Distribution atlas of the key potential vectors for Trypanosoma evansi  (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) in Spain

Distribution atlas of the key potential vectors for Trypanosoma evansi (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) in Spain | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Distribution atlas of the key potential vectors for Trypanosoma evansi (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) in Spain Adrián Melián-Henríquez, María Teresa Tejedor-Junco, Daniel Bravo-Barriga, and 7 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6518690/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 28 Jul, 2025 Read the published version in Parasites & Vectors → Version 1 posted 8 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background : Hematophagous diptera can transmit a wide range of diseases to both humans and animals. Some species of the Trypanosoma genus rely on these vectors for transmission, either cyclically or mechanically. Trypanosoma evansi , the only trypanosome species of African origin detected in Spain to date, istransmitted mechanically. Methods : To assess the occurrence and distribution of potential mechanical vectors at the national level, a systematic review focused on the Hippoboscidae, Muscidae and Tabanidae families, was conducted. The methodology developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the PRISMA statement were followed, incorporating data from 43 peer-reviewed scientific publications and four digital citizen science databases. Results : The analysis identified three genera of the Hippoboscidae family, two of Muscidae family, and ten of Tabanidae family. Presence maps at the genus level were generated. Conclusions : This atlas serves as a valuable tool for the prevention and control of vector-borne animal trypanosomosis in Spain. However, further studies on the distribution and ecology of hematophagous dipterans are essential to better understand their role on disease transmission and their potential impact on disease outbreaks. Diptera surra maps Muscidae Hippoboscidae Tabanidae citizen science databases atlas Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Background Hematophagous arthropods play a critical role in the transmission of pathogens affecting both human and animal health [ 69 ]. Their feeding behavior can cause direct harm, such as irritation, immune reactions, and localized trauma. Indirectly, these arthropods serve as vectors of a wide range of pathogens, facilitating both mechanical and biological (i.e. cyclical) transmission [ 87 ]. Among the pathogens they transmit, protozoa of the Trypanosoma genus (Gruby, 1843; Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) are of particular concern due to their impact on veterinary and human medicine. These parasitic protozoa are typically found in the bloodstream and various tissues, such as adipose tissue or dermis of infected mammals, including humans [ 3 , 17 , 56 ]. Based on their transmission modes and life cycles, these species are classified in two sections: Stercoraria and Salivaria [ 17 ]. Stercorarian species develop in the posterior digestive tract of the vector and include three subgenera: Schizotrypanum , Megatrypanum , and Herpetosoma . In contrast, salivarian species develop in the anterior digestive tract, and are subdivided into four subgenera: Trypanozoon , Duttonella , Nannomonas , and Pycnomonas [ 17 , 56 ]. The Salivaria section includes the trypanosome species responsible for sleeping sickness in humans [ 10 ], and for animal trypanosomosis in domestic and wild animals [ 67 ]. Flies of the Glossina genus (Diptera: Glossinidae), which are widely distributed across sub-Saharan Africa, are the sole vectors of sleeping sickness and the principal vectors of the animal form of the disease [ 13 ]. Vector-borne animal trypanosomosis, in its two forms know as nagana and surra, represents a major constraint to livestock development in many African regions. Nagana is mainly caused by the species Trypanosoma brucei (Plimmer & Bradford, 1899), T. vivax (Ziemann, 1905) and T. congolense (Broden, 1904), while T. evansi (Chauvrat, 1896) causes surra [ 17 ]. At variance with other salivarian trypanosomes, T. evansi does not require a biological vector like Glossina spp. and can be mechanically transmitted by other hematophagous insects [ 18 , 72 ]. Despite this fact, the short viability period of the parasite in the insect’s mouthparts affects the rate of transmission. Hematophagous dipterans, due to their mobility and feeding patterns, are the most relevant vector of T. evansi [ 18 , 67 , 87 ]. Several studies highlighted the role of different insect taxa in surra transmission to mammals, including biting species from the tribe Stomoxyini (Diptera: Muscidae) ( Stomoxys spp., and Haematobia spp.), tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) ( Tabanus spp., Atylotus spp., etc) and louse flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) ( Hippobosca spp., Lipoptena spp., Melophagus spp.) [ 20 ]. Surra is predominantly found in North and Northeast Africa, Latin America, the Middle East, and Asia. However, outbreaks of surra have also been reported in Europe, namely in France (Aveyron Department) and Spain. In the latter case, the outbreaks occurred in the province of Alicante, in mainland Spain, and they were caused by the movement of infected animals from another Spanish region: the Canary Islands [ 15 , 82 ]. The first confirmed case of surra in Spain occurred in 1997 on the island of Gran Canaria [ 46 ], which led to subsequent studies to assess the parasite’s prevalence in dromedaries and other livestock species in Canary Islands, as well as the potential role of rodents and hematophagous insects in the maintenance of the disease [ 60 , 73 , 74 , 75 ]. Even though no new animals serologically positive for surra have been reported in Canary Islands since 2022 [ 57 , 83 ], surveillance and research into the disease’s dynamics are crucial to prevent possible future outbreaks, also considering that Spain could be a gateway to mainland Europe. For this purpose, in the framework of the COMBAT project (Controlling and progressively Minimizing the Burden of Animal Trypanosomosis) [ 8 ], the current study aims to compile a comprehensive atlas of the distribution of potential T. evansi vectors across Spain, and it complements the recently published national atlas of surra in Spain [ 57 ]. Methods Search protocol and selection criteria A systematic review was conducted following the guidelines provided by the “Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses” (PRISMA) statement [59] and the methodology developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) for the continental and national atlases of Glossina spp. and African trypanosomes [1, 11-14, 21, 42, 65, 71, 80]. PubMed®, Scopus, Google Scholar and ResearchGate were used as the main information search engines, in addition to national scientific platforms, with no time restrictions in any of the cases. The information sought for this work focused on those insects capable of acting as mechanical vectors of T. evansi , being the families Muscidae, Hippoboscidae and Tabanidae the most cited [15, 17-19, 56, 75, 82]. The selection of genera within each family has also been based on previous bibliographic consultations: Muscidae family ( Stomoxys and Haematobia genera) [17, 18]; For the Hippoboscidae family, genera with mammophilic habits ( Hippobosca , Lipoptena and Melophagus genera) were chosen [84], discarding genera with ornithophilic habits; Finally, for the Tabanidae family, the nomenclature proposed by Portillo (2002) for horseflies species in Spain has been followed ( Atylotus , Chrysops , Dasyrhamphis , Haematopota , Hybomitra , Nemorius , Pangonius , Philipomyia , Silvius and Tabanus genera). Searches were performed by combining keywords (in Spanish, French and English) such as “Diptera”, “Spain”, “Canary Islands”, “Balearic Islands”, “Mainland Spain”, “Hematophagous”, “Muscidae”, “Hippoboscidae”, “Tabanidae”, “ Stomoxyini ”, “ Stomoxys ”, “ Haematobia ”, “ Lipoptena ”, “ Hippobosca ”, “ Melophagus ”, “ Tabanus ”, “ Haematopota ”, “ Dasyrhamphis ”, “ Atylotus ”, “ Pangonius ”, “ Silvius ”, “ Chrysops ”, “ Hybomitra ”, “ Nemorius ”, “ Philipomyia ”, “ Trypanosoma evansi ”, “Surra”. In some cases, search results led to publications not available online, or with specific access restrictions, which have not been included in this paper. Citizen science platforms Information from citizen science digital databases was added. Four platforms were used: iNaturalist database (Nugent, 2018), GBIF.org, Biodiversidad Virtual (https://www.biodiversidadvirtual.org) and the Biodiversity Data Bank of the Canary Islands (BDBC) (https://www.biodiversidadcanarias.es/biota). Searches on these platforms were conducted using keywords, such as insect genera or species, and further filtering of results by country (last search 11/03/2025). The information displayed on these platforms focused on presence reports, showing sometimes precise geographical coordinates, date of the occurrence, and pictures. On those databases where possible, searches were filtered to obtain those confirmed by experts, however, when it was not possible, and pictures were available, a review of each one of them was conducted. Repeated occurrences among platforms were revised and excluded. Digital repository and database The literature obtained through systematic review was organized in a digital repository, and subsequently reviewed, extracting from them the presence information of the insects under study, and then included in a Microsoft Excel (version 19.0, 2018) file. This file was divided into 5 sheets. Sources: include all the information related to each document (Highlighting authors, title, date and journal of publication). Site geographical data (Geo_Data_Site): shows the locations emanating from the documents at the sampling site level, sometimes specified in the documents, and in other cases obtained through geographical information applications (Google Earth, Spanish National Geographic System). The accuracy of each location varied, obtaining city/town coordinates, or approximate coordinates of the sampling area. In the case of unspecific locations, the georeferencing of the municipality central point was included. In the case of locations with more than one administrative designation (e.g. natural parks or forest reserves), the coordinates of the central point of the total area were included. Site entomological data (Entomo_Data_Site): contains information of the described insects (date of collection; family, genus, species and subspecies; number of individuals and sex, trapping methodology and duration, etc) relating them to the locations included in the previous table. Trap Geographical data (Geo_Data_Trap): unlike “Geo_Data”, this sheet contains exact sampling locations, at trap or sampling site level, from the publications that specified such information. Trap Entomological data (Entomo_Data_Trap): like “Entomo_Data”, it relates the information included the previous table to the insects described in their respective documents. Mapping Presence maps at genus level for each of the families under study were produced with the QGIS Geographic Information System (version 3.34.11, QGIS Association). On the maps, information extracted from the literature was differentiated from data of citizen science platforms. For the representation of insect sightings, geographical coordinates obtained or extrapolated from each source of information were used. To homogenize these reports, especially those with large levels of territorial organization, it was decided to show on the maps also, the number of genera present in each province. Results This work included the analysis of 3 families, 15 genera and 105 species in a total of 2709 data records published between 1951 and 2024, for the entire Spanish territory. Based on literature records, 43 documents (40 scientific publications, two books and one doctoral thesis) were consulted (see additional file 1 for more information), extracting from them a total of 1088 presence data entries. Based on citizen science data, 1621 presence records were included from the four platforms. Regarding geographical coordinates, it was possible to geo-reference 323 locations from literature, 23 of them at the trap level or exact place of capture, and 300 at less precise levels. On the other hand, 90% of the citizen science records were geo-referenced. The total number of captured/observed insects in the specified period was 20076 individuals. Literature occurrences include, in some cases, data on trapping events, showing numerical data of these captures. Taking this into account, from the 1088 literature presence data entries, a total number of 18455 insects were quantified. Of these, 86.5% belonged to the Muscidae family, 13.3% to the Tabanidae family, and 0.2% to the Hippoboscidae family. On the other hand, each citizen science presence data entries corresponded to the observation of one individual, quantifying a total number of 1621 insects. Of these, 64.8% belonged to the Tabanidae family, 19.2% to the Muscidae family, and 16% to the Hippoboscidae family. Table 1 shows a summary of the families and genera studied in this work, as well as the number of species of each genus described in the territory and the number of provinces where each genus is present. In addition, the hosts and trapping methods cited in the literature are shown. For more information at species level, see additional file 2. Table 1 Summary of the blood-feeding dipteran families analyzed in Spain (from 1951 to 2024). N: number; ND: not described. Family Genus Species (N) Provinces (N) Cited hosts Cited capture methods Hippoboscidae Hippobosca Linnaeus, 1758 2 44 Equids, bovids, canids, felids, human Trap (Sticky), sweep Lipoptena Nitzsch, 1818 3 16 Cervids, human Trap (Suction) Melophagus Latreille, 1802 1 6 Ovis aries , cervids ND Muscidae Stomoxys Geoffroy, 1762 1 44 Equids, ruminants, camelids, human Trap (Sticky, suction, BG-sentinel, Nzi), sweep Haematobia Lepeletier & Serville, 1828 2 14 Bovids, human Trap (Sticky, suction, CDC-Miniature light trap) Tabanidae Atylotus Osten-Sacken, 1876 9 20 Equids, bovids Trap (Canopy, Malaise), sweep Chrysops Meigen, 1803 7 40 Equids, bovids, cervids Trap (Canopy, Malaise), sweep Dasyrhamphis Enderlein, 1922 3 25 Equids Sweep Haematopota Meigen, 1803 12 38 Equids, bovids Trap (Canopy, Malaise), sweep Hybomitra Enderlein, 1922 12 23 Equids, bovids Trap (Malaise, H-trap), sweep Nemorius Rondani, 1856 1 3 Equids, bovids ND Pangonius Latreille, 1802 14 30 Equids, human Sweep Philipomyia Olsufjev, 1964 2 21 Equids, bovids Trap (Canopy, Malaise), sweep Silvius Meigen, 1820 3 8 Equids, bovids Trap (Malaise) Tabanus Linnaeus, 1758 33 44 Equids, bovids, human Trap (Canopy, Malaise, Sticky, H-trap), sweep Hippoboscidae family Within the Hippoboscidae family, three genera with mammophilic habits were reviewed. Hippobosca genus had the largest number of sightings, concentrating mostly in the north, northeast, central and central-east, and south of mainland Spain. In addition, there were sightings in both provinces of the Canary Islands, and in the Balearic Islands. Lipoptena genus had most of its sightings in northern, northeastern and southwestern parts of mainland Spain, with no sightings recorded in the Canary Islands or the Balearic Islands. Finally, Melophagus genus had a few specific sightings recorded in northern, central and central western mainland Spain, as well as in the western province of the Canary Islands. Muscidae family In the Muscidae family, 2 genera have been studied. Sightings of the Stomoxys genus have been recorded in the majority of the Spanish territory. The north, south and center of mainland Spain are particularly noteworthy. Likewise, there have been sightings on all the islands of the Balearic archipelago and the Canarian archipelago. For the Haematobia genus, sightings have been recorded mostly in the north, center, and south of mainland Spain, Balearic Islands, and few sightings on the Canary Islands. Tabanidae family In total, 10 genera of the Tabanidae family have been studied. Figure 3 shows the occurrence data for 4 of the genera: Dasyrhamphis , Philipomyia , Silvius and Nemorius . The Dasyrhamphis genus showed sightings mostly concentrated in central, southern and northwestern mainland Spain, in contrast to the Philipomyia genus, with most of the sightings recorded in northeastern mainland Spain. The Silvius genus showed a few sightings in the north and south of mainland Spain. Finally, no specific coordinates have been obtained for sightings of the Nemorius genus, with presence data restricted to central and northern mainland Spain. Pangonius , Haematopota and Hybomitra genera sightings are shown in Fig. 4 . For the first of these, sightings are distributed in the center, south, and north-east of mainland Spain. For the next two, sightings have been recorded both in mainland Spain (especially in the north and center), and in the Balearic Islands. Finally, Fig. 5 shows the recorded sightings of the Atylotus , Chrysops and Tabanus genera. Sightings of the Atylotus genus are mainly located in the north of mainland Spain, however, sightings without specific coordinates have been described in the Balearic Islands. The Chrysops genus has sightings only in mainland Spain, mainly in central and northern areas. Finally, for the Tabanus genus, specimens have been sighted throughout Spain, including the Canary and Balearic Islands, with a large number of sightings concentrated in the northeast and center of mainland Spain. Discussion This work, developed within the framework of the COMBAT project [ 8 ], is the first to compile comprehensive information on the potential vectors of surra in Spain. Unlike previous national atlases on trypanosome control and its vectors in African countries, which typically included a tsetse component and an animal infection one [ 1 , 21 , 42 , 65 , 71 ], this study focuses strictly on the entomological aspect, specifically on the three different dipteran families that can potentially transmit surra in the Spanish territory. This is due to the fact that the surra atlas for Spain has been already published [ 57 ], and that, to date, no vectors belonging to the Glossina genus have been reported in Spain. The dearth of articles relating the presence of vectors to surra in Spain has been evident during the compilation of information sources. The information presented here shows the great variety that exists among the genera of horseflies in the country, especially in mainland Spain. Among them, the Tabanus genus stands out, with a large number of species and a great abundance. Moreover, this genus of horseflies is the only one present in mainland Spain, Balearic and Canary Islands at the same time. Similarly, Hippobosca genus (especially H. equina Linnaeus, 1758), Melophagus genus ( M. ovinus (Linnaeus, 1758)) and Stomoxys genus ( S. calcitrans (Linnaeus, 1758)), are generally distributed throughout Spain. Among them, the latter genus stands out, as this muscid is very abundant in the territory, being found in different biotopes and environmental conditions. However, although the literature describes the distribution of M. ovinus as widespread in the country, there is a lack of sightings with specific coordinates in the territory. In this regard, it should also be noted that for the genus Haematobia , there is only one sighting of the species H. titilans (Bezzi, 1907) in the Canary Islands and, to date, no further encounters have been recorded. Given the wide distribution of all the genera showed on this paper, outbreaks of surra that may re-emerge in Spain would have an abundance of mechanical vectors by which to spread, as occurred in Canary Islands and Alicante [ 82 , 83 ]. If this were to occur, not only could it spread throughout the country, but the entry into the rest of Europe could be another consequence, as happened in 2008 in Aveyron (France), when infected dromedaries were transported from the Canary Islands [ 15 ]. In addition to their potential role as vectors of surra, the bites of certain hematophagous flies pose an occupational hazard and a considerable nuisance in rural areas of Europe [ 47 , 54 ]. However, despite their importance, the study of these brachycerans in Spain has not been as extensive as that of other nematoceran vectors. This difference arises partly because they are not associated with diseases of such significant medical-veterinary importance as those transmitted by mosquitoes, sandflies, and biting midges [ 9 , 29 ], or because their bites do not affect the population in urban areas, as is the case with blackflies [ 77 ]. Another key factor is that these brachycerans rely on less refined capture methods compared to nematocerans [ 48 , 78 , 85 ]. This gap in methodology could be an area worth exploring further in future research to improve the study of these vectors [ 2 , 58 ]. For example, it would be necessary to standardize and optimize trapping methods for each of the families, especially in the case of louse flies, as in most cases direct interaction with the host is required for trapping. In this regard, recently in Spain, carbon dioxide traps have been proven effective for monitoring Lipoptena species [ 44 ]. In the case of tabanids, studies are currently being carried out comparing the different existing trapping methods and exploring the performance of modified traps [ 48 ], which, in fact, are also used as mechanical control methods. For horse flies, large open-style traps equipped with shiny black spherical targets remain widely used, especially in North America. Some examples include Malaise, Canopy, Box, Greenhead, Manitoba, and Epps traps [ 7 ]. In Spain, tabanids were successfully collected using home-made Canopy traps, sweep nets, and Malaise traps, achieving optimal results [ 43 ]. It is worth noting that the genera included in the atlas do not represent the complete diversity of tabanid and muscid hematophagous flies in Spain. Additionally, the absence of data from certain regions does not preclude the presence of these vectors. For example, within the Hippoboscidae family, other blood-feeding genera in the subfamily Ornithomyinae have been identified, highlighting Crataerina von Olfers, 1816; Ornithomya Latreille, 1802; Ornithophila Rondani, 1879; and Pseudolynchia Bequaert, 1926. These genera primarily parasitize birds and, therefore, are not considered vector of surra. However, they are capable of transmitting pathogens like avian hemosporidia of the Haemoproteus genus, which has a global distribution [ 64 ], including the Iberian Peninsula [ 76 ]. Moreover, literature highlights that some genera listed in this work may act as potential vectors, not only for surra but also for a wide range of other diseases. In fact, this is one of the strengths of the study, as it goes beyond just surra. For instance, Stomoxys genus, alongside other muscids, have been implicated in the transmission of salmonellosis, shigellosis, bacillary dysentery, and even aspergillosis [ 5 ]. Additionally, Stomoxys species are considered potential vectors of anthrax, a role they share with horseflies like Chrysops spp. or Tabanus spp., both of which have also been associated with the transmission of tularemia [ 6 , 86 ]. Other studies highlight the role of Stomoxys genus in the mechanical transmission of viruses (e.g. equine infectious anemia virus, African swine fever virus, West Nile virus or Rift Valley virus), protozoa ( Besnoitia besnoiti ; Besnoit and Robin, 1912), and helminths ( Habronema microstoma ; Schneider, 1866) [ 5 ], exacerbated by their predilection and persistence to feed multiple times when disturbed [ 22 ]. Similarly, hippoboscid flies ( Hippobosca , Melophagus and Lipoptena genera), are associated with pathogens such as viruses (e.g., border disease virus or bluetongue virus) and bacteria ( Ricketssia spp., Borrelia spp., Bartonella spp. or Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis ; Buchanan, 1911) [ 23 ]. Regarding the limitations of the study, the distribution maps are based on local studies, some of which are outdated, and citizen science data, which may not provide a homogeneous sampling. This reliance on varied sources introduces potential biases, as the data may not accurately represent current distributions or ecological dynamics. Additionally, the use of citizen science platforms, while valuable, can lead to inconsistencies in data quality and coverage. These factors highlight the need for more standardized and comprehensive surveys to ensure a more accurate and up-to-date understanding of the distribution and ecology of these hematophagous dipterans. In addition to understanding their distribution, new studies are needed to increase knowledge about them. Conducting new surveys at meso- and micro-scale could significantly enhance our understanding, as they would provide valuable data not only on the presence of these species but also on their ecological dynamics and interactions with potential hosts. Citizen science platforms could be a very useful tool for this purpose, especially those in which there is broad participation from the scientific community, expert participation, and occurrences are verified through visual evidence, as it is already being implemented in similar studies with dipterans in Spain [ 62 , 45 ]. In fact, given that great advances are currently being made in the application of artificial intelligence for the recognition of insects and other organisms, this technology could be further applied to the processing of these presence data generated by the scientific community or citizens using such platforms [ 26 , 50 , 70 ]. Therefore, collaboration between researchers and citizens, and ideally public health authorities and stakeholders, could even foster the integration of findings of various insects into effective vector control programs. Conclusions This work is a valuable contribution to the knowledge of the epidemiology of T. evansi in Spain, as it is the first work that collects and integrates information on the presence of its potential dipteran vectors in the territory. Knowledge of vector sightings allows health authorities to organize more effective control or prevention strategies, as well as to act in the event of new outbreaks. Despite the information presented in this work, more studies are needed to describe the presence of vectors in the territory. In addition, the use of citizen science platforms to support scientific research could lead to greater knowledge in this field. Abbreviations COMBAT: COntrolling and progressively Minimizing the Burden of Animal Trypanosomosis. FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. PRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses. Declarations Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the members of the participating institutions who are contributing to the ongoing implementation of this work. Particularly the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), which contributed to the paper and participates in the COMBAT project in the framework of the Programme Against African Trypanosomosis (PAAT). Funding This research was financially supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the grant agreement number [101000467] (COntrolling and progressively Minimizing the Burden of Animal Trypanosomosis [COMBAT]). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Adrián Melián Henríquez was funded by a predoctoral formation program of Research personnel of the Canary Islands Government: “Agencia Canaria de Investigación, Innovación y Sociedad de la Información de la Consejería de Universidades, Ciencia e Innovación y Cultura and by the European Social Fund Plus (ESF+) Programa Operativo Integrado de Canarias 2021-2027, Eje 3 Priority Theme 74 (85%)” (TESIS2022010062). Availability of data and materials The data underlying the results of this manuscript will be provided upon reasonable request to the authors. Author contributions Conceptualization: MTTJ, JAC, GC; Data curation: AMH, MTTJ; Formal analysis: AMH; Funding acquisition: MTTJ, JAC, GC; Investigation: AMH, MTTJ, DBB, PMAE, CB, MAG, IRA; Methodology: MP, GC; Project Administration: MTTJ; Resources: MTTJ, JAC; Supervision: MTTJ, GC; Validation: MTTJ, JAC, GC; Visualization: AMH, MTTJ, GC; Writing (original draft): AMH, MTTJ, DBB; Writing (review and editing): AMH, MTTJ, DBB, PMAE, CB, MAG, IRA, GC, JAC. Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. References Ahmed SK, Rahman AH, Hassan MA, Salih SE, Paone M, Cecchi G. An atlas of tsetse and bovine trypanosomosis in Sudan. Parasit Vectors. 2016; 9:1-8. Amarathunga DC, Grundy J, Parry H, Dorin A. Methods of insect image capture and classification: A Systematic literature review. Smart Agric Tech. 2021; 1:100023. Amisigo C, Amegatcher G, Sunter JD, Gwira T. 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(Diptera: Muscidae) and tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) on cattle farms.J Agric Nat Resour. 2017. 51(4):319–23. Turell MJ., Knudson GB. Mechanical transmission of Bacillus anthracis by stable flies ( Stomoxys calcitrans ) and mosquitoes ( Aedes aegypti and Aedes taeniorhynchus ). Infect Immun. 1987. 55(8), 1859–1861. Williams RE. Veterinary Entomology: Livestock and Companion Animals. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis; 2009. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Additionalfile1TextS1.docx Supplementary information Additional file 1: Text S2. Literature sources list. Additionalfile2TableS1.docx Additional file 2: Table S1. List of dipteran species of the Hippoboscidae, Muscidae and Tabanidae families cited in the consulted literature. 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Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6518690","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":454529099,"identity":"f4b36e55-b95f-484b-b604-16f78f038d53","order_by":0,"name":"Adrián Melián-Henríquez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences. 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In the center, mainland Spain, on the right, Balearic Islands.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6518690/v1/3d5ac3aad7ded4b7b7a814b1.png"},{"id":82503828,"identity":"18037597-d51e-4ec1-aac0-bcfa33e63384","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-12 09:10:58","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5765467,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePangonius\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHaematopota\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHybomitra\u003c/em\u003e genera presence map in Spain (from 1951 to 2024). In the center, mainland Spain, on the right Balearic Islands.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6518690/v1/8f5a876746d1117b6e4135cf.png"},{"id":82503837,"identity":"a38ed931-c912-4d4e-a505-950af18a0341","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-12 09:10:58","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":6072561,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAtylotus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eChrysops\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTabanus\u003c/em\u003e genera presence map in Spain (from 1951 to 2024). In the center, mainland Spain, on the right Balearic Islands, at the bottom left, Canary Islands.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6518690/v1/ef616114b6d94b32d92b8379.png"},{"id":88268412,"identity":"a68cdff6-f837-468d-8e90-8867208f8b45","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-04 16:51:35","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":30877044,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6518690/v1/bcadbd25-6a9f-43d4-b9e2-b96d3c051a31.pdf"},{"id":82503818,"identity":"55841f70-a5bc-4b52-9005-2a17296f11ca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-12 09:10:58","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":22231,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditional file 1: Text S2. Literature sources list.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Additionalfile1TextS1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6518690/v1/fb7e5984f3e2a26cae4edb45.docx"},{"id":82504042,"identity":"563de291-2d8c-4bb8-89d3-69dcea80f2bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-12 09:18:58","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":53121,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAdditional file 2: Table S1. List of dipteran species of the Hippoboscidae, Muscidae and Tabanidae families cited in the consulted literature.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Additionalfile2TableS1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6518690/v1/f53e586aec5746d68e223a44.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Distribution atlas of the key potential vectors for Trypanosoma evansi (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) in Spain","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eHematophagous arthropods play a critical role in the transmission of pathogens affecting both human and animal health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e]. Their feeding behavior can cause direct harm, such as irritation, immune reactions, and localized trauma. Indirectly, these arthropods serve as vectors of a wide range of pathogens, facilitating both mechanical and biological (i.e. cyclical) transmission [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e87\u003c/span\u003e]. Among the pathogens they transmit, protozoa of the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e genus (Gruby, 1843; Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) are of particular concern due to their impact on veterinary and human medicine.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese parasitic protozoa are typically found in the bloodstream and various tissues, such as adipose tissue or dermis of infected mammals, including humans [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. Based on their transmission modes and life cycles, these species are classified in two sections: \u003cem\u003eStercoraria\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSalivaria\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Stercorarian species develop in the posterior digestive tract of the vector and include three subgenera: \u003cem\u003eSchizotrypanum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMegatrypanum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eHerpetosoma\u003c/em\u003e. In contrast, salivarian species develop in the anterior digestive tract, and are subdivided into four subgenera: \u003cem\u003eTrypanozoon\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDuttonella\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eNannomonas\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ePycnomonas\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. The \u003cem\u003eSalivaria\u003c/em\u003e section includes the trypanosome species responsible for sleeping sickness in humans [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], and for animal trypanosomosis in domestic and wild animals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e]. Flies of the \u003cem\u003eGlossina\u003c/em\u003e genus (Diptera: Glossinidae), which are widely distributed across sub-Saharan Africa, are the sole vectors of sleeping sickness and the principal vectors of the animal form of the disease [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVector-borne animal trypanosomosis, in its two forms know as nagana and surra, represents a major constraint to livestock development in many African regions. Nagana is mainly caused by the species \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma brucei\u003c/em\u003e (Plimmer \u0026amp; Bradford, 1899), \u003cem\u003eT. vivax\u003c/em\u003e (Ziemann, 1905) and \u003cem\u003eT. congolense\u003c/em\u003e (Broden, 1904), while \u003cem\u003eT. evansi\u003c/em\u003e (Chauvrat, 1896) causes surra [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. At variance with other salivarian trypanosomes, \u003cem\u003eT. evansi\u003c/em\u003e does not require a biological vector like \u003cem\u003eGlossina\u003c/em\u003e spp. and can be mechanically transmitted by other hematophagous insects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite this fact, the short viability period of the parasite in the insect\u0026rsquo;s mouthparts affects the rate of transmission. Hematophagous dipterans, due to their mobility and feeding patterns, are the most relevant vector of \u003cem\u003eT. evansi\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e87\u003c/span\u003e]. Several studies highlighted the role of different insect taxa in surra transmission to mammals, including biting species from the tribe \u003cem\u003eStomoxyini\u003c/em\u003e (Diptera: Muscidae) (\u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e spp., and \u003cem\u003eHaematobia\u003c/em\u003e spp.), tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) (\u003cem\u003eTabanus\u003c/em\u003e spp., \u003cem\u003eAtylotus\u003c/em\u003e spp., etc) and louse flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) (\u003cem\u003eHippobosca\u003c/em\u003e spp., \u003cem\u003eLipoptena\u003c/em\u003e spp., \u003cem\u003eMelophagus\u003c/em\u003e spp.) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSurra is predominantly found in North and Northeast Africa, Latin America, the Middle East, and Asia. However, outbreaks of surra have also been reported in Europe, namely in France (Aveyron Department) and Spain. In the latter case, the outbreaks occurred in the province of Alicante, in mainland Spain, and they were caused by the movement of infected animals from another Spanish region: the Canary Islands [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e82\u003c/span\u003e]. The first confirmed case of surra in Spain occurred in 1997 on the island of Gran Canaria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], which led to subsequent studies to assess the parasite\u0026rsquo;s prevalence in dromedaries and other livestock species in Canary Islands, as well as the potential role of rodents and hematophagous insects in the maintenance of the disease [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEven though no new animals serologically positive for surra have been reported in Canary Islands since 2022 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e], surveillance and research into the disease\u0026rsquo;s dynamics are crucial to prevent possible future outbreaks, also considering that Spain could be a gateway to mainland Europe. For this purpose, in the framework of the COMBAT project (Controlling and progressively Minimizing the Burden of Animal Trypanosomosis) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], the current study aims to compile a comprehensive atlas of the distribution of potential \u003cem\u003eT. evansi\u003c/em\u003e vectors across Spain, and it complements the recently published national atlas of surra in Spain [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSearch protocol and selection criteria\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA systematic review was conducted following the guidelines provided by the \u0026ldquo;Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses\u0026rdquo; (PRISMA) statement [59] and the methodology developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) for the continental and national atlases of \u003cem\u003eGlossina\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp. and African trypanosomes [1, 11-14, 21, 42, 65, 71, 80]. PubMed\u0026reg;, Scopus, Google Scholar and ResearchGate were used as the main information search engines, in addition to national scientific platforms, with no time restrictions in any of the cases.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe information sought for this work focused on those insects capable of acting as mechanical vectors of \u003cem\u003eT. evansi\u003c/em\u003e, being the families Muscidae, Hippoboscidae and Tabanidae the most cited [15, 17-19, 56, 75, 82]. The selection of genera within each family has also been based on previous bibliographic consultations: Muscidae family (\u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHaematobia\u003c/em\u003e genera) [17, 18]; For the Hippoboscidae family, genera with mammophilic habits (\u003cem\u003eHippobosca\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eLipoptena\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eMelophagus\u003c/em\u003e genera) were chosen [84], discarding genera with ornithophilic habits; Finally, for the Tabanidae family, the nomenclature proposed by Portillo (2002) for horseflies species in Spain has been followed (\u003cem\u003eAtylotus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eChrysops\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDasyrhamphis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHaematopota\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHybomitra\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eNemorius\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePangonius\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePhilipomyia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSilvius\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTabanus\u003c/em\u003e genera).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSearches were performed by combining keywords (in Spanish, French and English) such as \u0026ldquo;Diptera\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Spain\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Canary Islands\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Balearic Islands\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Mainland Spain\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Hematophagous\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Muscidae\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Hippoboscidae\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Tabanidae\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eStomoxyini\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eHaematobia\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eLipoptena\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eHippobosca\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eMelophagus\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eTabanus\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eHaematopota\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eDasyrhamphis\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eAtylotus\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003ePangonius\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eSilvius\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eChrysops\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eHybomitra\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eNemorius\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003ePhilipomyia\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma evansi\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Surra\u0026rdquo;. In some cases, search results led to publications not available online, or with specific access restrictions, which have not been included in this paper.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCitizen science platforms\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformation from citizen science digital databases was added. Four platforms were used: iNaturalist database (Nugent, 2018), GBIF.org, Biodiversidad Virtual (https://www.biodiversidadvirtual.org) and the Biodiversity Data Bank of the Canary Islands (BDBC) (https://www.biodiversidadcanarias.es/biota). Searches on these platforms were conducted using keywords, such as insect genera or species, and further filtering of results by country (last search 11/03/2025). The information displayed on these platforms focused on presence reports, showing sometimes precise geographical coordinates, date of the occurrence, and pictures. On those databases where possible, searches were filtered to obtain those confirmed by experts, however, when it was not possible, and pictures were available, a review of each one of them was conducted. Repeated occurrences among platforms were revised and excluded.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDigital repository and database\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe literature obtained through systematic review was organized in a digital repository, and subsequently reviewed, extracting from them the presence information of the insects under study, and then included in a Microsoft Excel (version 19.0, 2018) file.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis file was divided into 5 sheets.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSources: include all the information related to each document (Highlighting authors, title, date and journal of publication).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSite geographical data (Geo_Data_Site): shows the locations emanating from the documents at the sampling site level, sometimes specified in the documents, and in other cases obtained through geographical information applications (Google Earth, Spanish National Geographic System). The accuracy of each location varied, obtaining city/town coordinates, or approximate coordinates of the sampling area. In the case of unspecific locations, the georeferencing of the municipality central point was included. In the case of locations with more than one administrative designation (e.g. natural parks or forest reserves), the coordinates of the central point of the total area were included.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSite entomological data (Entomo_Data_Site): contains information of the described insects (date of collection; family, genus, species and subspecies; number of individuals and sex, trapping methodology and duration, etc) relating them to the locations included in the previous table.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTrap Geographical data (Geo_Data_Trap): unlike \u0026ldquo;Geo_Data\u0026rdquo;, this sheet contains exact sampling locations, at trap or sampling site level, from the publications that specified such information.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTrap Entomological data (Entomo_Data_Trap): like \u0026ldquo;Entomo_Data\u0026rdquo;, it relates the information included the previous table to the insects described in their respective documents.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMapping\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePresence maps at genus level for each of the families under study were produced with the QGIS Geographic Information System (version 3.34.11, QGIS Association). On the maps, information extracted from the literature was differentiated from data of citizen science platforms. For the representation of insect sightings, geographical coordinates obtained or extrapolated from each source of information were used. To homogenize these reports, especially those with large levels of territorial organization, it was decided to show on the maps also, the number of genera present in each province.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis work included the analysis of 3 families, 15 genera and 105 species in a total of 2709 data records published between 1951 and 2024, for the entire Spanish territory. Based on literature records, 43 documents (40 scientific publications, two books and one doctoral thesis) were consulted (see additional file 1 for more information), extracting from them a total of 1088 presence data entries. Based on citizen science data, 1621 presence records were included from the four platforms.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding geographical coordinates, it was possible to geo-reference 323 locations from literature, 23 of them at the trap level or exact place of capture, and 300 at less precise levels. On the other hand, 90% of the citizen science records were geo-referenced.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe total number of captured/observed insects in the specified period was 20076 individuals. Literature occurrences include, in some cases, data on trapping events, showing numerical data of these captures. Taking this into account, from the 1088 literature presence data entries, a total number of 18455 insects were quantified. Of these, 86.5% belonged to the Muscidae family, 13.3% to the Tabanidae family, and 0.2% to the Hippoboscidae family. On the other hand, each citizen science presence data entries corresponded to the observation of one individual, quantifying a total number of 1621 insects. Of these, 64.8% belonged to the Tabanidae family, 19.2% to the Muscidae family, and 16% to the Hippoboscidae family.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows a summary of the families and genera studied in this work, as well as the number of species of each genus described in the territory and the number of provinces where each genus is present. In addition, the hosts and trapping methods cited in the literature are shown. For more information at species level, see additional file 2.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of the blood-feeding dipteran families analyzed in Spain (from 1951 to 2024). N: number; ND: not described.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies (N)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvinces (N)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCited hosts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCited capture methods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHippoboscidae\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHippobosca\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquids, bovids, canids, felids, human\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrap (Sticky), sweep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLipoptena\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNitzsch, 1818\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCervids, human\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrap (Suction)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMelophagus\u003c/em\u003e Latreille, 1802\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOvis aries\u003c/em\u003e, cervids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMuscidae\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeoffroy, 1762\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquids, ruminants, camelids, human\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrap (Sticky, suction, BG-sentinel, Nzi), sweep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHaematobia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepeletier \u0026amp; Serville, 1828\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBovids, human\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrap (Sticky, suction, CDC-Miniature light trap)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTabanidae\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAtylotus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOsten-Sacken, 1876\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquids, bovids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrap (Canopy, Malaise), sweep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChrysops\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeigen, 1803\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquids, bovids, cervids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrap (Canopy, Malaise), sweep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDasyrhamphis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnderlein, 1922\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSweep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHaematopota\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeigen, 1803\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquids, bovids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrap (Canopy, Malaise), sweep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHybomitra\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnderlein, 1922\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquids, bovids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrap (Malaise, H-trap), sweep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNemorius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRondani, 1856\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquids, bovids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePangonius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLatreille, 1802\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquids, human\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSweep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhilipomyia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOlsufjev, 1964\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquids, bovids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrap (Canopy, Malaise), sweep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSilvius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeigen, 1820\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquids, bovids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrap (Malaise)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTabanus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLinnaeus, 1758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquids, bovids, human\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrap (Canopy, Malaise, Sticky, H-trap), sweep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHippoboscidae family\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the Hippoboscidae family, three genera with mammophilic habits were reviewed. \u003cem\u003eHippobosca\u003c/em\u003e genus had the largest number of sightings, concentrating mostly in the north, northeast, central and central-east, and south of mainland Spain. In addition, there were sightings in both provinces of the Canary Islands, and in the Balearic Islands. \u003cem\u003eLipoptena\u003c/em\u003e genus had most of its sightings in northern, northeastern and southwestern parts of mainland Spain, with no sightings recorded in the Canary Islands or the Balearic Islands. Finally, \u003cem\u003eMelophagus\u003c/em\u003e genus had a few specific sightings recorded in northern, central and central western mainland Spain, as well as in the western province of the Canary Islands.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMuscidae family\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the Muscidae family, 2 genera have been studied. Sightings of the \u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e genus have been recorded in the majority of the Spanish territory. The north, south and center of mainland Spain are particularly noteworthy. Likewise, there have been sightings on all the islands of the Balearic archipelago and the Canarian archipelago. For the \u003cem\u003eHaematobia\u003c/em\u003e genus, sightings have been recorded mostly in the north, center, and south of mainland Spain, Balearic Islands, and few sightings on the Canary Islands.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTabanidae family\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn total, 10 genera of the Tabanidae family have been studied. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the occurrence data for 4 of the genera: \u003cem\u003eDasyrhamphis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePhilipomyia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSilvius\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eNemorius\u003c/em\u003e. The \u003cem\u003eDasyrhamphis\u003c/em\u003e genus showed sightings mostly concentrated in central, southern and northwestern mainland Spain, in contrast to the \u003cem\u003ePhilipomyia\u003c/em\u003e genus, with most of the sightings recorded in northeastern mainland Spain. The \u003cem\u003eSilvius\u003c/em\u003e genus showed a few sightings in the north and south of mainland Spain. Finally, no specific coordinates have been obtained for sightings of the \u003cem\u003eNemorius\u003c/em\u003e genus, with presence data restricted to central and northern mainland Spain.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ePangonius\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHaematopota\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHybomitra\u003c/em\u003e genera sightings are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. For the first of these, sightings are distributed in the center, south, and north-east of mainland Spain. For the next two, sightings have been recorded both in mainland Spain (especially in the north and center), and in the Balearic Islands.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows the recorded sightings of the \u003cem\u003eAtylotus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eChrysops\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTabanus\u003c/em\u003e genera. Sightings of the \u003cem\u003eAtylotus\u003c/em\u003e genus are mainly located in the north of mainland Spain, however, sightings without specific coordinates have been described in the Balearic Islands. The \u003cem\u003eChrysops\u003c/em\u003e genus has sightings only in mainland Spain, mainly in central and northern areas. Finally, for the \u003cem\u003eTabanus\u003c/em\u003e genus, specimens have been sighted throughout Spain, including the Canary and Balearic Islands, with a large number of sightings concentrated in the northeast and center of mainland Spain.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis work, developed within the framework of the COMBAT project [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], is the first to compile comprehensive information on the potential vectors of surra in Spain. Unlike previous national atlases on trypanosome control and its vectors in African countries, which typically included a tsetse component and an animal infection one [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e], this study focuses strictly on the entomological aspect, specifically on the three different dipteran families that can potentially transmit surra in the Spanish territory. This is due to the fact that the surra atlas for Spain has been already published [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e], and that, to date, no vectors belonging to the \u003cem\u003eGlossina\u003c/em\u003e genus have been reported in Spain.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe dearth of articles relating the presence of vectors to surra in Spain has been evident during the compilation of information sources. The information presented here shows the great variety that exists among the genera of horseflies in the country, especially in mainland Spain. Among them, the \u003cem\u003eTabanus\u003c/em\u003e genus stands out, with a large number of species and a great abundance. Moreover, this genus of horseflies is the only one present in mainland Spain, Balearic and Canary Islands at the same time. Similarly, \u003cem\u003eHippobosca\u003c/em\u003e genus (especially \u003cem\u003eH. equina\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus, 1758), \u003cem\u003eMelophagus\u003c/em\u003e genus (\u003cem\u003eM. ovinus\u003c/em\u003e (Linnaeus, 1758)) and \u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e genus (\u003cem\u003eS. calcitrans\u003c/em\u003e (Linnaeus, 1758)), are generally distributed throughout Spain. Among them, the latter genus stands out, as this muscid is very abundant in the territory, being found in different biotopes and environmental conditions. However, although the literature describes the distribution of \u003cem\u003eM. ovinus\u003c/em\u003e as widespread in the country, there is a lack of sightings with specific coordinates in the territory. In this regard, it should also be noted that for the genus \u003cem\u003eHaematobia\u003c/em\u003e, there is only one sighting of the species \u003cem\u003eH. titilans\u003c/em\u003e (Bezzi, 1907) in the Canary Islands and, to date, no further encounters have been recorded.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the wide distribution of all the genera showed on this paper, outbreaks of surra that may re-emerge in Spain would have an abundance of mechanical vectors by which to spread, as occurred in Canary Islands and Alicante [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e82\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e]. If this were to occur, not only could it spread throughout the country, but the entry into the rest of Europe could be another consequence, as happened in 2008 in Aveyron (France), when infected dromedaries were transported from the Canary Islands [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition to their potential role as vectors of surra, the bites of certain hematophagous flies pose an occupational hazard and a considerable nuisance in rural areas of Europe [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. However, despite their importance, the study of these brachycerans in Spain has not been as extensive as that of other nematoceran vectors. This difference arises partly because they are not associated with diseases of such significant medical-veterinary importance as those transmitted by mosquitoes, sandflies, and biting midges [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], or because their bites do not affect the population in urban areas, as is the case with blackflies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e]. Another key factor is that these brachycerans rely on less refined capture methods compared to nematocerans [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e85\u003c/span\u003e]. This gap in methodology could be an area worth exploring further in future research to improve the study of these vectors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, it would be necessary to standardize and optimize trapping methods for each of the families, especially in the case of louse flies, as in most cases direct interaction with the host is required for trapping. In this regard, recently in Spain, carbon dioxide traps have been proven effective for monitoring \u003cem\u003eLipoptena\u003c/em\u003e species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. In the case of tabanids, studies are currently being carried out comparing the different existing trapping methods and exploring the performance of modified traps [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e], which, in fact, are also used as mechanical control methods. For horse flies, large open-style traps equipped with shiny black spherical targets remain widely used, especially in North America. Some examples include Malaise, Canopy, Box, Greenhead, Manitoba, and Epps traps [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. In Spain, tabanids were successfully collected using home-made Canopy traps, sweep nets, and Malaise traps, achieving optimal results [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is worth noting that the genera included in the atlas do not represent the complete diversity of tabanid and muscid hematophagous flies in Spain. Additionally, the absence of data from certain regions does not preclude the presence of these vectors. For example, within the Hippoboscidae family, other blood-feeding genera in the subfamily Ornithomyinae have been identified, highlighting \u003cem\u003eCrataerina\u003c/em\u003e von Olfers, 1816; \u003cem\u003eOrnithomya\u003c/em\u003e Latreille, 1802; \u003cem\u003eOrnithophila\u003c/em\u003e Rondani, 1879; and \u003cem\u003ePseudolynchia\u003c/em\u003e Bequaert, 1926. These genera primarily parasitize birds and, therefore, are not considered vector of surra. However, they are capable of transmitting pathogens like avian hemosporidia of the \u003cem\u003eHaemoproteus\u003c/em\u003e genus, which has a global distribution [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e], including the Iberian Peninsula [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, literature highlights that some genera listed in this work may act as potential vectors, not only for surra but also for a wide range of other diseases. In fact, this is one of the strengths of the study, as it goes beyond just surra. For instance, \u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e genus, alongside other muscids, have been implicated in the transmission of salmonellosis, shigellosis, bacillary dysentery, and even aspergillosis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, \u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e species are considered potential vectors of anthrax, a role they share with horseflies like \u003cem\u003eChrysops\u003c/em\u003e spp. or \u003cem\u003eTabanus\u003c/em\u003e spp., both of which have also been associated with the transmission of tularemia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e86\u003c/span\u003e]. Other studies highlight the role of \u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e genus in the mechanical transmission of viruses (e.g. equine infectious anemia virus, African swine fever virus, West Nile virus or Rift Valley virus), protozoa (\u003cem\u003eBesnoitia besnoiti\u003c/em\u003e; Besnoit and Robin, 1912), and helminths (\u003cem\u003eHabronema microstoma\u003c/em\u003e; Schneider, 1866) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e], exacerbated by their predilection and persistence to feed multiple times when disturbed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, hippoboscid flies (\u003cem\u003eHippobosca\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMelophagus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eLipoptena\u003c/em\u003e genera), are associated with pathogens such as viruses (e.g., border disease virus or bluetongue virus) and bacteria (\u003cem\u003eRicketssia\u003c/em\u003e spp., \u003cem\u003eBorrelia\u003c/em\u003e spp., \u003cem\u003eBartonella\u003c/em\u003e spp. or \u003cem\u003eCorynebacterium pseudotuberculosis\u003c/em\u003e; Buchanan, 1911) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding the limitations of the study, the distribution maps are based on local studies, some of which are outdated, and citizen science data, which may not provide a homogeneous sampling. This reliance on varied sources introduces potential biases, as the data may not accurately represent current distributions or ecological dynamics. Additionally, the use of citizen science platforms, while valuable, can lead to inconsistencies in data quality and coverage. These factors highlight the need for more standardized and comprehensive surveys to ensure a more accurate and up-to-date understanding of the distribution and ecology of these hematophagous dipterans.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition to understanding their distribution, new studies are needed to increase knowledge about them. Conducting new surveys at meso- and micro-scale could significantly enhance our understanding, as they would provide valuable data not only on the presence of these species but also on their ecological dynamics and interactions with potential hosts. Citizen science platforms could be a very useful tool for this purpose, especially those in which there is broad participation from the scientific community, expert participation, and occurrences are verified through visual evidence, as it is already being implemented in similar studies with dipterans in Spain [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. In fact, given that great advances are currently being made in the application of artificial intelligence for the recognition of insects and other organisms, this technology could be further applied to the processing of these presence data generated by the scientific community or citizens using such platforms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, collaboration between researchers and citizens, and ideally public health authorities and stakeholders, could even foster the integration of findings of various insects into effective vector control programs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis work is a valuable contribution to the knowledge of the epidemiology of \u003cem\u003eT. evansi\u003c/em\u003e in Spain, as it is the first work that collects and integrates information on the presence of its potential dipteran vectors in the territory. Knowledge of vector sightings allows health authorities to organize more effective control or prevention strategies, as well as to act in the event of new outbreaks. Despite the information presented in this work, more studies are needed to describe the presence of vectors in the territory. In addition, the use of citizen science platforms to support scientific research could lead to greater knowledge in this field.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eCOMBAT: COntrolling and progressively Minimizing the Burden of Animal Trypanosomosis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the members of the participating institutions who are contributing to the ongoing implementation of this work. Particularly the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), which contributed to the paper and participates in the COMBAT project in the framework of the Programme Against African Trypanosomosis (PAAT).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was financially supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the grant agreement number [101000467] (COntrolling and progressively Minimizing the Burden of Animal Trypanosomosis [COMBAT]). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Adrián Melián Henríquez was funded by a predoctoral formation program of Research personnel of the Canary Islands Government: “Agencia Canaria de Investigación, Innovación y Sociedad de la Información de la Consejería de Universidades, Ciencia e Innovación y Cultura and by the European Social Fund Plus (ESF+) Programa Operativo Integrado de Canarias 2021-2027, Eje 3 Priority Theme 74 (85%)” (TESIS2022010062).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data underlying the results of this manuscript will be provided upon reasonable request to the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization: MTTJ, JAC, GC; Data curation: AMH, MTTJ; Formal analysis: AMH; Funding acquisition: MTTJ, JAC, GC; Investigation: AMH, MTTJ, DBB, PMAE, CB, MAG, IRA; Methodology: MP, GC; Project Administration: MTTJ; Resources: MTTJ, JAC; Supervision: MTTJ, GC; Validation: MTTJ, JAC, GC; Visualization: AMH, MTTJ, GC; Writing (original draft): AMH, MTTJ, DBB; Writing (review and editing): AMH, MTTJ, DBB, PMAE, CB, MAG, IRA, GC, JAC.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAhmed SK, Rahman AH, Hassan MA, Salih SE, Paone M, Cecchi G. 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Pathogens. 2021. 10(3):334.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMeli\u0026aacute;n-Henr\u0026iacute;quez A., Tejedor-Junco MT., Gonz\u0026aacute;lez-Mart\u0026iacute;n M, Doreste MM, Martel SM, Paone M, \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. An Atlas of Surra in Spain: A Tool to Support Epidemiological Investigations and Disease Control. Animals. 2024. 14(2):243\u0026ndash;3.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Mihok S, Carlson DA. New materials for improving catches of horseflies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Nzi traps. Med Vet Entomol. 2021. 35(4):580\u0026ndash;94.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMoher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA Statement. BMJ. 2009. 339(339): b2535\u0026ndash;5. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Molina JM., Ruiz A., Juste M.C., Corbera JA., Amador R., Guti\u0026eacute;rrez C. Seroprevalence of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma evansi\u003c/em\u003e in Dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius) from the Canary Islands (Spain) Using an Antibody Ab-ELISA. Prev. Vet. Med. 2000. 47:53\u0026ndash;59.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMoloney NM, Barylyuk K, Tromer E, Crook OM, Breckels LM, Lilley KS, \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. Mapping diversity in African trypanosomes using high resolution spatial proteomics. Nat Commun. 2023. 14(1):4401.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMosquito Alert, Escobar A, Južnič-Zonta Ž (2024). Mosquito Alert Dataset. Version 1.15. CREAF - Centre de Recerca Ecol\u0026ograve;gica i Aplicacions Forestals. Occurrence dataset. https://doi.org/10.15470/t5a1os \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMullen GR, Durden LA. Medical and Veterinary Entomology. Academic Press; 2009.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Nartshuk EP, Matyukhin AV, Shokhrin VP. Parasitic Louse Flies (Diptera, Hippoboscidae) and Their Associations with Bird Hosts in the South of the Russian Far East. Entomol Rev. 2022. 102(3):367\u0026ndash;76.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Ngari NN, Gamba DO, Olet PA, Zhao W, Paone M, Cecchi G. Developing a national atlas to support the progressive control of tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomosis in Kenya. Parasit Vectors. 2020. 13(1).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Ogolla KO, Chemuliti JK, Wamwiri FN, Auma JE, Kurgat RK, Wanjala KB, \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. Spatial\u0026ndash;Temporal Variations in Parasitological Prevalence and Host-Related Risk Factors of Camel Trypanosomiasis and Its Vectors in North Eastern Kenya: A Repeated Cross-Sectional Study. J Parasitol Res. 2023. 2023:1\u0026ndash;12.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOkello I, Mafie E, Eastwood G, Nzalawahe J, Mboera LEG. African Animal Trypanosomiasis: A Systematic Review on Prevalence, Risk Factors and Drug Resistance in Sub-Saharan Africa. Badolo A, editor. J Med Entomol. 2022. 59(4):1099-1143, \u0026zwnj;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOnyilagha C, Uzonna JE. Host Immune Responses and Immune Evasion Strategies in African Trypanosomiasis. Front Immunol. 2019.10.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOtranto D, Wall R. Veterinary Parasitology. John Wiley \u0026amp; Sons; 2024.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePataki BA., Garriga J., Eritja R., Palmer JRB., Bartumeus F., Csabai, I. Deep learning identification for citizen science surveillance of tiger mosquitoes. Sci Rep. 2021. 11(1).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Percoma L, Rayaiss\u0026eacute; JB, Gimonneau G, Bengaly Z, Pooda SH, Pagabeleguem S, \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. An atlas to support the progressive control of tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomosis in Burkina Faso. Parasit Vectors. 2022. 15(1).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Ram\u0026iacute;rez-Iglesias JR, Eleizalde MC, G\u0026oacute;mez-Pi\u0026ntilde;eres E, Mendoza M. \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma evansi\u003c/em\u003e: A clinical, parasitological and immunological evaluation of trypanosomosis using a chronic rabbit model. DOAJ. 2012. 2(1):78\u0026ndash;82.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Rodr\u0026iacute;guez N, Tejedor-Junco MT, Gonz\u0026aacute;lez-Mart\u0026iacute;n M, Santana A, Guti\u0026eacute;rrez C. Cross-sectional study on prevalence of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma evansi\u003c/em\u003e infection in domestic ruminants in an endemic area of the Canary Islands (Spain). Prev Vet Med. 2012. 105(1-2):144\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Rodr\u0026iacute;guez N, Tejedor-Junco MT, Gonz\u0026aacute;lez-Mart\u0026iacute;n M, Doreste F, Gutierrez C. \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma evansi\u003c/em\u003e Assessment in Equines: A Study in One Decade in an Endemic Area of the Canary Islands, Spain. JEVS. 2012. 33(6):406\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Rodr\u0026iacute;guez NF, Tejedor-Junco MT, Gonz\u0026aacute;lez-Mart\u0026iacute;n M, Gutierrez C. \u003cem\u003eStomoxys calcitrans\u003c/em\u003e as possible vector of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma evansi\u003c/em\u003e among camels in an affected area of the Canary Islands, Spain. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2014. 47(4):510\u0026ndash;2.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRojo M., Hern\u0026aacute;ndez M., Campos F., Santamar\u0026iacute;a T., Dias S., Casanueva, P. The Iberian Peninsula is an Area of Infection by \u003cem\u003eHaemoproteus payevskyi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHaemoproteus nucleocondensus\u003c/em\u003e for the White-Throated Dipper \u003cem\u003eCinclus cinclus\u003c/em\u003e. Ardeola. 2015. 62(2): 373\u0026ndash;382. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRuiz-Arrondo I, Alarc\u0026oacute;n-Elbal PM, Figueras L, Delacour-Estrella S, Mu\u0026ntilde;oz A, Kotter H, \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. Expansi\u0026oacute;n de los sim\u0026uacute;lidos (Diptera: Simuliidae) en Espa\u0026ntilde;a: un nuevo reto para la salud p\u0026uacute;blica y la sanidad animal. Bolet\u0026iacute;n SEA. 2014. 54: 193-200.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Sasaki H. Capturing tabanids by traps: Development history, visual and olfactory attractants and future of tabanid trap. Med Entomol Zool. 2016. 67(4):205\u0026ndash;18.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Sazmand A, Desquesnes M, Otranto D. \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma evansi\u003c/em\u003e. Trends in Parasitology. 2022.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Shereni W, Neves L, Argil\u0026eacute;s R, Nyakupinda L, Cecchi G. An atlas of tsetse and animal African trypanosomiasis in Zimbabwe. Parasit Vectors. 2021.14(1).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStork, N.E. How many species of insects and other terrestrial arthropods are there on Earth? Ann. Rev. Entomol. 2018. 63(1):31-45.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026zwnj; Tamarit A, Gutierrez C, Arroyo R, Jimenez V, Zagal\u0026aacute; G, Bosch I, \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma evansi\u003c/em\u003e infection in mainland Spain. 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Comparison of Vavoua, Malaise and Nzi traps with and without attractants for trapping of \u003cem\u003eStomoxys \u003c/em\u003espp\u003cem\u003e. \u003c/em\u003e(Diptera: Muscidae) and tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) on cattle farms.J Agric Nat Resour. 2017. 51(4):319\u0026ndash;23.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTurell MJ., Knudson GB. Mechanical transmission of \u003cem\u003eBacillus anthracis\u003c/em\u003e by stable flies (\u003cem\u003eStomoxys calcitrans\u003c/em\u003e) and mosquitoes (\u003cem\u003eAedes aegypti\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAedes taeniorhynchus\u003c/em\u003e). Infect Immun. 1987. 55(8), 1859\u0026ndash;1861.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWilliams RE. Veterinary Entomology: Livestock and Companion Animals. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis; 2009.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"parasites-and-vectors","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"parv","sideBox":"Learn more about [Parasites \u0026 Vectors](http://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13071","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13071/3","title":"Parasites \u0026 Vectors","twitterHandle":"@bugbittentweets","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Diptera, surra, maps, Muscidae, Hippoboscidae, Tabanidae, citizen science databases, atlas","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6518690/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6518690/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground\u003c/strong\u003e: Hematophagous diptera can transmit a wide range of diseases to both humans and animals. Some species of the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003egenus rely on these vectors for transmission, either cyclically or mechanically. \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma evansi\u003c/em\u003e, the only trypanosome species of African origin detected in Spain to date, istransmitted mechanically.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e: To assess the occurrence and distribution of potential mechanical vectors at the national level, a systematic review focused on the Hippoboscidae, Muscidae and Tabanidae families, was conducted. The methodology developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the PRISMA statement were followed, incorporating data from 43 peer-reviewed scientific publications and four digital citizen science databases.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e: The analysis identified three genera of the Hippoboscidae family, two of Muscidae family, and ten of Tabanidae family. Presence maps at the genus level were generated.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions\u003c/strong\u003e: This atlas serves as a valuable tool for the prevention and control of vector-borne animal trypanosomosis in Spain. However, further studies on the distribution and ecology of hematophagous dipterans are essential to better understand their role on disease transmission and their potential impact on disease outbreaks.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Distribution atlas of the key potential vectors for Trypanosoma evansi (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) in Spain","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-12 09:10:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6518690/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-06-06T06:59:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-28T12:04:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"232505836124362719281657323206649466180","date":"2025-05-24T06:39:16+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"229551975646375846786736391301754304090","date":"2025-05-10T00:20:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-07T14:51:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-04-28T14:09:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-04-28T12:01:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Parasites \u0026 Vectors","date":"2025-04-24T08:18:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"parasites-and-vectors","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"parv","sideBox":"Learn more about [Parasites \u0026 Vectors](http://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13071","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13071/3","title":"Parasites \u0026 Vectors","twitterHandle":"@bugbittentweets","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b4c7056d-370b-4450-99dc-bf3c1b142d8d","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-04T16:44:02+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6518690","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-025-06922-9","journal":{"identity":"parasites-and-vectors","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Parasites \u0026 Vectors"},"publishedOn":"2025-07-28 16:13:27","publishedOnDateReadable":"July 28th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-12 09:10:53","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s13071-025-06922-9","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-025-06922-9","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6518690","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6518690","identity":"rs-6518690","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}