoulder and elbow joints were placed at approximately 90° of flexion, with the forearm in a supinated position. The EasyForce dynamometer was attached to the forearm, near the wrist, over the radial–ulnar junction. The device’s fixation strap was secured to the metal frame of the examination table to ensure stability. The testing procedure was clearly explained to the athlete, who was instructed to exert maximum effort to extend the elbow and to maintain this isometric contraction for 3–5 seconds. The measurement was performed three times, and the highest recorded value was used for analysis. During the assessment of deltoid muscle strength, the athlete was seated in an upright position with back support. The shoulder was positioned at 90° of abduction, the elbow in full extension, and the forearm in a neutral position. The EasyForce dynamometer was placed on the lateral surface of the distal humerus, approximately 5 cm proximal to the elbow joint. The device’s fixation strap was secured to the metal frame of the chair to ensure stability. The testing procedure was clearly explained to the athlete, who was instructed to exert maximum effort to lift the arm laterally and to maintain this isometric contraction for 3–5 seconds. The measurement was performed three times, and the highest recorded value was used for analysis. Reaction time assessment Reaction time was assessed using the BlazePod wireless LED light system (Version 2.6.5, Canada). The BlazePod light-based stimulus system is a valid and reliable device for evaluating reaction time ( 29 ). A six-sensor BlazePod LED light system was used for the assessment. The sensors were placed 20 cm apart from each other and positioned 40 cm away from the athlete ( 30 ). Three tests were conducted in total: two simple reaction time tests and one complex reaction time test. The simple reaction time test was performed separately with the dominant and non-dominant upper extremities. Each sensor provided eight light stimuli (a total of 48 stimuli), which were activated in a randomized order ( 30 ). In the complex reaction time test, all athletes received the same sequence of 48 stimuli and were required to respond using both upper limbs. Participants were instructed to deactivate blue lights with the right hand and red lights with the left hand, with each color appearing four times per sensor ( 30 ). For both the simple and complex reaction time tests, the number of repetitions and the reaction time durations were recorded. 2.3.2. Postural stability assessment Postural stability was assessed statically using the GYKO inertial sensor system and dynamically using the Lower Extremity Y Balance Test. The GYKO inertial sensor system is a valid and reliable device for the assessment of static postural stability ( 31 ). Static postural stability assessment was performed by instructing participants to stand on one leg for 30 seconds while keeping their eyes open and hands on their hips, maintaining a stable and motionless posture ( 31 ). The GYKO inertial sensor system was positioned in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations at the level of the T1–T2 thoracic vertebrae, determined by palpation of the spinous processes ( http://www.microgate.it ). The tension of the fastening straps around the chest was adjusted individually based on each athlete’s anatomical characteristics. With its advanced technological components, the device can measure accelerations up to 16 g and angular velocities up to 2000°/s, with a sampling frequency of 1000 Hz. Data recorded by the GYKO inertial sensor were wirelessly transmitted to a Lenovo Yoga 500 − 15 laptop (i5-6200/8GB/1000/Win10). Technical specifications and detailed information regarding the GYKO inertial sensor system are available on the manufacturer’s official website ( http://www.microgate.it ). The test was performed for both the dominant and non-dominant lower limbs, and the area values (mm²) were recorded. The lower extremity Y Balance Test (YBT) is a valid and reliable method for the assessment of dynamic balance ( 32 ). The lower extremity Y Balance Test was constructed using three measuring tapes. The tapes were positioned at 135° between the anterior and posterior directions and 90° between the two posterior directions. Athletes were instructed to maintain single-leg balance while reaching as far as possible along each measuring tape with the contralateral leg and then return to the starting position in a controlled manner ( 33 ). A trial was considered invalid and repeated if the participant failed to return to the starting position, lost single-leg balance, or compromised trunk stability during the movement ( 34 ). Three valid trials were performed in each direction, and the maximum reach distance achieved in each direction was recorded for analysis ( 32 ). The composite score of the Y Balance Test was calculated by averaging the normalized reach distances across the three directions (anterior, posteromedial, and posterolateral). Composite Score (%) = (Anterior + Posteromedial + Posterolateral)/3×Leg Length) ×100 2.3.3. Cognitive function assessment The Stroop Test is widely recognized as a valid and reliable neuropsychological measure that assesses executive functions associated with frontal lobe activity ( 35 ). Cognitive function was assessed using the Stroop Test based on the Basic Sciences Research Group format ( 35 ). The test consisted of five sections. In the first section, participants were instructed to read a card containing color names printed in black. In the second section, they were asked to read color names printed in incongruent ink colors. The third section required participants to name the colors of shapes printed in various colors. In the fourth section, they were asked to read neutral words printed in different colors. In the final section, participants were instructed to name the ink color of color words printed in incongruent colors. The completion time and the number of corrections were recorded for each section. 2.3.4. Ergometer performance assessment The 2000-meter rowing ergometer tests were administered by the athletes’ coaches. The 2000-meter completion times (seconds) were recorded for analysis. 2.4. Statistical analysis The required sample size for the study was determined using an a priori power analysis performed with the G*Power software. A pilot study involving 10 participants was conducted and based on the correlation coefficient of r = 0.521 for simple reaction time repetitions, an effect size of 0.521, a significance level (α) of 0.05, and a statistical power (1–β) of 0.80 were used to calculate the required sample size, which was estimated to be 26 participants. The analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS 26.0 (SPSS Inc, IL, USA). Mean and standard deviation values were calculated for all numerical descriptive data. The normality of the distribution of the evaluation parameters was determined using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Shapiro–Wilk tests, in addition to visual inspection of histogram plots. The postural stability area scores for both the dominant and nondominant limbs, as well as the composite score of the nondominant limb in the Y Balance Test, did not demonstrate a normal distribution. In contrast, the composite score of the dominant limb in the Y Balance Test, reaction time values, ergometer performance scores and muscle strength scores were found to exhibit a normal distribution. The relationships between ergometer performance and variables exhibiting a normal distribution were analyzed using Pearson’s correlation test, whereas Spearman’s correlation test was employed to evaluate the relationships between ergometer performance and variables that did not follow a normal distribution. Results The athletes’ demographic characteristics are presented in Table 1. Among the athletes, 12 were male and 16 were female. The results regarding the relationship between ergometer performance and muscle strength, reaction time, and static postural stability are presented in Tables 2, 3, and 4. No significant relationship was observed between ergometer performance and dynamic stability (dominant limb composite score: p = 0.230; nondominant limb: p = 0.609). No significant relationship was found between ergometer performance and cognitive performance (Section 1: p = 0.232; Section 2 : p = 0.055; Section 3: p = 0.501; Section 4: p = 0.067; Section 5: p = 0.319). Discussion The present study investigated the associations between ergometer performance and muscle strength, reaction time, postural stability, and cognitive function in elite adolescent rowers. The main findings revealed that ergometer performance was associated with static stability, muscle strength, and reaction time, whereas no significant relationships were observed with dynamic stability or cognitive performance. Thus, our study hypothesis was only partially supported. Our findings demonstrate a strong association between ergometer performance and muscle strength are consistent with previous literature. A 2,000-m rowing race typically involves approximately 210–230 strokes, and elite rowers are known to generate substantial force during different phases of the race ( 36 , 37 ). Specifically, forces of 1,000–1,500 N per stroke have been reported during the start phase, 500–700 N during the mid-race phase, and 600–700 N during the finish ( 36 , 38 ). These data indicate that rowing requires not only the ability to produce high levels of force but also the capacity to sustain this force throughout the entire race ( 7 , 36 ). Accordingly, rowing is characterized as a strength-endurance sport, as it demands both maximal strength during explosive phases and considerable endurance to maintain power output over prolonged efforts ( 36 ). The catch phase, as one of the most critical components of the rowing stroke, requires not only optimal biomechanics and neuromuscular coordination but also rapid and accurate perceptual–motor responses ( 39 ). The accurate perception of blade entry into the water and the prompt initiation of force production may be associated with reaction time, particularly given the increased stroke rates and reduced temporal tolerances observed under competitive racing conditions. A faster reaction time may enable rowers to execute a more synchronized and efficient catch, thereby helping to reduce technical errors (e.g., premature lumbar flexion, delayed leg drive) and lowering the risk of injury ( 39 ). Although studies directly assessing reaction time and its relationship with performance in rowers are lacking, our findings demonstrated a significant association between ergometer performance and reaction time. The observed association between ergometer performance and reaction time may be explained by several neuromuscular and cognitive mechanisms. Faster reaction times likely reflect more rapid motor unit recruitment and enhanced neuromuscular activation, which are essential for producing high forces during the early phase of the drive. The significant association observed between ergometer performance and static postural stability, contrasted with the absence of a relationship with dynamic balance, may be explained by the specific biomechanical and neuromuscular demands of rowing. Static balance reflects an individual’s ability to maintain the center of mass over a fixed base of support with minimal postural sway, a skill that relies heavily on trunk stability, proprioception, and efficient neuromuscular control ( 13 ). During ergometer rowing, athletes perform repetitive, sagittal-plane movements while seated on a relatively stable platform, requiring substantial isometric trunk control and minimal multidirectional adjustments. This aligns with previous work indicating that rowers depend strongly on static postural control to maintain alignment and optimize force transfer throughout the stroke ( 16 , 17 ). In contrast, dynamic balance involves maintaining postural stability during tasks that require changes in the base of support, rapid force modulation, and multidirectional body adjustments—capacities more characteristic of sports such as soccer, basketball, and combat sports ( 15 ). Dynamic balance tasks rely on complex sensorimotor processes that may not be specifically trained or required in rowing, which is a closed-skill, cyclical movement conducted in a predominantly predictable and uniplanar environment. As such, dynamic balance may be less functionally relevant to rowing performance, which could explain the lack of association between dynamic balance measures and ergometer outcomes in the present study. Rowing is classified as a closed-skill sport because it relies on predetermined movement patterns, is minimally influenced by environmental variability, and is performed in a single, predictable plane of motion ( 40 ). For this reason, its cognitive demands are relatively lower. In contrast, team sports and contact sports require athletes to respond rapidly to constantly changing external stimuli, monitor environmental cues, engage in strategic thinking, and make quick decisions ( 40 , 41 ). These characteristics define them as open-skill sports, which place substantially higher demands on cognitive and cognitive-motor processes ( 41 ). Moreover, rowing is predominantly dependent on physical capacity, with key determinants of performance including cardiorespiratory endurance, maximal power output, technical efficiency, and rhythmic coordination ( 2 , 3 , 8 , 42 ). Several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings of this study. First, the cross-sectional design does not allow for causal inferences regarding the relationships between physical, cognitive, and performance-related variables. Longitudinal or intervention-based research designs are needed to determine the directionality and temporal dynamics of these associations. Additionally, the assessment of cognitive functions was limited to the Stroop Test. Although the Stroop Test evaluates specific components of executive functioning—namely inhibition and cognitive flexibility—it does not capture other cognitive domains that may influence rowing performance. These include sustained attention, visuomotor integration, processing speed, and decision-making, none of which were examined in the present study. A more comprehensive evaluation of cognitive performance would therefore offer a more holistic understanding of the relationship between cognitive processes and rowing performance. The significant associations identified between upper- and lower-extremity muscle strength and ergometer performance indicate that strength development targeting both upper and lower limb muscle groups should be prioritized in rowing training programs. Given that reaction time performance is closely linked to neuromuscular readiness, incorporating additional reaction-based drills into training—particularly at the elite level—may offer further performance benefits. Furthermore, adequate static postural stability may contribute to enhanced trunk control and a reduced risk of injury. In this context, coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists are encouraged to routinely monitor strength, reaction time, static balance, and ergometer performance to more accurately track athletes’ individual progress and to design training programs that are more targeted and performance-oriented. Conclusion In conclusion, the findings of this study demonstrated significant associations between both lower- and upper-extremity muscle strength and ergometer performance. This indicates that developing global strength capacities—particularly in the major muscle groups of the lower and upper extremities—is critical for enhancing rowing performance. The moderate relationship observed between reaction time and ergometer outcomes further suggests that neuromuscular response speed may contribute to performance, particularly at higher competitive levels. In contrast, no significant relationships were identified between ergometer performance and dynamic balance or cognitive test scores. These results imply that, although static postural control may support overall movement quality, ergometer-based rowing performance in this adolescent population appears to be primarily determined by physical parameters rather than cognitive or dynamic balance-related factors. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate: The ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Sakarya University of Applied Sciences (approval number: 61/03, approval date: 18/09/2025). The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Before the data collection process, the researchers informed the participants about the purpose of the study, emphasized that participation was voluntary, assured them that their anonymity would be protected, and stated that their data would be used solely for this research. Informed consent was obtained from the parents of all participants. Additionally, the participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without providing any reason. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing Interests: None. Funding: The EasyForce dynamometer (Meloq, Sweden) used in this study was supplied by Meloq at no cost. Author Contribution Birgul Dingirdan Gultekinler: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. Volga Bayrakcı Tunay: Review & editing. Acknowledgements: We would like to thank Meloq for providing the dynamometer used in this study and for their valuable contribution to the conduct of the research. 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Gu Q, Zou L, Loprinzi PD, Quan M, Huang T. Effects of Open Versus Closed Skill Exercise on Cognitive Function: A Systematic Review. Front Psychol. 2019;10:1707. Podstawski R, Borysławski K, Alföldi Z, Ferenc I, Wąsik J. The effect of confounding variables on the relationship between anthropometric and physiological features in 2000-m rowing ergometer performance. Front Physiol. 2023;14:1195641. Tables Table 1 to 4 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Table1.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 18 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 23 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 22 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 09 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 26 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 24 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 24 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 24 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 24 Dec, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 24 Dec, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 19 Dec, 2025 Editor invited by journal 08 Dec, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 06 Dec, 2025 First submitted to journal 06 Dec, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Gultekinler","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABDklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACA2YQWcDMw8DA2MAAJOVA/AMPCGoxQGgxBmtJwKcFSSMDSEtiA4iBT4s5O+/j1zwG1jLm/IvbPrypuZM+P+zwQ6AtdnK6Ddi1WDazm1nzGKTzWM542DxzzrFnuRtvpxkAtSQbmx3A4bDDbGzGPAaHeQxuHGxm5mE7nLtxdgJIy4HEbcRp+Xc43XB2+gdCWpgfg7Wcb2xm5m07nCAvnYPfFstmNjbGOUC/GNxgbGac23fYcIN0TsGBBAPcfjHnP8b84U2Ftb3B+eOPGd58OywvPzt984cPFXZyuLQAAZsEmJJIgDoVrNIAp3IQYP4Apvihhso34FU9CkbBKBgFIxAAABvvX/BPMR0fAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Sakarya University of Applied Sciences","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Birgul","middleName":"Dingirdan","lastName":"Gultekinler","suffix":""},{"id":565464952,"identity":"e294ad8c-4963-43b2-bb4b-437802ca5fae","order_by":1,"name":"Volga Bayrakcı Tunay","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hacettepe 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16:03:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":541110,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8256632/v1/41076d64-49c7-4806-8578-3b732ca82cb8.pdf"},{"id":99036390,"identity":"138cb38b-2327-4ab7-bff3-0e73ee5c19bf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-26 10:14:32","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":18391,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8256632/v1/0871b110740dcc655bed8aed.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Associations Between Ergometer Performance, Postural Stability, Cognitive Function, and Physical Performance in Elite Adolescent Rowers","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eRowing is an Olympic sport that simultaneously encompasses multiple components of physical performance, including anaerobic endurance, strength endurance, and maximal strength (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Research has shown that lower and upper limb strength endurance is significantly associated with 2000-m rowing ergometer performance in elite rowers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Although the direction of causality has not been established, this relationship indicates that athletes with higher levels of physical performance tend to achieve superior rowing outcomes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, improvements in physical performance may be associated with enhancements in rowing performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuscle strength is a key determinant in generating the propulsive force required for effective boat acceleration and for maintaining stroke power throughout the race (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Rowing is a power-endurance sport that relies on the synchronized activation of the legs, trunk, and arms, which collectively determine stroke efficiency and overall boat velocity (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Several studies have reported strong correlations between rowing ergometer performance and both maximal and endurance strength measures, particularly in leg press and bench pull exercises (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). The development of maximal strength not only increases the amount of force generated per stroke but also reduces relative strength demands, thereby enabling rowers to sustain performance during prolonged efforts (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, maintaining high levels of muscular strength is crucial for maximizing rowing performance and meeting the physiological and biomechanical demands of the sport (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePostural stability refers to the ability to maintain the center of gravity within the base of support with minimal body sway (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Effective postural stability depends on the integrated functioning of the sensory systems (visual, somatosensory, and vestibular), cognitive processes, and appropriate motor strategies (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). Balance control is a complex sensorimotor process that integrates vestibular, visual, and somatosensory inputs to generate context-specific motor responses (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). This integration ensures the maintenance of postural alignment and gaze stability against the effects of gravity (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). Postural stability is essential not only for daily functional activities but also for achieving optimal performance across nearly all sports (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). The balance demands vary among different sports, depending on the specific physical and biomechanical characteristics of each discipline (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e). Rowing involves propelling a boat across the water using one or two oars. Safe and effective boat propulsion in rowing requires a high degree of balance and stability (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, proper control of the center of mass is crucial for optimal rowing performance (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical activity has been shown to exert beneficial effects not only on physical health but also on cognitive and neural functions (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR19\" citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e). Adaptive, individualized training programs can enhance cognitive performance by progressively increasing task difficulty and encouraging athletes to explore different strategies to master complex motor tasks (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). Elite athletes represent a unique population in which extreme physical fitness and high cognitive skill training are integrated into their daily routines (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). Through long-term training exposure, they develop the ability to perform automatic and efficient physical and mental responses while continuously adapting to dynamic environmental demands during both practice and competition (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReaction time refers to the period between the perception of a stimulus and the execution of a response, representing the individual\u0026rsquo;s ability to detect, process, and respond appropriately to external stimuli (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e). Reaction time allows for the objective evaluation of the cognitive\u0026ndash;motor abilities that determine athletic performance and reflects an individual\u0026rsquo;s capacity for rapid and effective decision-making and action execution (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR25\" citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e). However, studies directly examining reaction time in rowing athletes remain limited, and its specific contribution to rowing performance has yet to be clearly established.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to examine the relationship between rowing-specific performance, as assessed by ergometer testing, and physical performance, cognitive function, and reaction time in elite adolescent rowers. The hypothesis of this study is that there is a significant relationship between ergometer performance and physical performance, cognitive function, and postural stability in elite adolescent rowers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted with athletes from the Beşiktaş Rowing Club and the Hereke Nuh \u0026Ccedil;imento Rowing Club. Since the participants were adolescent athletes, written informed consent was obtained from both the athletes and their parents or legal guardians. The ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Sakarya University of Applied Sciences (approval number: 61/03, approval date: 18/09/2025). The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eInclusion criteria\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eRowing athletes aged 12\u0026ndash;18 years, who had been actively training in rowing for at least one year and participated in training sessions a minimum of two days per week.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eExclusion criteria\u003c/b\u003e: Participants were excluded from the study if any of the following conditions were present: unwillingness to participate in the study, a history of upper or lower extremity surgery within the past year, or the presence of any neurological disorder.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Procedures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1. Physical performance assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMuscle strength assessment\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe muscle strength of the quadriceps, hamstrings, biceps, triceps, and deltoid muscles, which play an active role in rowing performance, was evaluated. Muscle strength was assessed using the Meloq EasyForce dynamometer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e). Muscle strength assessments were conducted in accordance with the test application procedures demonstrated in the EasyForce dynamometer instructional videos (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the assessment of quadriceps muscle strength, the athlete was seated in the leg extension machine in an upright position. The hip joint was positioned at approximately 90\u0026deg; of flexion, and the knee joint was also maintained at 90\u0026deg; of flexion. The back was kept upright and supported, while the arms were crossed over the chest. The EasyForce dynamometer was attached to the distal portion of the tibia, just above the ankle, approximately 2\u0026ndash;3 cm proximal to the malleolus. The device\u0026rsquo;s fixation strap was secured to the metal frame of the leg extension machine. The test procedure was clearly explained to the athlete, who was instructed to exert maximum effort to extend the knee without producing any joint movement. The athlete was asked to maintain this isometric contraction for 3\u0026ndash;5 seconds. The measurement was performed three times, and the highest recorded value was used for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the assessment of hamstring muscle strength, the athlete was positioned in a prone lying position. The knee joint was flexed to approximately 90\u0026deg;. The EasyForce dynamometer was attached to the distal portion of the tibia, just above the ankle, approximately 2\u0026ndash;3 cm proximal to the malleolus. The device\u0026rsquo;s fixation strap was secured around the tester\u0026rsquo;s torso to provide stabilization. The test procedure was clearly explained to the athlete, who was instructed to exert maximum effort to flex the knee without producing any joint movement. The measurement was performed three times, and the highest recorded value was used for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the assessment of biceps muscle strength, the athlete was seated with the back supported in an upright position. The elbow joint was positioned at 90\u0026deg; of flexion, the shoulder in a neutral position, and the forearm in supination. The EasyForce dynamometer was placed on the forearm, near the wrist, over the radial\u0026ndash;ulnar junction. The device\u0026rsquo;s fixation strap was secured to the metal frame of the chair to ensure stability. The test procedure was clearly explained to the athlete, who was instructed to exert maximum effort to flex the elbow and to maintain this isometric contraction for 3\u0026ndash;5 seconds. The measurement was performed three times, and the highest recorded value was used for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the assessment of triceps muscle strength, the athlete was positioned in a supine lying position. The shoulder and elbow joints were placed at approximately 90\u0026deg; of flexion, with the forearm in a supinated position. The EasyForce dynamometer was attached to the forearm, near the wrist, over the radial\u0026ndash;ulnar junction. The device\u0026rsquo;s fixation strap was secured to the metal frame of the examination table to ensure stability. The testing procedure was clearly explained to the athlete, who was instructed to exert maximum effort to extend the elbow and to maintain this isometric contraction for 3\u0026ndash;5 seconds. The measurement was performed three times, and the highest recorded value was used for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the assessment of deltoid muscle strength, the athlete was seated in an upright position with back support. The shoulder was positioned at 90\u0026deg; of abduction, the elbow in full extension, and the forearm in a neutral position. The EasyForce dynamometer was placed on the lateral surface of the distal humerus, approximately 5 cm proximal to the elbow joint. The device\u0026rsquo;s fixation strap was secured to the metal frame of the chair to ensure stability. The testing procedure was clearly explained to the athlete, who was instructed to exert maximum effort to lift the arm laterally and to maintain this isometric contraction for 3\u0026ndash;5 seconds. The measurement was performed three times, and the highest recorded value was used for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eReaction time assessment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReaction time was assessed using the BlazePod wireless LED light system (Version 2.6.5, Canada). The BlazePod light-based stimulus system is a valid and reliable device for evaluating reaction time (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e). A six-sensor BlazePod LED light system was used for the assessment. The sensors were placed 20 cm apart from each other and positioned 40 cm away from the athlete (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). Three tests were conducted in total: two simple reaction time tests and one complex reaction time test. The simple reaction time test was performed separately with the dominant and non-dominant upper extremities. Each sensor provided eight light stimuli (a total of 48 stimuli), which were activated in a randomized order (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). In the complex reaction time test, all athletes received the same sequence of 48 stimuli and were required to respond using both upper limbs. Participants were instructed to deactivate blue lights with the right hand and red lights with the left hand, with each color appearing four times per sensor (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). For both the simple and complex reaction time tests, the number of repetitions and the reaction time durations were recorded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e2.3.2. Postural stability assessment\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003ePostural stability was assessed statically using the GYKO inertial sensor system and dynamically using the Lower Extremity Y Balance Test. The GYKO inertial sensor system is a valid and reliable device for the assessment of static postural stability (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e). Static postural stability assessment was performed by instructing participants to stand on one leg for 30 seconds while keeping their eyes open and hands on their hips, maintaining a stable and motionless posture (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e). The GYKO inertial sensor system was positioned in accordance with the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s recommendations at the level of the T1\u0026ndash;T2 thoracic vertebrae, determined by palpation of the spinous processes (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.microgate.it\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.microgate.it\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). The tension of the fastening straps around the chest was adjusted individually based on each athlete\u0026rsquo;s anatomical characteristics. With its advanced technological components, the device can measure accelerations up to 16 g and angular velocities up to 2000\u0026deg;/s, with a sampling frequency of 1000 Hz. Data recorded by the GYKO inertial sensor were wirelessly transmitted to a Lenovo Yoga 500\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;15 laptop (i5-6200/8GB/1000/Win10). Technical specifications and detailed information regarding the GYKO inertial sensor system are available on the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s official website (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.microgate.it\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.microgate.it\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). The test was performed for both the dominant and non-dominant lower limbs, and the area values (mm\u0026sup2;) were recorded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lower extremity Y Balance Test (YBT) is a valid and reliable method for the assessment of dynamic balance (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e). The lower extremity Y Balance Test was constructed using three measuring tapes. The tapes were positioned at 135\u0026deg; between the anterior and posterior directions and 90\u0026deg; between the two posterior directions. Athletes were instructed to maintain single-leg balance while reaching as far as possible along each measuring tape with the contralateral leg and then return to the starting position in a controlled manner (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e). A trial was considered invalid and repeated if the participant failed to return to the starting position, lost single-leg balance, or compromised trunk stability during the movement (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e). Three valid trials were performed in each direction, and the maximum reach distance achieved in each direction was recorded for analysis (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e). The composite score of the Y Balance Test was calculated by averaging the normalized reach distances across the three directions (anterior, posteromedial, and posterolateral).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComposite Score (%) = (Anterior\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Posteromedial\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Posterolateral)/3\u0026times;Leg Length) \u0026times;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e2.3.3. Cognitive function assessment\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Stroop Test is widely recognized as a valid and reliable neuropsychological measure that assesses executive functions associated with frontal lobe activity (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e). Cognitive function was assessed using the Stroop Test based on the Basic Sciences Research Group format (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e). The test consisted of five sections. In the first section, participants were instructed to read a card containing color names printed in black. In the second section, they were asked to read color names printed in incongruent ink colors. The third section required participants to name the colors of shapes printed in various colors. In the fourth section, they were asked to read neutral words printed in different colors. In the final section, participants were instructed to name the ink color of color words printed in incongruent colors. The completion time and the number of corrections were recorded for each section.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e2.3.4. Ergometer performance assessment\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 2000-meter rowing ergometer tests were administered by the athletes\u0026rsquo; coaches. The 2000-meter completion times (seconds) were recorded for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe required sample size for the study was determined using an a priori power analysis performed with the G*Power software. A pilot study involving 10 participants was conducted and based on the correlation coefficient of r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.521 for simple reaction time repetitions, an effect size of 0.521, a significance level (α) of 0.05, and a statistical power (1\u0026ndash;β) of 0.80 were used to calculate the required sample size, which was estimated to be 26 participants. The analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS 26.0 (SPSS Inc, IL, USA). Mean and standard deviation values were calculated for all numerical descriptive data. The normality of the distribution of the evaluation parameters was determined using the Kolmogorov\u0026ndash;Smirnov and Shapiro\u0026ndash;Wilk tests, in addition to visual inspection of histogram plots. The postural stability area scores for both the dominant and nondominant limbs, as well as the composite score of the nondominant limb in the Y Balance Test, did not demonstrate a normal distribution. In contrast, the composite score of the dominant limb in the Y Balance Test, reaction time values, ergometer performance scores and muscle strength scores were found to exhibit a normal distribution. The relationships between ergometer performance and variables exhibiting a normal distribution were analyzed using Pearson\u0026rsquo;s correlation test, whereas Spearman\u0026rsquo;s correlation test was employed to evaluate the relationships between ergometer performance and variables that did not follow a normal distribution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe athletes\u0026rsquo; demographic characteristics are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;1. Among the athletes, 12 were male and 16 were female. The results regarding the relationship between ergometer performance and muscle strength, reaction time, and static postural stability are presented in Tables\u0026nbsp;2, 3, and 4. No significant relationship was observed between ergometer performance and dynamic stability (dominant limb composite score: p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.230; nondominant limb: p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.609). No significant relationship was found between ergometer performance and cognitive performance (Section 1: p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.232; Section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e: p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.055; Section 3: p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.501; Section 4: p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.067; Section 5: p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.319).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study investigated the associations between ergometer performance and muscle strength, reaction time, postural stability, and cognitive function in elite adolescent rowers. The main findings revealed that ergometer performance was associated with static stability, muscle strength, and reaction time, whereas no significant relationships were observed with dynamic stability or cognitive performance. Thus, our study hypothesis was only partially supported.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings demonstrate a strong association between ergometer performance and muscle strength are consistent with previous literature. A 2,000-m rowing race typically involves approximately 210\u0026ndash;230 strokes, and elite rowers are known to generate substantial force during different phases of the race (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, forces of 1,000\u0026ndash;1,500 N per stroke have been reported during the start phase, 500\u0026ndash;700 N during the mid-race phase, and 600\u0026ndash;700 N during the finish (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e). These data indicate that rowing requires not only the ability to produce high levels of force but also the capacity to sustain this force throughout the entire race (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, rowing is characterized as a strength-endurance sport, as it demands both maximal strength during explosive phases and considerable endurance to maintain power output over prolonged efforts (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe catch phase, as one of the most critical components of the rowing stroke, requires not only optimal biomechanics and neuromuscular coordination but also rapid and accurate perceptual\u0026ndash;motor responses (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e). The accurate perception of blade entry into the water and the prompt initiation of force production may be associated with reaction time, particularly given the increased stroke rates and reduced temporal tolerances observed under competitive racing conditions. A faster reaction time may enable rowers to execute a more synchronized and efficient catch, thereby helping to reduce technical errors (e.g., premature lumbar flexion, delayed leg drive) and lowering the risk of injury (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e). Although studies directly assessing reaction time and its relationship with performance in rowers are lacking, our findings demonstrated a significant association between ergometer performance and reaction time. The observed association between ergometer performance and reaction time may be explained by several neuromuscular and cognitive mechanisms. Faster reaction times likely reflect more rapid motor unit recruitment and enhanced neuromuscular activation, which are essential for producing high forces during the early phase of the drive.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe significant association observed between ergometer performance and static postural stability, contrasted with the absence of a relationship with dynamic balance, may be explained by the specific biomechanical and neuromuscular demands of rowing. Static balance reflects an individual\u0026rsquo;s ability to maintain the center of mass over a fixed base of support with minimal postural sway, a skill that relies heavily on trunk stability, proprioception, and efficient neuromuscular control (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). During ergometer rowing, athletes perform repetitive, sagittal-plane movements while seated on a relatively stable platform, requiring substantial isometric trunk control and minimal multidirectional adjustments. This aligns with previous work indicating that rowers depend strongly on static postural control to maintain alignment and optimize force transfer throughout the stroke (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, dynamic balance involves maintaining postural stability during tasks that require changes in the base of support, rapid force modulation, and multidirectional body adjustments\u0026mdash;capacities more characteristic of sports such as soccer, basketball, and combat sports (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). Dynamic balance tasks rely on complex sensorimotor processes that may not be specifically trained or required in rowing, which is a closed-skill, cyclical movement conducted in a predominantly predictable and uniplanar environment. As such, dynamic balance may be less functionally relevant to rowing performance, which could explain the lack of association between dynamic balance measures and ergometer outcomes in the present study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRowing is classified as a closed-skill sport because it relies on predetermined movement patterns, is minimally influenced by environmental variability, and is performed in a single, predictable plane of motion (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e). For this reason, its cognitive demands are relatively lower. In contrast, team sports and contact sports require athletes to respond rapidly to constantly changing external stimuli, monitor environmental cues, engage in strategic thinking, and make quick decisions (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e). These characteristics define them as open-skill sports, which place substantially higher demands on cognitive and cognitive-motor processes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, rowing is predominantly dependent on physical capacity, with key determinants of performance including cardiorespiratory endurance, maximal power output, technical efficiency, and rhythmic coordination (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings of this study. First, the cross-sectional design does not allow for causal inferences regarding the relationships between physical, cognitive, and performance-related variables. Longitudinal or intervention-based research designs are needed to determine the directionality and temporal dynamics of these associations. Additionally, the assessment of cognitive functions was limited to the Stroop Test. Although the Stroop Test evaluates specific components of executive functioning\u0026mdash;namely inhibition and cognitive flexibility\u0026mdash;it does not capture other cognitive domains that may influence rowing performance. These include sustained attention, visuomotor integration, processing speed, and decision-making, none of which were examined in the present study. A more comprehensive evaluation of cognitive performance would therefore offer a more holistic understanding of the relationship between cognitive processes and rowing performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe significant associations identified between upper- and lower-extremity muscle strength and ergometer performance indicate that strength development targeting both upper and lower limb muscle groups should be prioritized in rowing training programs. Given that reaction time performance is closely linked to neuromuscular readiness, incorporating additional reaction-based drills into training\u0026mdash;particularly at the elite level\u0026mdash;may offer further performance benefits. Furthermore, adequate static postural stability may contribute to enhanced trunk control and a reduced risk of injury. In this context, coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists are encouraged to routinely monitor strength, reaction time, static balance, and ergometer performance to more accurately track athletes\u0026rsquo; individual progress and to design training programs that are more targeted and performance-oriented.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConclusion\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the findings of this study demonstrated significant associations between both lower- and upper-extremity muscle strength and ergometer performance. This indicates that developing global strength capacities\u0026mdash;particularly in the major muscle groups of the lower and upper extremities\u0026mdash;is critical for enhancing rowing performance. The moderate relationship observed between reaction time and ergometer outcomes further suggests that neuromuscular response speed may contribute to performance, particularly at higher competitive levels. In contrast, no significant relationships were identified between ergometer performance and dynamic balance or cognitive test scores. These results imply that, although static postural control may support overall movement quality, ergometer-based rowing performance in this adolescent population appears to be primarily determined by physical parameters rather than cognitive or dynamic balance-related factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":" \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Sakarya University of Applied Sciences (approval number: 61/03, approval date: 18/09/2025). The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Before the data collection process, the researchers informed the participants about the purpose of the study, emphasized that participation was voluntary, assured them that their anonymity would be protected, and stated that their data would be used solely for this research. Informed consent was obtained from the parents of all participants. Additionally, the participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without providing any reason.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting Interests:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe EasyForce dynamometer (Meloq, Sweden) used in this study was supplied by Meloq at no cost.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBirgul Dingirdan Gultekinler: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Investigation, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. Volga Bayrakcı Tunay: Review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe would like to thank Meloq for providing the dynamometer used in this study and for their valuable contribution to the conduct of the research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThiele D, Prieske O, Lesinski M, Granacher U. Effects of Equal Volume Heavy-Resistance Strength Training Versus Strength Endurance Training on Physical Fitness and Sport-Specific Performance in Young Elite Female Rowers. Front Physiol. 2020;11:888.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJ\u0026uuml;rim\u0026auml;e T, Perez-Turpin JA, Cortell-Tormo JM, Chinchilla-Mira IJ, Cejuela-Anta R, M\u0026auml;estu J, et al. 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Relationship between Attention Capacity and Hand-Eye Reaction Time in Adolescents between 15 and 18 Years of Age. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(17).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJaworski J, AmbroŻy T, Lech G, Spieszny M, Bujas P, Żak M, et al. Absolute and relative reliability of several measures of static postural stability calculated using a GYKO inertial sensor system. Acta Bioeng Biomech. 2020;22(2):94\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFoldager FN, Aslerin S, S BK, T\u0026oslash;nning LU, Mechlenburg I, Interrater. Test-retest Reliability of the Y Balance Test: A Reliability Study Including 51 Healthy Participants. Int J Exerc Sci. 2023;16(4):182\u0026ndash;92.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKang MH, Kim GM, Kwon OY, Weon JH, Oh JS, An DH. Relationship Between the Kinematics of the Trunk and Lower Extremity and Performance on the Y-Balance Test. Pm r. 2015;7(11):1152\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGonell AC, Romero JA, Soler LM, RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE Y BALANCE TEST SCORES, AND SOFT TISSUE INJURY INCIDENCE IN A SOCCER TEAM. Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2015;10(7):955\u0026ndash;66.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKarakaş S, Erdoğan E, Sak L, Soysal AŞ, Ulusoy T, Ulusoy İY, et al. Stroop Testi TBAG Formu: T\u0026uuml;rk k\u0026uuml;lt\u0026uuml;r\u0026uuml;ne standardizasyon \u0026ccedil;alışmaları, g\u0026uuml;venirlik ve ge\u0026ccedil;erlik. Klinik Psikiyatri. 1999;2(2):75\u0026ndash;88.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNugent FJ, Flanagan EP, Wilson F, Warrington GD. Strength and Conditioning for Competitive Rowers. Strength Conditioning J. 2020;42(3):6\u0026ndash;21.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHartmann U, Mader A, Wasser K, Klauer I. 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Front Physiol. 2023;14:1195641.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1 to 4 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-sports-science-medicine-and-rehabilitation","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssmr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation](http://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ssmr/default.aspx","title":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Water sports, physical functional performance, postural balance","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8256632/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8256632/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRowing is an Olympic sport that simultaneously encompasses multiple components of physical performance, including anaerobic endurance, strength endurance, and maximal strength.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAim\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to examine the relationship between rowing-specific performance, as assessed by ergometer testing, and physical performance, cognitive function, and reaction time in elite adolescent rowers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 28 adolescent rowing athletes were included in this study. The assessments were conducted at Hereke Nuh \u0026Ccedil;imento Rowing Club and Beşiktaş Rowing Club. Static balance was evaluated using the GYKO inertial sensor system, while dynamic balance was assessed with the Y Balance Test. Reaction time was measured using the BlazePod light-based sensor system, and muscle strength was assessed with the Meloq EasyForce dynamometer. Cognitive function was evaluated using the Stroop test.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA negative relationship was observed between ergometer performance time and muscle strength (r = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.875 to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.591, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) reaction time repetition count (r = -0.657 to -0.574, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01) and static postural stability (r = -0.474, -0.447, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings indicate that ergometer performance in adolescent rowers is associated with muscle strength, reaction time, and static postural stability, whereas dynamic balance and cognitive performance show no significant relationship with ergometer outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Associations Between Ergometer Performance, Postural Stability, Cognitive Function, and Physical Performance in Elite Adolescent Rowers","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-26 10:14:28","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8256632/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-23T11:04:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-22T08:04:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-09T06:14:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"286333062165813451159055515438687969940","date":"2025-12-26T12:03:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"310365794686212181615460753046704689925","date":"2025-12-25T07:56:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"188306383854119032039772159524897883848","date":"2025-12-24T14:29:56+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-24T14:01:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"51543327367286026543881873636673941270","date":"2025-12-24T13:53:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"222132529091317017503261553827024340052","date":"2025-12-24T13:35:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-24T12:38:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-12-19T12:26:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-08T14:56:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-06T06:40:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","date":"2025-12-06T06:34:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-sports-science-medicine-and-rehabilitation","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssmr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation](http://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ssmr/default.aspx","title":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6ee50e05-8c7e-4618-b640-70c123a4738a","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 26th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-23T16:00:55+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-8256632","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-026-01611-1","journal":{"identity":"bmc-sports-science-medicine-and-rehabilitation","isVorOnly":false,"title":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation"},"publishedOn":"2026-02-18 15:57:33","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 18th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-26 10:14:28","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s13102-026-01611-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-026-01611-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8256632","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8256632","identity":"rs-8256632","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}