Ergonomic risk factors and musculoskeletal disorders among healthcare professionals in Ghana

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This is the highest reason for health worker absenteeism in Ghana. While several studies have been conducted in this area, there is a lack of scientific knowledge assessing the magnitude of the problem, particularly among different cadres of healthcare professionals in Ghana. Methods The study employed a descriptive cross-sectional design among 192 health professionals. Self-administered structured questionnaires were used to collect data and SPSS (version 26.0) was used to analyse data. Results Findings from the study revealed all health workers had experienced Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD) in their line of duty at the hospital with lower and upper back pain (90.7%) and neck pain (89.3%) being the most reported. The study again noted that older healthcare professionals were more likely to have MSDs than those of younger ages (Odds Ratio = 1.87; 95% CI = 1.62, 2.21; p = 0.002). Females were also more likely to get MSDs than males (Odds Ratio = 1.66; 95% CI = 1.49, 1.89; p = 0.001). Conclusion The study concludes that, while MSD is prevalent among Ghanaian healthcare professionals, this issue has garnered little attention from the key stakeholders addressing it. The research therefore recommends substantial investments in modern technology and the retooling of the healthcare sector to lessen the physical strain or manual involvement required in performing their duties. The study also advocates for regular occupational health and safety training to enhance knowledge of MSD among healthcare professionals in Ghana. Ergonomics Musculoskeletal Disorders Healthcare workers Ghana Introduction The incidence of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) have been increasing – with about 1.63 billion people affected worldwide [ 1 ]. This is particularly worse in many Sub-Saharan African countries like Ghana, where work activities are mostly done manually or involve physical human strength [ 2 ]. Working in an ergonomically friendly environment encourages production efficiency and also promotes comfort, safety, and reduces the risk of musculoskeletal disorders [ 3 ]. Ergonomics is, therefore, the study of people's interactions with their working environments [ 4 ]. It includes adapting to work environments by developing tasks, tools, and equipment that reduce physical and manual involvement [ 5 ]. It is the study of how a workplace is built to match a worker's needs to produce a desired product at a low cost in terms of time, energy, safety, health, and increased job satisfaction [ 6 ]. In recent years, efforts have been made in many sub-Saharan African countries to reduce the physical involvement of human strength in most workplaces. However, many of these organisations, especially in the health sector, have not been able to acquire the required technology and equipment to achieve this. As a result, workplace injury and musculoskeletal disorders are the most frequently reported causes of health worker absenteeism in many health facilities [ 7 ]. The Lancet reports that about 494 million individuals suffer MSDs annually – with a significant number of these being health workers from Sub-Saharan Africa [ 1 , 8 ]. Whilst MSDs contribute a substantial financial burden on healthcare organisations, it is also the most common workplace injury and morbidity [ 7 , 9 ]. The global prevalence of MSDs among nurses and midwives alone is approximately 17%, with an annual prevalence of 40–50% [ 10 , 11 ]. MSDs are associated with the performance of highly repetitive tasks, awkward or static postures [ 12 ]. The physical demands on healthcare workers, which include all ranges of movement and awkward postures to carry out procedures either on or around the patient, such as bathing, wound dressing, drug administration, and transferring patients by lifting or wheeling, among others, put these professionals at high risk of MSDs [ 13 ]. Research has established that MSDs are especially common among health professionals in Ghana due to the nature of their jobs[ 2 ]. According to the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, personal, organisational and technical factors combine to cause MSDs [ 13 ]. They report that the most prevalent MSD is Low Back Pain (LBP), although shoulder, wrist, neck, and knee pains are very common [ 14 ]. Whilst the frequency of MSDs among healthcare professionals in developed countries and some regions of Africa has been documented [ 2 , 15 ], there is limited knowledge of its prevalence among healthcare professionals in Ghana. Most MSD-related studies in Ghana have focused on other sectors that are largely considered to involve physical activities, such as mining [ 16 ], construction workers [ 17 ], and commercial car divers [ 18 ]. The few studies conducted among healthcare workers have focused mainly on nurses and midwives, rather than including the different cadres of healthcare professionals in Ghana [ 2 , 19 ]. Whilst these earlier studies provide key information about MSDs among certain categories of workers, they, however, provide limited understanding of their prevalence among other key cadres of healthcare professionals, including doctors, dentists, pharmacists, radiographers, anaesthetists, physiotherapists, biomedical scientists, and sonographers, among others. The roles played by these different cadres of health professionals also expose them to MSDs. Therefore, in this study, we bridge this knowledge gap by comprehensively investigating the ergonomic risk factors and the frequency of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) among healthcare professionals in Ghana. Methods Study settings The study was conducted in the Ledzokuku-Krowor Municipal Assembly (LEKMA) Hospital, located in the Ledzokuku Municipal of the Greater Accra region of Ghana. This is a publicly funded healthcare facility located in a coastal settlement with a population of 226,527 [ 20 ]. The hospital is a 100-bed capacity health facility established as part of the Ghana-China collaboration. It is equipped with all key specialities, including obstetrics and gynaecology, paediatric care, otolaryngology, laboratory, emergency department, internal medicine, surgery, and primary care departments, among others. The hospital also has a staff of over 400, comprising both clinical and non-clinical staff. The average daily outpatient attendance is about 200 patients per day. In addition to orthodox medicine, the hospital offers other non-orthodox clinical services such as traditional herbal medicine – for example, acupuncture and herbal pharmacy [ 21 , 22 ]. The selection of LEKMA Hospital for this study was primarily due to the availability of various cadres of healthcare professionals who were willing to support the study. The study population consisted of all healthcare professionals at LEKMA hospital, including nurses, midwives, medical doctors, anaesthetists, pharmacists, biomedical scientists, radiographers, physiotherapists, sonographers, and occupational therapists, among others. Design and Sampling This study employed a descriptive cross-sectional design using quantitative approaches to investigate the ergonomic risk factors and frequency of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) among healthcare workers in Ghana. Data were collected using questionnaires. These were distributed to different cadres of health workers within the hospital using stratified sampling. Stratified sampling ensured all key cadres of health workers were involved in the study. Within each stratum, health professionals were randomly selected. Questionnaires were distributed to participants during their free working hours to ensure they did not interfere with their official duties. The study participants included nurses/midwives, medical doctors, dentists, pharmacists, anaesthetists, biomedical scientists, sonographers, radiographers, and physiotherapists. Data Collection Data were collected from various cadres of healthcare workers between January and March 2024 using a participant/respondent self-administered structured questionnaire consisting of closed-ended questions. The questionnaire adapted Cornell’s Musculoskeletal Discomfort Questionnaire (CMDQ) [ 23 ] to assess the frequency of work-related musculoskeletal pain, and aspects that affect other parts of the human body. Haig and colleagues developed this tool to determine the standing and sitting posture of men and women in three different stages: (1) frequency of discomfort; (2) discomfort intensity; (3) the impact on adjusted operating power. The CMDQ tool mainly assesses 12 organs of the human body, namely the neck, shoulders, upper back, upper arms, lower back, forearms, wrists, hips, thighs, knees, and lower back and leg). The questionnaire used for this study involved a three-point Likert scale (Agree, Disagree, and Neutral) and dichotomous answers (Yes and No). The questionnaire starts by soliciting demographic information from participants, followed by the prevalence of ergonomic and musculoskeletal disorders; workers' knowledge and attitudes about ergonomic and musculoskeletal disorders; ergonomic risk factors and other factors linked to musculoskeletal disorders; and related relieving measures. Data Analysis Data input and analysis were done using SPSS version 26.0. Data were analysed using descriptive statistical methods (descriptive analysis), such as frequency distribution. Inferential analyses, such as hypothesis tests and association tests, were conducted to assess the relationship between key variables. Frequency distributions were summarised in tables and charts for nominal and ordinal data. Measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) for continuous variables were determined. Tests of hypothesis and associations were done to assess the relationship or associations between variables. The association between the dependent variable and other independent variables was examined using a logistic regression analysis with a significance threshold (p < 0.05). Ethical Considerations The study received ethical approval from the Ghana Health Service Ethical Review Board (GHS-ERC 069/04/23) prior to the commencement of data collection. All participants provided written informed consent before their involvement in the study. The study used unique identifiers for respondents to ensure their anonymity. In addition, data collection was conducted solely to answer the research question in a manner that maximized the privacy and confidentiality of respondents. All procedures adhered to the principles of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its subsequent revisions. Results A total of 205 questionnaires were distributed, of which 192 were completed, resulting in a final response rate of 93.7%. Among the 192 respondents, 33.9% were aged 18–29 years, 38.6% were aged 30–39 years, 23.9% were aged 40–49 years, and 6.2% were aged 50–59 years. The majority of respondents (62.3%) were married, 29.9% were single or never married, 5.7% were separated, and 2.1% were widowed. Regarding educational status, 52.1% held a diploma or a first degree, 8.1% had completed secondary education, 18% had obtained a professional certificate, while 21.8% held a master's degree or higher. Most participants were nurses or midwives (51.0%), followed by doctors (12%), biomedical scientists (8.9%), with sonographers comprising the smallest group at 2.1%. Details are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Characteristics of respondents (N = 192) Frequency (n = 192) Percentage (%) Age 18–29 years 65 33.9 30–39 years 74 38.6 40–49 years 46 23.9 50–59 years 7 3.6 Gender Female 135 70.3 Male 57 29.7 Marital status Single/never married 57 29.9 Married 120 62.3 Separated 11 5.7 Widowed 4 2.1 Educational level Diploma/First degree 100 52.1 Second degree 15 8.1 Certificate 34 18.0 Masters degree or above 43 21.8 Professional cadre Nurses/Midwives 98 51.0 Medical doctors 23 12.0 Dentists 8 4.2 Anaesthetists 11 5.7 Radiographers 9 4.7 Biomedical Scientists 17 8.9 Pharmacists 11 5.7 Physiotherapists/physiotherapy technicians 11 5.7 Sonographers 4 2.1 Prevalence of ergonomic and musculoskeletal disorders among workers The results regarding the prevalence of MSDs are presented in Table 2 . Overall, all respondents (100%) reported experiencing MSDs in their line of work, although the intensity of pain varies. While 37.5% of the respondents experienced very severe pain or discomfort due to MSD, 35.7% indicated they had moderate pain, and 26.8% experienced mild pain. Regarding symptoms of MSD or experiences of pain and discomfort among respondents, participants noted that a week prior to data collection, they had experienced aches, pain, and discomfort in the following body parts: knees (51.4%), neck (89.3%), lower and upper back (90.7%), shoulders (55%), hands and wrists (38.2%), hips/thighs (64.6%), and arms (47.1%), and these symptoms were felt at least once or twice a week. Details are shown in Table 2 : Table 2 Prevalence of ergonomic and musculoskeletal disorders among healthcare workers Frequency (n = 192) Percentage (%) Experience of Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD) in your work Yes 192 100.0 Grade of intensity of the pain or discomfort Moderate 69 35.7 Severe 72 37.5 Mild 51 26.8 Experience ache, pain, discomfort during the last work week Knees 72 51.4 Neck 125 89.3 Lower and upper back 127 90.7 Shoulders 77 55.0 Hand and wrist 54 38.2 Hips/thighs 91 64.6 Arms 66 47.1 How uncomfortable is the ache, pain, or discomfort experienced Lower and upper back Moderately uncomfortable 31 15.9 Very uncomfortable 161 84.1 Neck Moderately uncomfortable 40 20.6 Very uncomfortable 152 79.4 How uncomfortable is ache, pain, discomfort, experienced Knees Slightly uncomfortable 16 8.1 Very uncomfortable 125 65.1 Moderately uncomfortable 51 26.8 Shoulders Slightly uncomfortable 14 7.0 Very uncomfortable 127 66.1 Moderately uncomfortable 51 26.8 Hand and wrist Very uncomfortable 63 33.1 Moderately uncomfortable 77 40.1 Slightly uncomfortable 52 26.8 Hips/thighs Slightly uncomfortable 87 45.3 Very uncomfortable 54 27.9 Moderately uncomfortable 51 26.8 Arms Very uncomfortable 50 26.0 Moderately uncomfortable 91 47.1 Slightly uncomfortable 51 26.8 How experience of ache, pain, discomfort, interfere with ability to work Knees Substantially interfered 115 60.2 Slightly interfered 77 39.8 Neck Slightly interfered 87 45.3 Substantially interfered 105 54.7 Lower and upper back Substantially interfered 145 75.8 Slightly interfered 47 24.2 Shoulders Substantially interfered 126 65.9 Slightly interfered 45 23.4 Not at all 21 10.7 Hand and wrist Substantially interfered 17 8.9 Slightly interfered 110 57.0 Not at all 65 34.1 Hips/thighs Substantially interfered 29 15.1 Slightly interfered 97 50.8 Not at all 66 34.1 Arms Substantially interfered 39 20.3 Slightly interfered 87 45.6 Not at all 66 34.1 Type of Musculoskeletal Disorder injury incurred Neuropathy 13 7.0 Vertebral disc involvement 17 8.9 Degeneration 22 11.2 Ligament sprain 62 32.3 Muscle strain 78 40.6 Knowledge and attitude towards ergonomic risk factors of MSDs The study assessed participants' knowledge and attitudes towards ergonomic risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders. Results showed that most respondents (74%) knew about ergonomic risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders, while 26% had no knowledge of it. Respondents who knew about ergonomic risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders indicated that their sources of information were mainly from healthcare professionals or training (92.7%), internet (4.7%), and media (TV, radio; 2.6%). The study respondents further posited that ergonomic risk factors for MSDs included prolonged working hours (8.9%), awkward posture (58.3%), repetitive movements (13.5%), and excessive force (19.3%). The details are shown in Table 3 : Table 3 Knowledge and attitude of workers towards ergonomic risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders Frequency (n = 192) Percentage (%) Knowledge about ergonomic risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders Yes 142 74.0 No 50 26.0 Source of information Healthcare professional/training 178 92.7 Internet 9 4.7 Media (TV, radio) 5 2.6 Ergonomic risk factors for MSDs Awkward posture 112 58.3 Repetitive movements 26 13.5 Excessive force 37 19.3 Prolong working hours 17 8.9 Workplace provisions for an ergonomic environment that fits my physical capabilities and limitations No 25 13.0 Yes 167 87.0 Workplace makes provisions for an ergonomic environment that ensures my safety of work, which does not promote Musculoskeletal Disorders No 34 18.0 Yes 158 82.0 Factors associated with musculoskeletal disorders As shown in Table 4 , the study results showed that majority of the respondents (97.4%) agreed that bending or twisting as well as manual liftings (98.2%) were major causes of MSDs among health workers. Again, 88.5% also agreed that maintaining a position for a long period of time, such as standing, sitting, and kneeling, was a key cause of MSDs among health workers. The other factors included performing repetitive tasks (87.5%), stretching away from the body (91.1%), lifting items (90.4%), carrying heavy loads (95.3%), and pushing or pulling (95.8%). Table 4 Factors associated with musculoskeletal disorders Frequency (n = 192) Percentage (%) Bending or twisting Agree 187 97.4 Disagree 5 2.6 Manual lifting Agree 188 98.2 Disagree 4 1.8 Maintaining a position for a long period of time such as standing, sitting, and kneeling Agree 170 88.5 Disagree 22 11.5 Performing repetitive tasks Agree 168 87.5 Disagree 23 12.0 Neutral 1 .5 Stretching away from the body Agree 175 91.1 Disagree 17 8.9 Lifting items Agree 173 90.4 Disagree 19 9.6 Carrying heavy loads Agree 183 95.3 Disagree 9 4.7 Pushing or pulling Agree 184 95.8 Disagree 8 4.2 Mitigating measures employed by health workers to improve MSDs Results from the study showed that, as part of efforts to reduce MSDs among health workers, 81.5% of the respondents agreed that they request help from other colleagues, especially when lifting patients or handling heavy objects. Additionally, 60.9% indicated that they adapt their posture as part of measures to avoid MSDs, while 97.7% reported warming up and stretching before starting manual work. Again, 92.7% of the participants indicated they break regularly to stretch, whilst 97.7% also stated they pause a particular work, especially if workload increases or they note that it is likely to cause pain or discomfort. The details are shown in Table 5 : Table 5 Measures used by health workers to reduce the occurrence of MSDs Frequency (n = 192) Percentage (%) I get help from other colleagues to handle heavy objects or loads or patients Agree 156 81.5 Disagree 36 18.5 I change my posture Agree 117 60.9 Disagree 75 39.1 I warm up and stretch before starting manual work Agree 187 97.7 Disagree 5 2.3 I break regularly in order to stretch and change my posture Agree 178 92.7 Disagree 14 7.3 Association between demographic variables and MSDs The results of the logistic regression analysis on demographic variables and MSDs revealed that respondents of older ages were more likely to have MSDs than those of younger ages (Odds Ratio = 1.87; 95% CI = 1.62, 2.21; p = 0.002). Additionally, it was found that females were more likely to develop MSDs than males (Odds Ratio = 1.66; 95% CI = 1.49, 1.89; p = 0.001). The findings also indicated that respondents with a diploma were more likely to have MSDs than those with higher education (Odds Ratio = 1.85; 95% CI = 1.49, 2.53; p = 0.021). Most diploma holders were nurses or lower staff within the health facility and were more likely to be involved in physical or manual work than the seniors. The results are shown in Table 6 : Table 6 Association between demographic variables and MSDs Characteristic OR 1 95% CI 1 p-value Age category 0.002 20–29 years — — 30–39 years 1.39 1.22, 1.69 40–49 years 1.73 1.51, 2.06 50–59 years 1.87 1.62, 2.21 Gender 0.001 Male — — Female 1.66 1.49, 1.89 Educational level 0.021 Certificate — — Second degree 1.51 1.15, 2.33 First degree 1.76 1.24, 2.54 Diploma 1.85 1.49, 2.53 Marital status 0.61 Single — — Married 0.71 0.65, 1.29 Co-habiting 0.65 0.42, 1.01 Divorced 0.91 0.65, 1.29 Widowed 0.40 0.26, 0.62 Discussions A health professional’s role largely involves putting extra pressure on their musculoskeletal system. Therefore, knowledge of the ergonomic risk factors associated with their job and the prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) is crucial for improving their health and occupational safety. This study aimed to investigate the ergonomic risk factors associated with health professionals and the overall prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) among healthcare workers in Ghana. Our study findings revealed a very high incidence of MSDs among health professionals in Ghana, with all health professionals (100%) who participated in this study confirming to have experienced one form of MSD over the last one or two weeks prior to our data collection. This finding reveals a higher incidence of MSDs in Ghana compared to findings from a systematic review conducted by Jacquier-Bret and Gorce, which reported a 75% prevalence of MSDs among healthcare professionals in Europe [ 24 ]. The higher incidence in Ghana could be largely attributed to the high involvement of physical strength in the duties of many healthcare professionals in Ghana. For instance, doctors, anaesthetists, and theatre nurses in Ghana are required to manually lift patients to and from theatre beds. This manual activity, which could be a key source of MSD among healthcare professionals, may be avoided with the use of a patient transfer board – although are largely unavailable in many hospitals in Ghana [ 25 ]. Our study findings also showed differences in pain intensity – with majority of the participants indicating moderate (37.5%) to severe (35.7%) pains. As noted in previous studies [ 3 , 19 ], those suffering from MSDs with moderate to severe discomfort or pains are more likely to seek medical assistance or stay away from work. In the case of Ghana, this worsens the already decreasing health workforce in many health facilities – thus affecting quality of health care delivery. Using the CMDQ framework, our findings again showed that most MSDs affected the lower and upper back (90.7%), neck (89.3%), shoulders (55%), knees (51.4%), hand and wrist (38.2%), hips/thighs (64.6%) and arms (47.1%). Participants indicated these happened to them at least once or twice in the last few weeks. The findings are largely consistent with other studies conducted among healthcare professionals across Europe, Asia and Africa [ 24 , 25 ]. Given the setup of the public health sector in Ghana, this finding could particularly give an insight into the manual handling of patients across many public hospitals in the country – including lifting patients to/from ward or theatre bed, pushing patients on trolleys or wheelchairs, and standing for long periods, among others. While the finding portrays the prevalent nature of MSDs among healthcare professionals, it also calls for urgent action to ensure many healthcare professionals do not end up with permanent sickness while caring for patients. The finding also supports other studies by Serranheira et al. and Woodman et al, which revealed that health professionals have the highest rates of work-related bodily pain [ 7 , 10 ]. Serranheira et al. particularly reported that lower back pain causes about 39% of all occupational diseases and absenteeism in Europe [ 7 ]. A study conducted by Garzillo et al. and Johnson et al. also shows that MSDs related to the lower back, neck, and shoulder among healthcare workers are caused mainly by patient handling [ 26 , 27 ]. Whilst MSDs are very prevalent among health workers in Ghana, Ali et.al note that this occupational hazard has received little attention [ 3 ]. In Europe, MSDs have caused the early retirement of some health workers or discouraged others from working in the hospital or the clinical space. Therefore, the high prevalence of MSDs among Ghanaian health workers calls for urgent action to improve the ergonomic working environment in all health facilities and ensure a reduction in the incidence of MSDs. The study also assessed the knowledge and attitude of health workers towards MSDs. The findings showed most respondents (74%) knew about ergonomic risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders, whilst 26% did not know of it. Previous studies [ 2 , 19 ] have indicated that most health workers have a high knowledge of MSDs due to their training and expertise. However, our study findings showed a significant number of health workers (26%) did not know about MSDs – which still raises major concerns. While we acknowledge that they may not be in the majority, we note from the study by Albanesi et al, that such awareness gaps among healthcare workers on MSDs are still concerning, especially if we prioritise lowering their incidence of MSDs [ 28 ]. Therefore, much effort is required to increase awareness and improve knowledge of ergonomics and MSDs among all healthcare professionals. In mitigating the increasing incidence of MSDs and ergonomic risk factors among healthcare professionals, our study noted that many of them resort to seeking assistance from colleagues in handling certain activities, such as lifting or handling heavy objects or patients, or taking intermittent breaks and warm-up stretches. These mitigating strategies have been confirmed by similar studies as effective in reducing MSDs [ 29 – 32 ]. Finally, we noted that the risk of MSDs increases in any part of the human body, especially with age, lower educational level, or among females. Thus, a more targeted approach towards these demographic categories will be key in reducing the incidence of MSDs among health workers. Limitations of the study While our study findings is representative of all healthcare professionals in Ghana, we, however, note that the study could have benefitted from a larger sample size involving more hospitals and using different research methodologies other than only a quantitative method. Notwithstanding, the study ensured all major cadres of health professionals were captured, especially the clinical and allied health workers. Future research may consider employing both quantitative and qualitative methods to expand the scope of the findings. Finally, we note that this study was restricted to one public hospital, and it would be important to conduct a similar study in a private healthcare facility to understand the extent to which the prevalence and risk factors are similar or otherwise and whether the public sector is better equipped than the private sector or vice versa. Conclusion The findings of this study demonstrate a high prevalence of MSDs among health professionals in Ghana. While we note that the health professional’s role may involve putting extra pressure on their musculoskeletal system, it is also important to ensure measures are in place to reduce their exposure to MSDs, particularly by providing an ergonomically friendly environment – although this has received little attention from the main stakeholders in the healthcare sector. Based on our findings, we strongly recommend significant investments in modern technology and proper retooling of the healthcare sector to reduce the routine physical or manual activities performed by healthcare professionals. This will significantly motivate many young healthcare professionals who may feel demotivated by the debilitating effects of MSDs on many senior healthcare professionals in Ghana. Finally, we recommend the need for regular occupational health and safety training for all healthcare professionals to enhance their knowledge of MSDs and their preventive techniques. Abbreviations MSD Musculoskeletal Disorder LBP Low Back Pain LEKMA Ledzokuku-Krowor Municipal Assembly CMDQ Cornell’s Musculoskeletal Discomfort Questionnaire Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate The study received ethical approval from the Ghana Health Service Ethical Review Board (GHS-ERC 069/04/23). Participation in this study was voluntary, and participants were required to provide informed consent. They were also free to withdraw at any point during the process. Data were collected face-to-face. We ensured anonymity and we guaranteed that all information would remain confidential and not be shared with third parties. The data will be used solely for this study and subsequent analysis. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials The dataset used and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Funding The study received no funding. Authors’ contributions SEA: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Study administration, Resources, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MKA: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Study administration, Resources, Software, Validation. AF: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, review & editing. EK: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, review & editing. FAOM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, review & editing: SKA: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, review & editing: AKK: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, review & editing. Acknowledgement The authors sincerely thank the management and staff of LEKMA Hospital, Ghana, for their support and cooperation during the study. 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Jacquier-Bret J, Gorce P: Prevalence of body area work-related musculoskeletal disorders among healthcare professionals: a systematic review . International journal of environmental research and public health 2023, 20 (1):841. Konlan KD, Asampong E, Dako-Gyeke P, Glozah FN: Burnout and allostatic load among health workers engaged in human resourced-constrained hospitals in Accra, Ghana . BMC Health Services Research 2022, 22 (1):1163. Garzillo EM, Monaco MGL, Corvino AR, D’ancicco F, Feola D, Della Ventura D, Miraglia N, Lamberti M: Healthcare workers and manual patient handling: A pilot study for interdisciplinary training . International journal of environmental research and public health 2020, 17 (14):4971. Johnson K, Swinton P, Pavlova A, Cooper K: Manual patient handling in the healthcare setting: a scoping review . Physiotherapy 2023, 120 :60-77. Albanesi B, Piredda M, Bravi M, Bressi F, Gualandi R, Marchetti A, Facchinetti G, Ianni A, Cordella F, Zollo L: Interventions to prevent and reduce work-related musculoskeletal injuries and pain among healthcare professionals. A comprehensive systematic review of the literature . Journal of safety research 2022, 82 :124-143. Krishnan KS, Raju G, Shawkataly O: Prevalence of work-related musculoskeletal disorders: Psychological and physical risk factors . International journal of environmental research and public health 2021, 18 (17):9361. Zhao R, Rothchild E, Wang F, Nash D, Greige N, Lala B, Ricci JA: Prevalence, Prevention, and Treatment of Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders Among Microsurgeons . Journal of reconstructive microsurgery 2023, 39 (05):374-382. Hallman DM, Gupta N, Bergamin Januario L, Holtermann A: Work-time compositions of physical behaviors and trajectories of sick leave due to musculoskeletal pain . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18 (4):1508. Patterson F, Miralami R, Tansey KE, Prabhu RK, Priddy LB: Deleterious effects of whole ‐body vibration on the spine: A review of in vivo, ex vivo, and in vitro models . Animal Models and Experimental Medicine 2021, 4 (2):77-86. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6871062","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":485809076,"identity":"10dc1e43-3fcc-4753-bace-1ab3f1d538c6","order_by":0,"name":"Samuel Egyakwa Ankomah","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA4ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJACxgYgYcDeAOewEamF5wDJWiQSiNQi39787OGMim3y5pJvDD/8YLCR3XCA/doDfFoMzhwzN9xw5rbhztk5xpI9DGnGGw7wlBvg1SKRYCb5sO0244bbOWbMDAyHE4Fa0iTwOmz+828gLfYbbp4BaflPWAvDDR4zyY1ttxM3ABlALQeAWtiP4dVicCanTHLGmdvJG86kFUv2GCQbzzzMw4bfYe3Ht0n2VNy23XD88MYPPyrsZPuOtz/D7zA0S4GYmQdvgGEF7A9I1jIKRsEoGAXDGgAAShFPxaAs4m0AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Cape Coast","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Samuel","middleName":"Egyakwa","lastName":"Ankomah","suffix":""},{"id":485809077,"identity":"33d104a4-7faf-4571-b43d-4bee7c30a9e3","order_by":1,"name":"Michael Kyei Amoah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Presbyterian University College","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Michael","middleName":"Kyei","lastName":"Amoah","suffix":""},{"id":485809078,"identity":"332af951-57b9-4b8b-b61d-42cf028f20a7","order_by":2,"name":"Adam Fusheini","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Otago","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adam","middleName":"","lastName":"Fusheini","suffix":""},{"id":485809079,"identity":"317f0f7d-18e6-431a-b95e-c6849fcfb736","order_by":3,"name":"Emmanuel Kumah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Emmanuel","middleName":"","lastName":"Kumah","suffix":""},{"id":485809080,"identity":"fb5ce59b-2946-42a3-94fc-faa4efc5fa56","order_by":4,"name":"Foster Abrampa Opoku Mensah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Cape Coast","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Foster","middleName":"Abrampa Opoku","lastName":"Mensah","suffix":""},{"id":485809081,"identity":"ff223ad1-9ba6-4647-ae23-58209bad8622","order_by":5,"name":"Samuel Kofi Agyei","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Presbyterian University College","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Samuel","middleName":"Kofi","lastName":"Agyei","suffix":""},{"id":485809082,"identity":"031f808d-5452-43b7-ac6c-c4b7cc560ca8","order_by":6,"name":"Akua Kusiwaa Karikari","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Akua","middleName":"Kusiwaa","lastName":"Karikari","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-11 10:53:36","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6871062/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6871062/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":86927443,"identity":"5f0c7db0-322d-4f34-90fe-a86a42991b58","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-17 09:02:01","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2416181,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6871062/v1/8fab5ec6-f104-4fb9-97b0-5d1e33577dfe.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Ergonomic risk factors and musculoskeletal disorders among healthcare professionals in Ghana","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe incidence of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) have been increasing \u0026ndash; with about 1.63\u0026nbsp;billion people affected worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. This is particularly worse in many Sub-Saharan African countries like Ghana, where work activities are mostly done manually or involve physical human strength [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Working in an ergonomically friendly environment encourages production efficiency and also promotes comfort, safety, and reduces the risk of musculoskeletal disorders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Ergonomics is, therefore, the study of people's interactions with their working environments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. It includes adapting to work environments by developing tasks, tools, and equipment that reduce physical and manual involvement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. It is the study of how a workplace is built to match a worker's needs to produce a desired product at a low cost in terms of time, energy, safety, health, and increased job satisfaction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, efforts have been made in many sub-Saharan African countries to reduce the physical involvement of human strength in most workplaces. However, many of these organisations, especially in the health sector, have not been able to acquire the required technology and equipment to achieve this. As a result, workplace injury and musculoskeletal disorders are the most frequently reported causes of health worker absenteeism in many health facilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. The Lancet reports that about 494\u0026nbsp;million individuals suffer MSDs annually \u0026ndash; with a significant number of these being health workers from Sub-Saharan Africa [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Whilst MSDs contribute a substantial financial burden on healthcare organisations, it is also the most common workplace injury and morbidity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe global prevalence of MSDs among nurses and midwives alone is approximately 17%, with an annual prevalence of 40\u0026ndash;50% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. MSDs are associated with the performance of highly repetitive tasks, awkward or static postures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. The physical demands on healthcare workers, which include all ranges of movement and awkward postures to carry out procedures either on or around the patient, such as bathing, wound dressing, drug administration, and transferring patients by lifting or wheeling, among others, put these professionals at high risk of MSDs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch has established that MSDs are especially common among health professionals in Ghana due to the nature of their jobs[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. According to the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, personal, organisational and technical factors combine to cause MSDs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. They report that the most prevalent MSD is Low Back Pain (LBP), although shoulder, wrist, neck, and knee pains are very common [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhilst the frequency of MSDs among healthcare professionals in developed countries and some regions of Africa has been documented [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], there is limited knowledge of its prevalence among healthcare professionals in Ghana. Most MSD-related studies in Ghana have focused on other sectors that are largely considered to involve physical activities, such as mining [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], construction workers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], and commercial car divers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. The few studies conducted among healthcare workers have focused mainly on nurses and midwives, rather than including the different cadres of healthcare professionals in Ghana [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Whilst these earlier studies provide key information about MSDs among certain categories of workers, they, however, provide limited understanding of their prevalence among other key cadres of healthcare professionals, including doctors, dentists, pharmacists, radiographers, anaesthetists, physiotherapists, biomedical scientists, and sonographers, among others. The roles played by these different cadres of health professionals also expose them to MSDs. Therefore, in this study, we bridge this knowledge gap by comprehensively investigating the ergonomic risk factors and the frequency of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) among healthcare professionals in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudy settings\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in the Ledzokuku-Krowor Municipal Assembly (LEKMA) Hospital, located in the Ledzokuku Municipal of the Greater Accra region of Ghana. This is a publicly funded healthcare facility located in a coastal settlement with a population of 226,527 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe hospital is a 100-bed capacity health facility established as part of the Ghana-China collaboration. It is equipped with all key specialities, including obstetrics and gynaecology, paediatric care, otolaryngology, laboratory, emergency department, internal medicine, surgery, and primary care departments, among others. The hospital also has a staff of over 400, comprising both clinical and non-clinical staff. The average daily outpatient attendance is about 200 patients per day. In addition to orthodox medicine, the hospital offers other non-orthodox clinical services such as traditional herbal medicine \u0026ndash; for example, acupuncture and herbal pharmacy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe selection of LEKMA Hospital for this study was primarily due to the availability of various cadres of healthcare professionals who were willing to support the study. The study population consisted of all healthcare professionals at LEKMA hospital, including nurses, midwives, medical doctors, anaesthetists, pharmacists, biomedical scientists, radiographers, physiotherapists, sonographers, and occupational therapists, among others.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDesign and Sampling\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a descriptive cross-sectional design using quantitative approaches to investigate the ergonomic risk factors and frequency of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) among healthcare workers in Ghana. Data were collected using questionnaires. These were distributed to different cadres of health workers within the hospital using stratified sampling. Stratified sampling ensured all key cadres of health workers were involved in the study. Within each stratum, health professionals were randomly selected. Questionnaires were distributed to participants during their free working hours to ensure they did not interfere with their official duties. The study participants included nurses/midwives, medical doctors, dentists, pharmacists, anaesthetists, biomedical scientists, sonographers, radiographers, and physiotherapists.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were collected from various cadres of healthcare workers between January and March 2024 using a participant/respondent self-administered structured questionnaire consisting of closed-ended questions. The questionnaire adapted Cornell\u0026rsquo;s Musculoskeletal Discomfort Questionnaire (CMDQ) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] to assess the frequency of work-related musculoskeletal pain, and aspects that affect other parts of the human body. Haig and colleagues developed this tool to determine the standing and sitting posture of men and women in three different stages: (1) frequency of discomfort; (2) discomfort intensity; (3) the impact on adjusted operating power. The CMDQ tool mainly assesses 12 organs of the human body, namely the neck, shoulders, upper back, upper arms, lower back, forearms, wrists, hips, thighs, knees, and lower back and leg). The questionnaire used for this study involved a three-point Likert scale (Agree, Disagree, and Neutral) and dichotomous answers (Yes and No). The questionnaire starts by soliciting demographic information from participants, followed by the prevalence of ergonomic and musculoskeletal disorders; workers' knowledge and attitudes about ergonomic and musculoskeletal disorders; ergonomic risk factors and other factors linked to musculoskeletal disorders; and related relieving measures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData input and analysis were done using SPSS version 26.0. Data were analysed using descriptive statistical methods (descriptive analysis), such as frequency distribution. Inferential analyses, such as hypothesis tests and association tests, were conducted to assess the relationship between key variables. Frequency distributions were summarised in tables and charts for nominal and ordinal data. Measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) for continuous variables were determined. Tests of hypothesis and associations were done to assess the relationship or associations between variables. The association between the dependent variable and other independent variables was examined using a logistic regression analysis with a significance threshold (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEthical Considerations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e The study received ethical approval from the Ghana Health Service Ethical Review Board (GHS-ERC 069/04/23) prior to the commencement of data collection. All participants provided written informed consent before their involvement in the study. The study used unique identifiers for respondents to ensure their anonymity. In addition, data collection was conducted solely to answer the research question in a manner that maximized the privacy and confidentiality of respondents. All procedures adhered to the principles of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its subsequent revisions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eA total of 205 questionnaires were distributed, of which 192 were completed, resulting in a final response rate of 93.7%. Among the 192 respondents, 33.9% were aged 18\u0026ndash;29 years, 38.6% were aged 30\u0026ndash;39 years, 23.9% were aged 40\u0026ndash;49 years, and 6.2% were aged 50\u0026ndash;59 years. The majority of respondents (62.3%) were married, 29.9% were single or never married, 5.7% were separated, and 2.1% were widowed. Regarding educational status, 52.1% held a diploma or a first degree, 8.1% had completed secondary education, 18% had obtained a professional certificate, while 21.8% held a master's degree or higher. Most participants were nurses or midwives (51.0%), followed by doctors (12%), biomedical scientists (8.9%), with sonographers comprising the smallest group at 2.1%. Details are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of respondents (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;192)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrequency (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;192)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u0026ndash;29 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;39 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;49 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;59 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGender\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMarital status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSingle/never married\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeparated\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWidowed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducational level\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiploma/First degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCertificate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMasters degree or above\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProfessional cadre\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNurses/Midwives\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedical doctors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDentists\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnaesthetists\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRadiographers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBiomedical Scientists\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePharmacists\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhysiotherapists/physiotherapy technicians\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSonographers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePrevalence of ergonomic and musculoskeletal disorders among workers\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results regarding the prevalence of MSDs are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Overall, all respondents (100%) reported experiencing MSDs in their line of work, although the intensity of pain varies. While 37.5% of the respondents experienced very severe pain or discomfort due to MSD, 35.7% indicated they had moderate pain, and 26.8% experienced mild pain. Regarding symptoms of MSD or experiences of pain and discomfort among respondents, participants noted that a week prior to data collection, they had experienced aches, pain, and discomfort in the following body parts: knees (51.4%), neck (89.3%), lower and upper back (90.7%), shoulders (55%), hands and wrists (38.2%), hips/thighs (64.6%), and arms (47.1%), and these symptoms were felt at least once or twice a week. Details are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevalence of ergonomic and musculoskeletal disorders among healthcare workers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrequency (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;192)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperience of Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD) in your work\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e192\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrade of intensity of the pain or discomfort\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSevere\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMild\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperience ache, pain, discomfort during the last work week\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKnees\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeck\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower and upper back\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e127\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShoulders\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHand and wrist\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHips/thighs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow uncomfortable is the ache, pain, or discomfort experienced\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower and upper back\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerately uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVery uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e161\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e84.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeck\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerately uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVery uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e152\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow uncomfortable is ache, pain, discomfort, experienced\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKnees\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVery uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerately uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShoulders\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVery uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e127\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerately uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHand and wrist\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVery uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerately uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHips/thighs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVery uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerately uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVery uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerately uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly uncomfortable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow experience of ache, pain, discomfort, interfere with ability to work\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKnees\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubstantially interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeck\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubstantially interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower and upper back\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubstantially interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e145\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShoulders\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubstantially interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e126\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot at all\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHand and wrist\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubstantially interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot at all\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHips/thighs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubstantially interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot at all\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubstantially interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly interfered\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot at all\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eType of Musculoskeletal Disorder injury incurred\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeuropathy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVertebral disc involvement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDegeneration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLigament sprain\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMuscle strain\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eKnowledge and attitude towards ergonomic risk factors of MSDs\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study assessed participants' knowledge and attitudes towards ergonomic risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders. Results showed that most respondents (74%) knew about ergonomic risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders, while 26% had no knowledge of it. Respondents who knew about ergonomic risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders indicated that their sources of information were mainly from healthcare professionals or training (92.7%), internet (4.7%), and media (TV, radio; 2.6%). The study respondents further posited that ergonomic risk factors for MSDs included prolonged working hours (8.9%), awkward posture (58.3%), repetitive movements (13.5%), and excessive force (19.3%). The details are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKnowledge and attitude of workers towards ergonomic risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrequency (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;192)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKnowledge about ergonomic risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e142\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSource of information\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHealthcare professional/training\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInternet\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedia (TV, radio)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eErgonomic risk factors for MSDs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAwkward posture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRepetitive movements\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExcessive force\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProlong working hours\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorkplace provisions for an ergonomic environment that fits my physical capabilities and limitations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e167\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorkplace makes provisions for an ergonomic environment that ensures my safety of work, which does not promote Musculoskeletal Disorders\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e158\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFactors associated with musculoskeletal disorders\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the study results showed that majority of the respondents (97.4%) agreed that bending or twisting as well as manual liftings (98.2%) were major causes of MSDs among health workers. Again, 88.5% also agreed that maintaining a position for a long period of time, such as standing, sitting, and kneeling, was a key cause of MSDs among health workers. The other factors included performing repetitive tasks (87.5%), stretching away from the body (91.1%), lifting items (90.4%), carrying heavy loads (95.3%), and pushing or pulling (95.8%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFactors associated with musculoskeletal disorders\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrequency (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;192)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBending or twisting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e187\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e97.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManual lifting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e188\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaintaining a position for a long period of time such as standing, sitting, and kneeling\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerforming repetitive tasks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e168\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeutral\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStretching away from the body\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e175\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLifting items\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e173\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarrying heavy loads\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e183\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePushing or pulling\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e184\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMitigating measures employed by health workers to improve MSDs\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eResults from the study showed that, as part of efforts to reduce MSDs among health workers, 81.5% of the respondents agreed that they request help from other colleagues, especially when lifting patients or handling heavy objects. Additionally, 60.9% indicated that they adapt their posture as part of measures to avoid MSDs, while 97.7% reported warming up and stretching before starting manual work. Again, 92.7% of the participants indicated they break regularly to stretch, whilst 97.7% also stated they pause a particular work, especially if workload increases or they note that it is likely to cause pain or discomfort. The details are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeasures used by health workers to reduce the occurrence of MSDs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrequency (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;192)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI get help from other colleagues to handle heavy objects or loads or patients\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e156\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI change my posture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e117\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI warm up and stretch before starting manual work\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e187\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e97.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI break regularly in order to stretch and change my posture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAssociation between demographic variables and MSDs\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of the logistic regression analysis on demographic variables and MSDs revealed that respondents of older ages were more likely to have MSDs than those of younger ages (Odds Ratio\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.87; 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.62, 2.21; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002). Additionally, it was found that females were more likely to develop MSDs than males (Odds Ratio\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.66; 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.49, 1.89; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001). The findings also indicated that respondents with a diploma were more likely to have MSDs than those with higher education (Odds Ratio\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.85; 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.49, 2.53; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.021). Most diploma holders were nurses or lower staff within the health facility and were more likely to be involved in physical or manual work than the seniors. The results are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAssociation between demographic variables and MSDs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCharacteristic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOR\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge category\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;29 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;39 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.22, 1.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;49 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.51, 2.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;59 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.62, 2.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.49, 1.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducational level\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCertificate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.15, 2.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.24, 2.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiploma\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.49, 2.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65, 1.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCo-habiting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.42, 1.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDivorced\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65, 1.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWidowed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.26, 0.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003eA health professional\u0026rsquo;s role largely involves putting extra pressure on their musculoskeletal system. Therefore, knowledge of the ergonomic risk factors associated with their job and the prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) is crucial for improving their health and occupational safety. This study aimed to investigate the ergonomic risk factors associated with health professionals and the overall prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) among healthcare workers in Ghana. Our study findings revealed a very high incidence of MSDs among health professionals in Ghana, with all health professionals (100%) who participated in this study confirming to have experienced one form of MSD over the last one or two weeks prior to our data collection. This finding reveals a higher incidence of MSDs in Ghana compared to findings from a systematic review conducted by Jacquier-Bret and Gorce, which reported a 75% prevalence of MSDs among healthcare professionals in Europe [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The higher incidence in Ghana could be largely attributed to the high involvement of physical strength in the duties of many healthcare professionals in Ghana. For instance, doctors, anaesthetists, and theatre nurses in Ghana are required to manually lift patients to and from theatre beds. This manual activity, which could be a key source of MSD among healthcare professionals, may be avoided with the use of a patient transfer board \u0026ndash; although are largely unavailable in many hospitals in Ghana [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur study findings also showed differences in pain intensity \u0026ndash; with majority of the participants indicating moderate (37.5%) to severe (35.7%) pains. As noted in previous studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], those suffering from MSDs with moderate to severe discomfort or pains are more likely to seek medical assistance or stay away from work. In the case of Ghana, this worsens the already decreasing health workforce in many health facilities \u0026ndash; thus affecting quality of health care delivery.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsing the CMDQ framework, our findings again showed that most MSDs affected the lower and upper back (90.7%), neck (89.3%), shoulders (55%), knees (51.4%), hand and wrist (38.2%), hips/thighs (64.6%) and arms (47.1%). Participants indicated these happened to them at least once or twice in the last few weeks. The findings are largely consistent with other studies conducted among healthcare professionals across Europe, Asia and Africa [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Given the setup of the public health sector in Ghana, this finding could particularly give an insight into the manual handling of patients across many public hospitals in the country \u0026ndash; including lifting patients to/from ward or theatre bed, pushing patients on trolleys or wheelchairs, and standing for long periods, among others. While the finding portrays the prevalent nature of MSDs among healthcare professionals, it also calls for urgent action to ensure many healthcare professionals do not end up with permanent sickness while caring for patients. The finding also supports other studies by Serranheira et al. and Woodman et al, which revealed that health professionals have the highest rates of work-related bodily pain [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Serranheira et al. particularly reported that lower back pain causes about 39% of all occupational diseases and absenteeism in Europe [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. A study conducted by Garzillo et al. and Johnson et al. also shows that MSDs related to the lower back, neck, and shoulder among healthcare workers are caused mainly by patient handling [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Whilst MSDs are very prevalent among health workers in Ghana, Ali et.al note that this occupational hazard has received little attention [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. In Europe, MSDs have caused the early retirement of some health workers or discouraged others from working in the hospital or the clinical space. Therefore, the high prevalence of MSDs among Ghanaian health workers calls for urgent action to improve the ergonomic working environment in all health facilities and ensure a reduction in the incidence of MSDs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study also assessed the knowledge and attitude of health workers towards MSDs. The findings showed most respondents (74%) knew about ergonomic risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders, whilst 26% did not know of it. Previous studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] have indicated that most health workers have a high knowledge of MSDs due to their training and expertise. However, our study findings showed a significant number of health workers (26%) did not know about MSDs \u0026ndash; which still raises major concerns. While we acknowledge that they may not be in the majority, we note from the study by Albanesi et al, that such awareness gaps among healthcare workers on MSDs are still concerning, especially if we prioritise lowering their incidence of MSDs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, much effort is required to increase awareness and improve knowledge of ergonomics and MSDs among all healthcare professionals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn mitigating the increasing incidence of MSDs and ergonomic risk factors among healthcare professionals, our study noted that many of them resort to seeking assistance from colleagues in handling certain activities, such as lifting or handling heavy objects or patients, or taking intermittent breaks and warm-up stretches. These mitigating strategies have been confirmed by similar studies as effective in reducing MSDs [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR30 CR31\" citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, we noted that the risk of MSDs increases in any part of the human body, especially with age, lower educational level, or among females. Thus, a more targeted approach towards these demographic categories will be key in reducing the incidence of MSDs among health workers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations of the study\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile our study findings is representative of all healthcare professionals in Ghana, we, however, note that the study could have benefitted from a larger sample size involving more hospitals and using different research methodologies other than only a quantitative method. Notwithstanding, the study ensured all major cadres of health professionals were captured, especially the clinical and allied health workers. Future research may consider employing both quantitative and qualitative methods to expand the scope of the findings. Finally, we note that this study was restricted to one public hospital, and it would be important to conduct a similar study in a private healthcare facility to understand the extent to which the prevalence and risk factors are similar or otherwise and whether the public sector is better equipped than the private sector or vice versa.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study demonstrate a high prevalence of MSDs among health professionals in Ghana. While we note that the health professional\u0026rsquo;s role may involve putting extra pressure on their musculoskeletal system, it is also important to ensure measures are in place to reduce their exposure to MSDs, particularly by providing an ergonomically friendly environment \u0026ndash; although this has received little attention from the main stakeholders in the healthcare sector. Based on our findings, we strongly recommend significant investments in modern technology and proper retooling of the healthcare sector to reduce the routine physical or manual activities performed by healthcare professionals. This will significantly motivate many young healthcare professionals who may feel demotivated by the debilitating effects of MSDs on many senior healthcare professionals in Ghana. Finally, we recommend the need for regular occupational health and safety training for all healthcare professionals to enhance their knowledge of MSDs and their preventive techniques.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMSD\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMusculoskeletal Disorder\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eLBP\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow Back Pain\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eLEKMA\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLedzokuku-Krowor Municipal Assembly\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCMDQ\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCornell\u0026rsquo;s Musculoskeletal Discomfort Questionnaire\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study received ethical approval from the Ghana Health Service Ethical Review Board (GHS-ERC 069/04/23).\u0026nbsp;Participation in this study was voluntary, and participants were required to provide informed consent. They were also free to withdraw at any point during the process. Data were collected face-to-face. We ensured anonymity and we guaranteed that all information would remain confidential and not be shared with third parties. The data will be used solely for this study and subsequent analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dataset used and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study received no funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors’ contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEA:\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Study administration, Resources, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eMKA:\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Study administration, Resources, Software, Validation. \u003cstrong\u003eAF:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eConceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eEK:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eConceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eFAOM:\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, review \u0026amp; editing: \u003cstrong\u003eSKA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eConceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, review \u0026amp; editing: \u003cstrong\u003eAKK:\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors sincerely thank the management and staff of LEKMA Hospital, Ghana, for their support and cooperation during the study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGill TK, Mittinty MM, March LM, Steinmetz JD, Culbreth GT, Cross M, Kopec JA, Woolf AD, Haile LM, Hagins H: \u003cstrong\u003eGlobal, regional, and national burden of other musculoskeletal disorders, 1990\u0026ndash;2020, and projections to 2050: a systematic analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003eThe Lancet Rheumatology \u003c/em\u003e2023, \u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e(11):e670-e682.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbla Kofi-Bediako W, Sama G, Yarfi C, Ed-Bansah D, Appah Acquah A: \u003cstrong\u003eWork-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders among Nurses at the Ho Teaching Hospital, Ghana\u003c/strong\u003e. 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This is the highest reason for health worker absenteeism in Ghana. While several studies have been conducted in this area, there is a lack of scientific knowledge assessing the magnitude of the problem, particularly among different cadres of healthcare professionals in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study employed a descriptive cross-sectional design among 192 health professionals. Self-administered structured questionnaires were used to collect data and SPSS (version 26.0) was used to analyse data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFindings from the study revealed all health workers had experienced Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD) in their line of duty at the hospital with lower and upper back pain (90.7%) and neck pain (89.3%) being the most reported. The study again noted that older healthcare professionals were more likely to have MSDs than those of younger ages (Odds Ratio\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.87; 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.62, 2.21; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002). Females were also more likely to get MSDs than males (Odds Ratio\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.66; 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.49, 1.89; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study concludes that, while MSD is prevalent among Ghanaian healthcare professionals, this issue has garnered little attention from the key stakeholders addressing it. The research therefore recommends substantial investments in modern technology and the retooling of the healthcare sector to lessen the physical strain or manual involvement required in performing their duties. The study also advocates for regular occupational health and safety training to enhance knowledge of MSD among healthcare professionals in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Ergonomic risk factors and musculoskeletal disorders among healthcare professionals in Ghana","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-17 08:45:55","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6871062/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-15T12:35:12+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-13T20:21:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"279131884282720627169968258120713042250","date":"2026-05-12T12:56:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"282960076740670537805411014764430163901","date":"2026-05-11T08:07:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"265230274670777345579418513141170172511","date":"2026-05-10T20:17:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"293461051426444816561416554200105796393","date":"2025-08-01T23:45:59+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"183873125783967739705812508008368230760","date":"2025-07-31T08:49:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"81060622226987838032612870975778154363","date":"2025-07-22T06:26:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"286170468635140967684944300387833001114","date":"2025-07-17T11:42:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-15T11:22:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"73625617138051486581362869260568534255","date":"2025-07-15T07:43:53+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-15T05:04:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-09T07:21:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-17T06:30:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-16T16:00:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Health Services Research","date":"2025-06-16T15:56:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-health-services-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"bhsr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Health Services Research](http://bmchealthservres.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/BHSR/default.aspx","title":"BMC Health Services Research","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6d1dbb0f-d853-4126-a1d8-c9d110b09c19","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-15T12:35:12+00:00","index":109,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-13T20:21:22+00:00","index":108,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"279131884282720627169968258120713042250","date":"2026-05-12T12:56:40+00:00","index":107,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"282960076740670537805411014764430163901","date":"2026-05-11T08:07:24+00:00","index":105,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"265230274670777345579418513141170172511","date":"2026-05-10T20:17:29+00:00","index":101,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-17T08:45:55+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-17 08:45:55","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6871062","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6871062","identity":"rs-6871062","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}