Prevalence and antibiotic resistance profile of Salmonella spp. strains isolated from the vegetable food chain in Niamey, Niger

Prevalence and antibiotic resistance profile of Salmonella spp. strains isolated from the vegetable food chain in Niamey, Niger | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Prevalence and antibiotic resistance profile of Salmonella spp. strains isolated from the vegetable food chain in Niamey, Niger Alio Almou Abdoulaye, Abdel-Kader Alio Sanda, Yaou Chaibou, Maman Moustapha Rabiou, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4909303/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Salmonellosis is the main cause of collective food poisoning in humans. They are bacterial infections caused by various Salmonella species. The overall aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and antibiotic resistance phenotype of Salmonella strains isolated from vegetables in the urban community of Niamey. Methods To this end, one hundred and twenty-four (124) samples of some vegetables (carrot, lettuce, onion and tomato) were taken from market garden sites and markets in Niamey. Salmonella were tested using the ISO 6579:2017 4-step method: pre-enrichment, enrichment, isolation and biochemical identification, and the antibiotic resistance phenotype was determined using the standard Kirby-Bauer agar diffusion method. Results Some sampling sites showed high Salmonella prevalences, notably site 1 (75.00%) and market 4 (40.00%). The overall level of Salmonella contamination in vegetables was 13.71%, including carrot (25.00%) and lettuce (15.38%) samples. The most common resistance phenotypes were Ceftriazone (100%), Amoxicillin + Clavulanic Acid (76.92%), Ciprofloxacin (46.15%), Aztreonam (33.33%) and Imipenem (30.77%). Conclusion The presence of multidrug-resistant Salmonella strains in vegetables reflects the potential risk associated with their consumption. It is important to research the potential resistance and virulence genes of these strains for better management of infectious diseases. Salmonella prevalence vegetables resistance antibiotics Niamey/Niger Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Food-borne diseases represent a serious public health problem, with considerable economic consequences worldwide [ 1 ]. It is estimated that pathogenic microorganisms in food are responsible for between 6.5 and 33 million illnesses and over 9,000 human deaths per year worldwide [ 2 ]. However, pathogenic enteric bacteria, such as Salmonella and certain enterohaemorrhagic serotypes of Escherichia coli , are implicated in a growing number of cases of Collective Foodborne Toxi-Infections [ 3 ]. The majority of reported cases of microbial food poisoning (95%) are caused by food prepared at home, in restaurants or institutions. An estimated 5% of cases are caused by industrially-produced foods [ 4 ]. Salmonellosis is one of the most common food-borne illnesses in almost all countries, and Salmonella enterica Enteritidis followed by Typhimurium represent the most frequently isolated serotypes [ 1 ]. Salmonella is one of the main causes of food-borne outbreaks in developing countries [ 5 , 6 , 7 ]. In human pathology, Salmonella are divided into typhoid serotypes (S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi) and non-typhoid serotypes [ 8 ]. Non-typhoidal Salmonella cause salmonellosis through contaminated food products such as fresh produce, eggs, pork, vegetables and seafood [ 9 , 10 ]. Fruits and vegetables, which represent an important food source of nutrients, have also been reported as a vector for transmission and contamination [ 1 ]. However, antibiotic resistance is now one of the most serious threats to global health, food security and development [ 11 ]. Antibiotic resistance in Salmonella strains has emerged worldwide, making antibiotic susceptibility testing an important role in public health laboratories. Antibacterial agents are often recommended in cases of suspected salmonellosis. Patients did not respond to the most widely available antibiotics of choice. These practices can enhance antibiotic resistance genes. It is now generally accepted that the main risk factor for increasing resistance in pathogenic bacteria is the uncontrolled use of antibiotics [ 12 ]. Indeed, uncontrolled overuse of antibiotics can give rise to a selection of resistant bacterial strains. This is known as antibiotic resistance [ 13 ]. The overall aim of this study is to determine the prevalence and antibiotic resistance phenotype of Salmonella strains isolated from vegetables in Niamey. Materials and methods Study area The study was carried out in the urban community of Niamey. The Niamey region is located in the south-western part of Niger between 13°24' and 13°35'N latitude and 2°00' and 2°15'E longitude, with an altitude of between 160 and 250 m. Its administrative boundaries cover 552.27 km², of which approximately 297.46km² is urbanized [ 14 ]. Niamey's population is estimated at around 1,407,635. The city of Niamey is subdivided into five (5) communal districts, with the following population breakdown by communal district: Niamey I: 287,902 inhabitants; Niamey II: 338,455 inhabitants; Niamey III: 223,685 inhabitants; Niamey IV: 376,271 inhabitants; Niamey V: 181,321 inhabitants [ 15 ]. The climate is Sahelo-Sudanian, with a long dry season from October to May and a short rainy season from June to September. The cold dry season is the most favorable for vegetable production, during which most crops are grown. The study was carried out in three (3) large market gardening sites (Gounti yéna, Gamkalé and Harobanda) and five (5) markets (Petit marché, Dar es salam market, dolé market, Wadata market and Harobanda market) selling vegetables in the Niamey urban community (Fig. 1 ). Sampling mode Vegetable samples were taken at production and sales sites (markets). Samples were taken under sterile conditions, using single-use sterile gloves and alcohol to avoid external contamination. Samples were taken from rootless lettuces, whole tomatoes showing no visible damage or cracks, whole carrots and whole onions. A lettuce sample corresponded to three (3) heads of lettuce, and a tomato sample corresponded to three (3) fruits without cracks, weighing around 150g, taken at random from different corners of the production site or from the same vendor's lot. Carrot and onion samples were taken at the point of sale only. A carrot sample consists of at least three carrots weighing a minimum of 150g, taken at random from the same vendor. A batch of approximately 150g served as the onion sample. An information sheet was attached to each sample. Each sample taken was well packaged in a polyethylene bag, then carefully labeled. The samples were then transferred to the microbiology laboratory of the Faculty of Science and Technology (FAST), where they were conditioned and placed in a cooler containing carboglasses to keep the temperature down to around 4°C. Testing for Salmonella Salmonella testing was carried out according to ISO 6579:2017 [ 16 ] in 4 steps [ 8 ]: pre-enrichment, enrichment, isolation and biochemical identification. Bacteriological analysis was carried out on 124 samples. Pre-enrichment : was achieved by grinding the lettuce sample in a sterile polyethylene bag around the Bunsen burner flame. Twenty-five (25) grams of the shredded material was then taken and introduced directly into 225 mL of buffered peptone water, incubated at 37°C for 24 hrs. Enrichment : 0.1 mL of pre-enrichment broth was taken and added to 10 mL of RVS and incubated at 42°C for 24h. Isolation : each enrichment culture is streaked on SS agar and Petri dishes incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. Biochemical identification : suspected Salmonella colonies were examined using a mini-gallery consisting of 4 media (Kligler-Hajna agar; urea-indol medium, ONPG (O- nitrophenyl-β-D-galactopyranoside), simmons citrate, mannitol-mobility), with confirmation using an API 20 E gallery (Biomérieux, France). Antibiotic resistance testing Inoculum preparation Inoculum was prepared from young colonies grown the previous day at 37°C on nutrient agar. A standardized 0.5 Mac Farland inoculum corresponding to 10 8 CFU/mL (CA-SFM / EUCAST, 2023) [ 17 ] was prepared. Then 100 µL of this inoculum was diluted in 10 mL physiological water to obtain a final concentration of 10 6 CFU/mL. Seeding The final inoculum was inoculated by swabbing Petri dishes, dipping the swab into the bacterial suspension, then wringing it out by pressing firmly against the inner wall of the tube. It is then rubbed over the entire surface of the Mueller Hinton agar (MHA), from top to bottom, in tight ridges. The operation is repeated three (3) times, turning the dish 60° each time. Inoculation is completed by passing the swab around the periphery of the agar [ 18 , 19 , 20 ]. After inoculation, nine (09) antibiotic-impregnated discs (Bio-rad, France) of different families were placed on the MHA surface using sterilized forceps. The plates were left at room temperature for around 15 min after disc placement, to allow prediffusion of the antibiotics, and then incubated at 37°C for 24 hrs. After incubation, the inhibition diameters around the antibiotic discs were measured. Strains were then categorized as Susceptible, Intermediate or Resistant by comparing these diameters with the critical diameters for enterobacteria (for each antibiotic) set by CA-SFM / EUCAST (2023) [ 17 ]. Table I. Characteristics of antibiotic discs used for antibiotic susceptibility testing Families Antibiotics Acronyms Expenses Inhibition diameter (mm) Sensitive ≥ Resistant < β-lactam Amoxicillin + clavulanic acid AMC 30 µg 19 19 Aztreonam ATM 30 µg 26 21 Ceftriaxone CRO 30 µg 25 22 Imipenem IPM 10 µg 22 19 Meropenem MRP 10 µg 22 16 Quinolone Ciprofloxacin CIP 5 µg 25 22 Tetracycline Tetracycline TET 30 µg 19 17 Nitrofuran Nitrofurantoin F 300 µg 11 11 Sulfonamide Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole TXT 25 µg 14 11 1.1. Statistical analysis IBM SPSS statistics software version 23.0.0.0 was used to calculate frequencies. Microsoft Excel was used to generate the graphs. The data were then subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Differences were considered significant for values of p < 0 .05. Results Prevalence of Salmonella strains isolated from vegetables Table 2 shows the prevalence of Salmonella isolated from vegetables by sampling site. Market prevalences ranged from 40% (market 4) to 4.55% (market 1). Salmonella spp . was found in all markets, but markets 3 and 4 were the most contaminated (15% and 30% respectively), followed by Salmonella arizonae in markets 2, 4 and 5. Salmonella pullorum was only identified in market 5 (3.85%, or one (1) species). Salmonella spp . were found on all market garden sites, with site 1 the most contaminated (23.08%, i.e. three (3) species identified). Salmonella arizonae was identified only at site 1 (7.69%). On the other hand, Salmonella pullorum was absent from all samples taken at the market garden sites. Prevalences did not vary significantly between sampling sites ( P-value > 0.05). Table 2 Distribution of Salmonella serotypes by sampling site Sampling locations Number of vegetables Salmonella serotypes Total S. arizonae S. pullorum S. spp Markets Market1 22 - 1(4,55) a 1(4,55) Market2 22 1(4,55) a 1(4,55) a 2(9,09) Market3 20 - 3(15,00) a 3(15,00) Market4 10 1(10,00) a 3(30,00) a 4(40,00) Market5 26 1(3,85) a 1(3,85) a 2(07,69) a 4(15,38) Total 100 3(3,00) 1(1,00) 9(9,00) 13(13,00) Fields Site1 4 1(7,69) a 2(50,00) a 3(75,00%) Site2 6 - 1(16,67) a 1(16,67) Site3 14 - 0 0 Total 24 1(04,17) 3(12,50) 4(16,67) Values with the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P > 0.05). Market 1: Petit marché; market 2: Dar es salam; market 3: Dolé; market 4: Wadata; market 5: Harobanda; Site 1: Gounti yéna; site 2: Gamkalé; site 3: Harobanda. Table 3 shows the prevalence of Salmonella in the four (4) types of vegetables analyzed. Prevalence ranged from 25% (i.e. 3 out of 12 contaminated samples) in carrot samples to 8.33% (i.e. 1 out of 12 samples) in onion samples. Salmonella prevalence in lettuce samples was 15.38%, the second highest rate (10 out of 69 contaminated samples). Only one (1) strain of Salmonella pullorum was found in the lettuce samples. The differences did not differ significantly between vegetable types ( P-value > 0.05 ). Table 3 Prevalences of Salmonella strains identified by type of vegetable Product type Number of products Salmonella serotypes n(%) Total S. arizonae S. pullorum S. spp Lettuce 65 2(3,08) a 1(1,54) a 7(12,31) a 10(15,38) Tomato 35 1(2,86) a 2(5,71) a 3(8,57) Carrot 12 1(8,33) a 2(16,67) a 3(25,00) Onion 12 - 1(8,33) a 1(8,33) Total 124 4(3,26) 1(0,08) 12(9,68) 17(13,71) Values with the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P > 0.05). Antibiotic resistance phenotype of Salmonella strains isolated from vegetables Table 4 shows the antibiotic resistance levels of Salmonella strains isolated from vegetables. Antibiotic susceptibility testing of Salmonella strains (two (2) serotypes of Salmonella enterica ( arizonae and pullorum ) and 11 strains of Salmonella spp. ) showed that all strains (100%) were resistant to at least one (1) antibiotic. Among the strains, Salmonella spp. had an antibiotic resistance rate of 42.45%. Salmonella arizonae is 31.25% resistant, and S. pullorum 25.00%. Differences between strains were not significant ( P-value > 0 .05). These serotypes gave very different responses from one antibiotic to another. Analysis of the results shows that Salmonella arizonae is 100% resistant to AMC, CRO and SXT. Salmonella pullorum is 100% resistant to AMC and CRO. Several resistance phenotypes were observed in Salmonella spp. strains, with the results showing that at least one Salmonella spp . strain is resistant to any antibiotic. The most common resistance phenotypes were CRO (100%), AMC (76.92%), CIP (46.15%), ATM (33.33%) and IPM (30.77). There were no significant differences between serotypes and antibiotics (P > 0.05). Table 4 Antibiotic resistance phenotypes of Salmonella serotypes S. arizonae (n = 2) S. pullorum (n = 1) S. spp (n = 10) P-value R S R S R S AMC 2(100) a 0 a 1(100) a 0 a 8(76,92) a 2(23,08) a 0,653 ATM 0 a 1(100) a 0 a 0 a 1(33,33) a 2(66,67) a 0,504 CIP 0 a 2(100) a 0 a 1(100) a 5(46,15) a 5(53,85) a 0,330 CRO 2(100) a 0 a 1(100) a 0 a 10(100) a 0 a - F 0 a 2(100) a 0 a 1(100) a 1(07,69) a 9(92,31) a 0,884 IPM 0 a 2(100) a 0 a 1(100) a 3(30,77) a 7(69,23) a 0,540 MRP 0 a 2(100) a 0 a 1(100) a 3(23,08) a 7(76,92) a 0,653 SXT 1(100) a 0 a 0 a 1(100) a 3(33,33) a 7(66,67) a 0,303 TET 0 a 2(100) a 0 a 1(100) a 2(23,08) a 8(76,92) a 0,653 AMC: Amoxicillin + Clavulanic Acid; ATM: Aztreonam; CIP: Ciprofloxacin; CRO: Ceftriaxone; F: Nitrofurantoin;IPM: Imipenem; MRP: Meropenem; SXT: Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole; TET: Tetracycline Figure 2 shows the prevalence of resistance in Salmonella strains for each marker antibiotic tested. Resistance varies from one antibiotic to another. The most frequently encountered resistances were to cephalosporins (CRO, 100%), penicillins (AMC, 100%), and fluoroquinolones (CIP, 46,15). On the other hand, low resistance was observed for F (7.69%). High sensitivities were observed for Nitrofurantoin (92.31%), Cyclins (TET, 76.92%), Monobactams (ATM, 76.92%), Carbapenems (IMP, 69.23%) and (MRP, 76.92%)) and Sulfonamides (SXT, 76.92%). No significant differences were observed between antibiotics (p > 0.05). Figure 3 shows the antibiotic resistance rate of Salmonella strains isolated according to the type of vegetable analyzed. Salmonella strains isolated from lettuce samples are highly resistant to CRO (100%); AMC (88.90%), CIP (55.60%), TET (55.60%) and SXT (50.00%). The strain isolated from onion samples was resistant to AMC, ATM, CRO, F and TET. Strains isolated from tomato samples were resistant to CIP (100%), SXT (100%), CRO (100%), TET (100%) and ATM (25%). Finally, strains isolated from carrot samples are resistant to AMC (100%), CRO (100%) and IPM (33.30%). Differences in resistance from one type of vegetable to another were not significant (P-value > 0.05). Multi-antibiotic resistance in Salmonella strains isolated from vegetables The multidrug resistance of Salmonella strains is shown in Table 5 . Approximately 93.75% of strains are multi-resistant. Multidrug resistance ranges from 2 to 6 antibiotics. Resistance to three (3) antibiotics is most common in these strains (around 37.50% for S. spp ), followed by resistance to two (2) and three (3) antibiotics (around 12.50%). Only Salmonella spp . strains are resistant to four (4) and six (6) antibiotics (6.25% and 12.50% respectively). No significant differences were observed between strains (P-value > 0.05). Table 5 Multi-resistance of Salmonella strains to antibiotics Number Ab Salmonella serotypes Total P-value S. arizonae S. pullorum S. spp 2Ab 2(12,50) a 0 a,b 2(12,50) b 4(25,00) 0,898 3Ab 0 a 0 a 6(37,50) a 6(37,50) 4Ab 0 a,b 1(6,25) b 1(6,25) a 2(12,50) 5Ab 0 a 0 a 1(6,25) a 1(6,25) 6Ab 0 a 0 a 2(12,50) a 2(12,50) Total 2(13,33) 1(6,25) 11(75,00) 15(93,75) Ab: antibiotic Prevalence of resistant strains by type of vegetable Table 6 shows the prevalence of Salmonella resistant to at least one antibiotic, according to the type of vegetable analyzed. The prevalence of resistant strains is 10.48% in vegetables. The prevalences of the different types of vegetables analyzed were 25.00%; 10.77%; 8.33%; 5.71% in carrot, lettuce, onion and tomato, respectively . No significant differences were observed between vegetables (P-value>0.05). In terms of strains, the prevalence of Salmonella spp . represented 8.06% of the multidrug resistance observed in vegetables, and was the highest. Strains of S. arizonae and S. pullorum had prevalences of 1.61% and 0.80% respectively. Prevalences did not vary significantly according to vegetable type or serotype ( P-value>0 .05). Table:6 . Prevalences of resistant Salmonella strains according to vegetables tested Vegetable types Numbers of vegetables Salmonella strains n(%) Total P-value S. arizonae S pullorum S. spp. Carrot 12 1(8,33) a 0 a 2(16,67) a 3(25,00) 0,413 Lettuce 65 1(1,54) a 1(1,54) a 5(7,69) a 7(10,77) Onion 12 0 a 0 a 1(8,33) a 1(8,33) Tomato 35 0 a 0 a 2(5,71) a 2(5,71) Total 124 2(1,61) 1(0,80) 10(8,06) 13(10,48) Discussion Salmonella is an enteric bacterium and a major pathogen causing food poisoning. Salmonella species are the main causes of acute gastroenteritis in many countries, and salmonellosis remains a major public health problem worldwide, particularly in developing countries [ 12 ]. Salmonella is a highly pathogenic organism, and once it has been detected in foodstuffs, the latter are classified as unsafe for human consumption [ 21 , 22 ]. In this study, Salmonella represented 33.34% (20/60) of the enterobacteriaceae species isolated from vegetables and irrigation water in market gardens. Salmonella prevalence in all vegetable samples was 13.71% (17/124), with carrot samples the most contaminated (25%), followed by lettuce samples ( 15.38% ) and tomato and onion samples (8.57% and 8.33% respectively). The rate of Salmonella contamination was 13.00% in market vegetable samples and 16.67% in market garden samples. Our results are lower than those obtained in a previous study on lettuce in Niger [ 8 ]. These authors reported a contamination rate of 36.94% for lettuce samples taken from the eight (8) regions of Niger, with the Niamey region being the most contaminated (i.e. 56%). This difference in results could be explained by the fact that half of the samples analyzed in their study were taken in Zango (Gounti yéna), which corresponds to our site 1, the most contaminated of our study sites. Salmonella prevalences in lettuce samples of 50% and 70.15% have been reported from Burkina Faso [ 12 , 23 ] and 22% and 16% from Nigeria [ 24 , 25 ]. These values are well above the 15.38% prevalence observed in the present study. The prevalence of Salmonella in all vegetable samples was 13.71%. This is significantly higher than the 2.6% prevalence reported from Côte d'Ivoire (Toe et al. [ 26 ]) or the 3 to 10% from the DRC (Mahangaiko et al. , [ 27 ]). Several studies have highlighted the presence of Salmonella in foods other than vegetables throughout the world, notably in Burkina Faso, in mutton (19%) Bawa et al . [ 28 ], sandwiches (17.7%) Nikiema et al. [ 10 ] and sesame samples (10.28%) Douamba et al . [ 29 ], in Ethiopia in cow's milk samples (10.5%), Abbunna et al . [ 30 ] and in Chad in chicken meat (26.66–41.66%) Abba et al . [ 31 ]. All these studies show high prevalences of Salmonella . The presence of Salmonella in vegetables is an indicator of faecal contamination [ 23 ]. This contamination can be explained, on the one hand, by traditional methods, storage temperature and inadequate personal hygiene of handlers after harvest and at the time of sale [ 32 ] and, on the other hand, by the use of waste water without any treatment, and the use of manure as fertilizer. The increased contamination of produce both at market and in the field highlights the debate on the importance of post-harvest effects, including poor hygiene and market management on fresh produce quality [ 33 ]. Two (2) serotypes of Salmonella enterica have been identified ( Salmonella Arizonae and Salmonella Pullorum ) and the remains are Salmonella spp. The ecological niche of Salmonella Arizonae is the intestine of cold-blooded animals such as lizards, geckos and frogs [ 34 , 35 ]. The presence of this bacterium in vegetables could be explained by the abundance of these animals in market gardening sites. The presence of Salmonella Arizonae has also been reported in lettuce in Abidjan [ 35 ]. The presence of this bacterium in soils could be linked to the presence of these animals in large numbers on the three production sites due to the high level of insalubrity [ 35 ]. Salmonella Pullorum/Gllinarum is a poultry-specific agent (agent of avian typhoid) [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ]. The ecological reservoir of this serotype is the poultry digestive tract [ 41 ]. The presence of S. pullorum in vegetables can be explained by the use of poultry manure (droppings) for soil fertilization. The use of poultry manure as fertilizer could explain the presence of Salmonella Gallinarum on cultivation sites [ 35 ]. This observation corroborates that of Beuchat and Ryu [ 42 ], who reported that manure composed mainly of poultry droppings is a major contributor to Salmonella Gallinarum contamination of lettuce. With regard to resistant Salmonella serotypes, our results are also in line with those previously reported from Niger [ 12 ] and other countries, including Algeria (Sebaa et al . [ 43 ]), Burkina Faso (Bawa et al. [ 28 ]; Somda et al . [ 12 ]), Côte d'Ivoire (Toe [ 33 ]; Kouame [ 44 ]), Ethiopia (Gebremichael et al . [ 45 ]; Zewdu et al . [ 46 ]), Chad (Abba et al. [ 31 ]), Kenya (Ngai et al , 2021 [ 47 ]), Bangladesh (Nipa et al . [ 48 ]), Japan (Najwa et al . [ 49 ]), Pakistan (Razzaq et al . [ 50 ]), Morocco (Bouchrif et al . [ 1 ]; Allaoui et al . [ 51 ]; Baloch et al. [ 52 ]), Nigeria ( Raufu et al. [ 25 ]; Abakpa et al . [ 53 ]; Nwiyi et al . [ 54 ]). Antibiotic-resistant strains isolated from lettuce samples are likely to reflect contamination by strains possessing at least one antimicrobial resistance gene [ 35 ] and originating from healthy carriers among people handling these products [ 55 ]. On the other hand, this resistance could be explained by the indirect contamination of vegetables by fecal bacteria from animals during the manure fertilization process [ 8 , 33 ]. The majority of growers used manure from livestock, particularly chicken, to fertilize vegetable soils [ 56 ]. In these farms, antibiotics are widely and abusively used to prevent and treat infections, and also to accelerate animal growth [ 57 , 33 ]. The use of antibiotics can encourage the selection of resistant bacteria in enteric strains, which are then eliminated via their excrement [ 33 , 58 ]. Salmonella spp. strains showed high rates of resistance to the antibiotics tested. The overall rate of antibiotic resistance in these strains was 40%. The highest levels of resistance were to cephalosporins (CRO, 100%), penicillins (AMC, 76.92%), fluoroquinolones (CIP, 46.15%), sulfonamides (SXT, 33.33%), carbapenems (IMP, 30.7%) and tetracycline (TET, 23.08%). These results corroborate the resistance of Salmonella to penicillin A (ampicillin, amoxicillin; amoxicillin + clavulanic acid) and cephalosporins (cefixime, ceftazidime) previously reported from Niger [ 8 ]. Such resistance is thought to be linked to the production of a cephalosporinase or extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) by the strains in question [ 8 ]. The beta-lactam family acts on bacteria by inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis after binding to a membrane protein receptor: PBP (Penicilllin Binding Protein) [ 59 ]. Bacterial strains resist these antibiotics by producing a beta-lactamase which inactivates the antibiotics [ 60 ] has shown that antibiotics belonging to the same class act by the same mechanism of action, and that target bacteria can resist them by an identical mechanism. In contrast to our results, [ 31 ] observed no resistance to CRO and CIP (0% each), but reported higher levels of resistance to IPM and SXT, 100% and 41.46% respectively. Other authors have reported low levels of Salmonella resistance to IPM (10%), CRO (5%) and CIP (5%) [ 12 ]. Salmonella resistance to IPC may be due to its use in both human and veterinary medicine [ 33 , 57 ]. Indeed, various authors have reported IPC-resistant Salmonella in vegetables in Japan (Nawas et al . [ 61 ]) and Nigeria (Kemajou et al. [ 62 ]). The disparity observed between the results could be justified by the controlled use of CIP in both human and animal medicine [ 62 ]. This emergence of fluoroquinolone resistance is alarming, as these are the antibiotics of choice in veterinary medicine for the treatment of invasive salmonellosis. The consistency of resistance rates among the different molecules could be explained by the use of fluoroquinolones, which are more recent molecules in animal husbandry [ 33 ]. In various countries, several authors have reported rates of Salmonella resistance to TET, notably in Ethiopia (Fufa et al. [ 29 ]; Gebremichael et al. [ 44 ]), Burkina Faso (Bawa et al. [ 27 ]), Algeria (Alloui et al. [ 50 ]), Côte d'Ivoire (Toe, [ 32 ]) and Chad (Abba et al . [ 30 ]). These rates of resistance to TET are all higher than our observations. However, a low resistance rate of around 13% has been recorded in Algeria [ 6 ]. TET resistance is also alarming in developing countries, and may reflect contamination of raw vegetables by contaminated irrigation water or manure. In addition, these resistances can potentially be acquired through the food chain from human contamination arising from therapeutic practices [ 62 , 63 , 64 ]. Tetracyclines are old molecules widely used as first-line treatments. Resistance to these molecules is fairly well known, and is generally due to a plasmid gene that can be acquired quite easily by bacteria. Tetracyclines are broad-spectrum bacteriostatic antibiotics, active against both Gram + and Gram- bacteria [ 30 , 50 ]. It should be noted that multi-resistance was observed in Salmonella strains (around 93.97% of strains). Numerous cases of multidrug resistance have been observed in these foods by other authors [ 6 , 32 , 47 , 61 , 65 , 66 ]. At present, multidrug resistance is frequently observed in isolates from human clinical cases worldwide, and this characteristic is having an increasing impact on the empirical treatment of community infections [ 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 ]. Conclusion This study highlighted the presence of resistant Salmonella strains in market gardens and markets in the urban community of Niamey. Resistance involved several antibiotic families. Salmonella resistance concerned cephalosporins (CRO), penicillins (AMC) and fluoroquinolones (CIP). Multi-resistance reached up to six (6) antibiotics ( Salmonella strains). The presence of Salmonella strains resistant to several antibiotics in the vegetable samples analyzed testifies to a lack of good hygiene practices in market gardening and markets in the urban community of Niamey. Given the importance of fresh vegetables in the human diet and the high prevalence of multi-resistant strains recorded, it is important to implement a national health monitoring policy to control the circulation of multi-resistant strains. Abbreviations API : Analytical Profile Index ATCC: American Type Culture Collection CASFM : Comité d’Antibiogramme de la Société Française de Microbiologie EUCAST: European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing MHA: Muller Hinton Agar RVS : Rappaport Vassiliadis Soja SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences SS : Salmonella –Shigella TIAC: Toxi-Infection-Alimentaire Collective Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate The vegetables samples were collected during the survey on the market garden sites and vegetables sales markets. All markets gardeners and vegetables sellers freely accepted, collaborated and gave their consent for collection of the vegetables samples. The international standards were used for sample analysis. Consent for publication Not Applicable Availability of data and materials The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author. Competing interests No competing of interest is related to this present manuscript. Funding No funding was received for this work. Everything was done on a personal funding. Author's contributions AAA carried out the sampling, sample collection and bacteriological analysis at the laboratory, HSD participated in sample collection, ASA and YC supervised laboratory analysis, RMM and AFM participated for data analysis, SHS and SH corrected and validated the analysis protocol and participated in drafting the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript. Acknowledgements I thank the market gardeners and vegetables sellers of the urban community of Niamey for their well collaboration during the samples collection. References Bouchrif B., Paglietti B., Murgia M., Piana A., Cohen N., Must M., Ennaji A., Rubino S., Timinouni M. (2009). Prevalence and antibioticresistance of Salmonellaisolated from food in Morocco. 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Côte d'Ivoire: Université Félix Houphouët Boigny, 192p. Gebremichael G., Daniel A., Yimtubezinash W., Tesfalem H. (2018). Isolation and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profile of Shigella and Salmonella Species from Children with Acute Diarrhoea in Mekelle Hospital and Semen Health Center, Tigray. Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Sciences 28(2) :197. Zewdu G., Sisay M., Lencho M., Sarba Ej., Getachew K. And Solomon S. (2019). Prevalence, risk factors and antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Salmonella isolated from dogs of Ambo, Bako and Gojo towns of West Shoa, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Veterinary. Journal 23 (1): 59-77. Ngai DG., Nyamache AK., Ombori O. (2021). Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Salmonella species and Escherichia coli isolates from poultry feeds in Ruiru Sub-County, Kenya. BMC Research Notes 14(41): 1-6. Nipa MN., Mazumdar RM., Hasan MM., Fakruddin M., Islam S., Bhuiyan HR., Iqbal A. (2011). 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4909303","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":351308135,"identity":"4824a733-01b2-4d73-bce9-07aa25198bc5","order_by":0,"name":"Alio Almou Abdoulaye","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABCElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACdjB5gLGBgbkBxJIDcx/g08IM18II1mIM5iaQoiURTOLTwt/MnfiYp+aObL9EYuNnngq79Plhhx8CbbGT023ArkXiMO9mY55jz4xnzkhsluY5k5y78XaaAVBLsrHZARzWHObdJs3Ddjhxw43EBmneNubcjbMTQFoOJG7DoUUerOUfWEvzb95/9emGs9M/4NViANLC2wbW0ibN23A4QV46B78thkC/GM7tA/ql52Gb5Zxjxw03SOcUHEgwwO0XueO9Gx+8+QYMMfbkwzfe1FTLy89O3/zhQ4WdHE7vIwMmHpBTwSoNiFAOAow/gIR8A5GqR8EoGAWjYMQAAEj8abNqaGLWAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Abdou Moumouni University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alio","middleName":"Almou","lastName":"Abdoulaye","suffix":""},{"id":351308136,"identity":"fac67960-3c87-4cf9-bc02-ff34d2b9a40c","order_by":1,"name":"Abdel-Kader Alio Sanda","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Abdou Moumouni University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdel-Kader","middleName":"Alio","lastName":"Sanda","suffix":""},{"id":351308137,"identity":"91ceafed-d32f-4f8b-a241-32100d597183","order_by":2,"name":"Yaou Chaibou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Abdou Moumouni University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yaou","middleName":"","lastName":"Chaibou","suffix":""},{"id":351308138,"identity":"6fab4707-af28-4db5-99c3-51f7580acac7","order_by":3,"name":"Maman Moustapha Rabiou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Dan Dicko Dankoulodo University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Maman","middleName":"Moustapha","lastName":"Rabiou","suffix":""},{"id":351308139,"identity":"08a79f10-c43a-4816-b5a8-9841097332c6","order_by":4,"name":"Alio Mahamadou Fody","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Abdou Moumouni University, Ecole normale superieure","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alio","middleName":"Mahamadou","lastName":"Fody","suffix":""},{"id":351308140,"identity":"e8a47374-a08d-4adf-b8ea-2622c7b72530","order_by":5,"name":"Djalifa Hamidou Seybou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Abdou Moumouni University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Djalifa","middleName":"Hamidou","lastName":"Seybou","suffix":""},{"id":351308141,"identity":"9b9e8944-f10f-4fd9-a9ba-f270b5864531","order_by":6,"name":"Haoua Sabo Seini","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Abdou Moumouni University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Haoua","middleName":"Sabo","lastName":"Seini","suffix":""},{"id":351308142,"identity":"1077c016-499c-45a7-8ac6-2cdfdee2cd32","order_by":7,"name":"Hassimi Sadou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Abdou Moumouni University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hassimi","middleName":"","lastName":"Sadou","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-08-13 20:23:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4909303/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4909303/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":64318568,"identity":"ea12e027-3875-4218-b4a8-245cb99d733b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-11 15:00:50","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":440424,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMap of the study area, showing surveyed sites\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4909303/v1/58f93f5c50f4a82659335f50.png"},{"id":64318567,"identity":"4dcf5c41-9259-401f-946a-775f517f636f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-11 15:00:50","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":55141,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResistance rates of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella \u003c/em\u003estrains by antibiotics tested. R: resistant; S: susceptible\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4909303/v1/b83109bf711cbd4a5f827b4e.png"},{"id":64318570,"identity":"52d2cf04-fd77-4832-ade4-1c890d7a8f0e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-11 15:00:51","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":379582,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAntibiotic resistance rate of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella \u003c/em\u003estrains by vegetable type\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4909303/v1/06ee6839a553939b61246a0d.png"},{"id":70592600,"identity":"66f41d91-491f-4e5f-ae8b-827e38dc477d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-04 17:23:36","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1968472,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4909303/v1/8a8d2b4b-bfe2-47a5-ad0a-c37ee27bb676.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Prevalence and antibiotic resistance profile of Salmonella spp. strains isolated from the vegetable food chain in Niamey, Niger","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eFood-borne diseases represent a serious public health problem, with considerable economic consequences worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. It is estimated that pathogenic microorganisms in food are responsible for between 6.5 and 33\u0026nbsp;million illnesses and over 9,000 human deaths per year worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. However, pathogenic enteric bacteria, such as \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e and certain enterohaemorrhagic serotypes \u003cem\u003eof Escherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e, are implicated in a growing number of cases of Collective Foodborne Toxi-Infections [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. The majority of reported cases of microbial food poisoning (95%) are caused by food prepared at home, in restaurants or institutions. An estimated 5% of cases are caused by industrially-produced foods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Salmonellosis is one of the most common food-borne illnesses in almost all countries, and \u003cem\u003eSalmonella enterica Enteritidis\u003c/em\u003e followed by \u003cem\u003eTyphimurium\u003c/em\u003e represent the most frequently isolated serotypes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e is one of the main causes of food-borne outbreaks in developing countries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. In human pathology, \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e are divided into typhoid serotypes (S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi) and non-typhoid serotypes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Non-typhoidal Salmonella cause salmonellosis through contaminated food products such as fresh produce, eggs, pork, vegetables and seafood [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Fruits and vegetables, which represent an important food source of nutrients, have also been reported as a vector for transmission and contamination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. However, antibiotic resistance is now one of the most serious threats to global health, food security and development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Antibiotic resistance in \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains has emerged worldwide, making antibiotic susceptibility testing an important role in public health laboratories. Antibacterial agents are often recommended in cases of suspected salmonellosis. Patients did not respond to the most widely available antibiotics of choice. These practices can enhance antibiotic resistance genes. It is now generally accepted that the main risk factor for increasing resistance in pathogenic bacteria is the uncontrolled use of antibiotics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Indeed, uncontrolled overuse of antibiotics can give rise to a selection of resistant bacterial strains. This is known as antibiotic resistance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. The overall aim of this study is to determine the prevalence and antibiotic resistance phenotype of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains isolated from vegetables in Niamey.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eStudy \u003cb\u003earea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was carried out in the urban community of Niamey. The Niamey region is located in the south-western part of Niger between 13\u0026deg;24' and 13\u0026deg;35'N latitude and 2\u0026deg;00' and 2\u0026deg;15'E longitude, with an altitude of between 160 and 250 m. Its administrative boundaries cover 552.27 km\u0026sup2;, of which approximately 297.46km\u0026sup2; is urbanized [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Niamey's population is estimated at around 1,407,635. The city of Niamey is subdivided into five (5) communal districts, with the following population breakdown by communal district: Niamey I: 287,902 inhabitants; Niamey II: 338,455 inhabitants; Niamey III: 223,685 inhabitants; Niamey IV: 376,271 inhabitants; Niamey V: 181,321 inhabitants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. The climate is Sahelo-Sudanian, with a long dry season from October to May and a short rainy season from June to September. The cold dry season is the most favorable for vegetable production, during which most crops are grown. The study was carried out in three (3) large market gardening sites (Gounti y\u0026eacute;na, Gamkal\u0026eacute; and Harobanda) and five (5) markets (Petit march\u0026eacute;, Dar es salam market, dol\u0026eacute; market, Wadata market and Harobanda market) selling vegetables in the Niamey urban community (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSampling mode\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable samples were taken at production and sales sites (markets). Samples were taken under sterile conditions, using single-use sterile gloves and alcohol to avoid external contamination. Samples were taken from rootless lettuces, whole tomatoes showing no visible damage or cracks, whole carrots and whole onions. A lettuce sample corresponded to three (3) heads of lettuce, and a tomato sample corresponded to three (3) fruits without cracks, weighing around 150g, taken at random from different corners of the production site or from the same vendor's lot. Carrot and onion samples were taken at the point of sale only. A carrot sample consists of at least three carrots weighing a minimum of 150g, taken at random from the same vendor. A batch of approximately 150g served as the onion sample. An information sheet was attached to each sample. Each sample taken was well packaged in a polyethylene bag, then carefully labeled. The samples were then transferred to the microbiology laboratory of the Faculty of Science and Technology (FAST), where they were conditioned and placed in a cooler containing carboglasses to keep the temperature down to around 4\u0026deg;C.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTesting for\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eSalmonella\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e testing was carried out according to ISO 6579:2017 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e] in 4 steps [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]: pre-enrichment, enrichment, isolation and biochemical identification. Bacteriological analysis was carried out on 124 samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePre-enrichment\u003c/b\u003e: was achieved by grinding the lettuce sample in a sterile polyethylene bag around the Bunsen burner flame. Twenty-five (25) grams of the shredded material was then taken and introduced directly into 225 mL of buffered peptone water, incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 24 hrs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEnrichment\u003c/b\u003e: 0.1 mL of pre-enrichment broth was taken and added to 10 mL of RVS and incubated at 42\u0026deg;C for 24h.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eIsolation\u003c/b\u003e: each enrichment culture is streaked on SS agar and Petri dishes incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 24 hours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eBiochemical identification\u003c/b\u003e: suspected \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e colonies were examined using a mini-gallery consisting of 4 media (Kligler-Hajna agar; urea-indol medium, ONPG (O- nitrophenyl-β-D-galactopyranoside), simmons citrate, mannitol-mobility), with confirmation using an API 20\u003csup\u003eE\u003c/sup\u003e gallery (Biom\u0026eacute;rieux, France).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAntibiotic resistance testing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInoculum preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInoculum was prepared from young colonies grown the previous day at 37\u0026deg;C on nutrient agar. A standardized 0.5 Mac Farland inoculum corresponding to 10\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/mL (CA-SFM / EUCAST, 2023) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] was prepared. Then 100 \u0026micro;L of this inoculum was diluted in 10 mL physiological water to obtain a final concentration of 10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/mL.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSeeding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe final inoculum was inoculated by swabbing Petri dishes, dipping the swab into the bacterial suspension, then wringing it out by pressing firmly against the inner wall of the tube. It is then rubbed over the entire surface of the Mueller Hinton agar (MHA), from top to bottom, in tight ridges. The operation is repeated three (3) times, turning the dish 60\u0026deg; each time. Inoculation is completed by passing the swab around the periphery of the agar [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. After inoculation, nine (09) antibiotic-impregnated discs (Bio-rad, France) of different families were placed on the MHA surface using sterilized forceps. The plates were left at room temperature for around 15 min after disc placement, to allow prediffusion of the antibiotics, and then incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 24 hrs. After incubation, the inhibition diameters around the antibiotic discs were measured. Strains were then categorized as Susceptible, Intermediate or Resistant by comparing these diameters with the critical diameters for enterobacteria (for each antibiotic) set by CA-SFM / EUCAST (2023) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTable I.\u003c/b\u003e Characteristics of antibiotic discs used for antibiotic susceptibility testing\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamilies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAntibiotics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcronyms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpenses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInhibition diameter (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSensitive \u0026ge;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResistant \u0026lt;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ-lactam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmoxicillin\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;clavulanic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAMC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAztreonam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eATM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCeftriaxone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCRO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImipenem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIPM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeropenem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMRP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuinolone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCiprofloxacin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCIP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTetracycline\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTetracycline\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTET\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNitrofuran\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNitrofurantoin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSulfonamide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTXT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1. Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIBM SPSS statistics software version 23.0.0.0 was used to calculate frequencies. Microsoft Excel was used to generate the graphs. The data were then subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Differences were considered significant for values of \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/em\u003e.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePrevalence of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eSalmonella\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003estrains isolated from vegetables\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e isolated from vegetables by sampling site. Market prevalences ranged from 40% (market 4) to 4.55% (market 1). \u003cem\u003eSalmonella spp\u003c/em\u003e. was found in all markets, but markets 3 and 4 were the most contaminated (15% and 30% respectively), followed by \u003cem\u003eSalmonella arizonae\u003c/em\u003e in markets 2, 4 and 5. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella pullorum\u003c/em\u003e was only identified in market 5 (3.85%, or one (1) species). \u003cem\u003eSalmonella spp\u003c/em\u003e. were found on all market garden sites, with site 1 the most contaminated (23.08%, i.e. three (3) species identified). \u003cem\u003eSalmonella arizonae\u003c/em\u003e was identified only at site 1 (7.69%). On the other hand, \u003cem\u003eSalmonella pullorum\u003c/em\u003e was absent from all samples taken at the market garden sites. Prevalences did not vary significantly between sampling sites (\u003cem\u003eP-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistribution of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e serotypes by \u003cb\u003esampling\u003c/b\u003e site\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSampling locations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of vegetables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e serotypes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. arizonae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. pullorum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarkets\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarket1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(4,55)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1(4,55)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarket2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(4,55)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(4,55)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2(9,09)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarket3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3(15,00)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3(15,00)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarket4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(10,00)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3(30,00)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4(40,00)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarket5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(3,85)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(3,85)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(07,69)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4(15,38)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3(3,00)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1(1,00)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9(9,00)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13(13,00)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFields\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(7,69)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(50,00)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3(75,00%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(16,67)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1(16,67)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e24\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1(04,17)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3(12,50)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4(16,67)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eValues with the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Market 1: Petit march\u0026eacute;; market 2: Dar es salam; market 3: Dol\u0026eacute;; market 4: Wadata; market 5: Harobanda; Site 1: Gounti y\u0026eacute;na; site 2: Gamkal\u0026eacute;; site 3: Harobanda.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e in the four (4) types of vegetables analyzed. Prevalence ranged from 25% (i.e. 3 out of 12 contaminated samples) in carrot samples to 8.33% (i.e. 1 out of 12 samples) in onion samples. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e prevalence in lettuce samples was 15.38%, the second highest rate (10 out of 69 contaminated samples). Only one (1) strain of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella pullorum\u003c/em\u003e was found in the lettuce samples. The differences did not differ significantly between vegetable types (\u003cem\u003eP-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevalences of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains identified by type of vegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduct type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of products\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e serotypes n(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. arizonae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. pullorum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLettuce\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(3,08)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(1,54)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7(12,31)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10(15,38)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTomato\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(2,86)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(5,71)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3(8,57)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarrot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(8,33)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(16,67)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3(25,00)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(8,33)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1(8,33)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e124\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4(3,26)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1(0,08)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12(9,68)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17(13,71)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eValues with the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAntibiotic resistance phenotype of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eSalmonella\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003estrains isolated from vegetables\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows the antibiotic resistance levels of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains isolated from vegetables. Antibiotic susceptibility testing of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains (two (2) serotypes of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella enterica\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003earizonae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003epullorum\u003c/em\u003e) and 11 strains of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella spp.\u003c/em\u003e) showed that all strains (100%) were resistant to at least one (1) antibiotic. Among the strains, \u003cem\u003eSalmonella spp.\u003c/em\u003e had an antibiotic resistance rate of 42.45%. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella arizonae\u003c/em\u003e is 31.25% resistant, and \u003cem\u003eS. pullorum\u003c/em\u003e 25.00%. Differences between strains were not significant (\u003cem\u003eP-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/em\u003e.05). These serotypes gave very different responses from one antibiotic to another. Analysis of the results shows that \u003cem\u003eSalmonella arizonae\u003c/em\u003e is 100% resistant to AMC, CRO and SXT. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella pullorum\u003c/em\u003e is 100% resistant to AMC and CRO. Several resistance phenotypes were observed in \u003cem\u003eSalmonella spp.\u003c/em\u003e strains, \u003cem\u003ewith\u003c/em\u003e the results showing that at least one \u003cem\u003eSalmonella spp\u003c/em\u003e. strain is resistant to any antibiotic. The most common resistance phenotypes were CRO (100%), AMC (76.92%), CIP (46.15%), ATM (33.33%) and IPM (30.77). There were no significant differences between serotypes and antibiotics (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAntibiotic resistance phenotypes of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e serotypes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. arizonae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. pullorum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP-value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAMC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8(76,92)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(23,08)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,653\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eATM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(33,33)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(66,67)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,504\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCIP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5(46,15)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5(53,85)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,330\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCRO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(07,69)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9(92,31)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,884\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIPM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3(30,77)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7(69,23)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,540\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMRP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3(23,08)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7(76,92)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,653\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSXT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3(33,33)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7(66,67)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,303\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTET\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1(100)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2(23,08)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8(76,92)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,653\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eAMC: Amoxicillin\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Clavulanic Acid; ATM: Aztreonam; CIP: Ciprofloxacin; CRO: Ceftriaxone; F: Nitrofurantoin;IPM: Imipenem; MRP: Meropenem; SXT: Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole; TET: Tetracycline\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the prevalence of resistance in \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains for each marker antibiotic tested. Resistance varies from one antibiotic to another. The most frequently encountered resistances were to cephalosporins (CRO, 100%), penicillins (AMC, 100%), and fluoroquinolones (CIP, 46,15). On the other hand, low resistance was observed for F (7.69%). High sensitivities were observed for Nitrofurantoin (92.31%), Cyclins (TET, 76.92%), Monobactams (ATM, 76.92%), Carbapenems (IMP, 69.23%) and (MRP, 76.92%)) and Sulfonamides (SXT, 76.92%). No significant differences were observed between antibiotics (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the antibiotic resistance rate of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains isolated according to the type of vegetable analyzed. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains isolated from lettuce samples are highly resistant to CRO (100%); AMC (88.90%), CIP (55.60%), TET (55.60%) and SXT (50.00%). The strain isolated from onion samples was resistant to AMC, ATM, CRO, F and TET. Strains isolated from tomato samples were resistant to CIP (100%), SXT (100%), CRO (100%), TET (100%) and ATM (25%). Finally, strains isolated from carrot samples are resistant to AMC (100%), CRO (100%) and IPM (33.30%). Differences in resistance from one type of vegetable to another were not significant (P-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMulti-antibiotic resistance in\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSalmonella\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003estrains isolated from vegetables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe multidrug resistance of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains is shown in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Approximately 93.75% of strains are multi-resistant. Multidrug resistance ranges from 2 to 6 antibiotics. Resistance to three (3) antibiotics is most common in these strains (around 37.50% for \u003cem\u003eS. spp\u003c/em\u003e), followed by resistance to two (2) and three (3) antibiotics (around 12.50%). Only \u003cem\u003eSalmonella spp\u003c/em\u003e. strains are resistant to four (4) and six (6) antibiotics (6.25% and 12.50% respectively). No significant differences were observed between strains (P-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMulti-resistance \u003cstrong\u003eof\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains to antibiotics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber Ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e serotypes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP-value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. arizonae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. pullorum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2Ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(12,50)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(12,50)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4(25,00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,898\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3Ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6(37,50)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6(37,50)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4Ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(6,25)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(6,25)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(12,50)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5Ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(6,25)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(6,25)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6Ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(12,50)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(12,50)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(13,33)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(6,25)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11(75,00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15(93,75)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eAb: antibiotic\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003ePrevalence of resistant strains by type of vegetable\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eshows the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eresistant to at least one antibiotic, according to the type of vegetable analyzed. The prevalence of resistant strains is 10.48% in vegetables. The prevalences of the different types of vegetables analyzed were 25.00%; 10.77%; 8.33%; 5.71% in carrot, lettuce, onion and tomato, respectively\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNo significant differences were observed between vegetables (P-value\u0026gt;0.05). In terms of strains, the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella spp\u003c/em\u003e. represented 8.06% of the multidrug resistance observed in vegetables, and was the highest. Strains of \u003cem\u003eS. arizonae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eS. pullorum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ehad prevalences of 1.61% and 0.80% respectively. Prevalences did not vary significantly according to vegetable type or serotype (\u003cem\u003eP-value\u0026gt;0\u003c/em\u003e.05).\u003cbr\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable:6\u003c/strong\u003e. Prevalences of resistant \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains according to vegetables tested\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVegetable types\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumbers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eof vegetables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains n(%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP-value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. arizonae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS pullorum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. spp.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarrot\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(8,33)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(16,67)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3(25,00)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0,413\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLettuce\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1,54)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1,54)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5(7,69)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7(10,77)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOnion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(8,33)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1(8,33)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTomato\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(5,71)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2(5,71)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e124\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2(1,61)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1(0,80)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10(8,06)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e13(10,48)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e is an enteric bacterium and a major pathogen causing food poisoning. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e species are the main causes of acute gastroenteritis in many countries, and salmonellosis remains a major public health problem worldwide, particularly in developing countries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Salmonella is a highly pathogenic organism, and once it has been detected in foodstuffs, the latter are classified as unsafe for human consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, Salmonella represented 33.34% (20/60) of the enterobacteriaceae species isolated from vegetables and irrigation water in market gardens. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e prevalence in all vegetable samples was 13.71% (17/124), with carrot samples the most contaminated (25%), followed by lettuce samples ( 15.38% ) and tomato and onion samples (8.57% and 8.33% respectively). The rate of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e contamination was 13.00% in market vegetable samples and 16.67% in market garden samples. Our results are lower than those obtained in a previous study on lettuce in Niger [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. These authors reported a contamination rate of 36.94% for lettuce samples taken from the eight (8) regions of Niger, with the Niamey region being the most contaminated (i.e. 56%). This difference in results could be explained by the fact that half of the samples analyzed in their study were taken in Zango (Gounti y\u0026eacute;na), which corresponds to our site 1, the most contaminated of our study sites. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e prevalences in lettuce samples of 50% and 70.15% have been reported from Burkina Faso [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] and 22% and 16% from Nigeria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. These values are well above the 15.38% prevalence observed in the present study. The prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e in all vegetable samples was 13.71%. This is significantly higher than the 2.6% prevalence reported from C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire (Toe \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]) or the 3 to 10% from the DRC (Mahangaiko \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have highlighted the presence of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e in foods other than vegetables throughout the world, notably in Burkina Faso, in mutton (19%) Bawa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], sandwiches (17.7%) Nikiema \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] and sesame samples (10.28%) Douamba \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], in Ethiopia in cow's milk samples (10.5%), Abbunna \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] and in Chad in chicken meat (26.66\u0026ndash;41.66%) Abba \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. All these studies show high prevalences of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e. The presence of Salmonella in vegetables is an indicator of faecal contamination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. This contamination can be explained, on the one hand, by traditional methods, storage temperature and inadequate personal hygiene of handlers after harvest and at the time of sale [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] and, on the other hand, by the use of waste water without any treatment, and the use of manure as fertilizer. The increased contamination of produce both at market and in the field highlights the debate on the importance of post-harvest effects, including poor hygiene and market management on fresh produce quality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo (2) serotypes of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella enterica\u003c/em\u003e have been identified (\u003cem\u003eSalmonella Arizonae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSalmonella Pullorum\u003c/em\u003e) and the remains are \u003cem\u003eSalmonella spp.\u003c/em\u003e The ecological niche of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella Arizonae\u003c/em\u003e is the intestine of cold-blooded animals such as lizards, geckos and frogs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. The presence of this bacterium in vegetables could be explained by the abundance of these animals in market gardening sites. The presence of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella Arizonae\u003c/em\u003e has also been reported in lettuce in Abidjan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. The presence of this bacterium in soils could be linked to the presence of these animals in large numbers on the three production sites due to the high level of insalubrity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella Pullorum/Gllinarum\u003c/em\u003e is a poultry-specific agent (agent of avian typhoid) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. The ecological reservoir of this serotype is the poultry digestive tract [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. The presence of \u003cem\u003eS. pullorum\u003c/em\u003e in vegetables can be explained by the use of poultry manure (droppings) for soil fertilization. The use of poultry manure as fertilizer could explain the presence of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella Gallinarum\u003c/em\u003e on cultivation sites [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. This observation corroborates that of Beuchat and Ryu [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that manure composed mainly of poultry droppings is a major contributor to \u003cem\u003eSalmonella Gallinarum\u003c/em\u003e contamination of lettuce.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith regard to resistant \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e serotypes, our results are also in line with those previously reported from Niger [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] and other countries, including Algeria (Sebaa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]), Burkina Faso (Bawa \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]; Somda \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]), C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire (Toe [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]; Kouame [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]), Ethiopia (Gebremichael \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]; Zewdu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]), Chad (Abba \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]), Kenya (Ngai \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e, 2021 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]), Bangladesh (Nipa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]), Japan (Najwa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]), Pakistan (Razzaq \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]), Morocco (Bouchrif \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]; Allaoui \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]; Baloch \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]), Nigeria ( Raufu \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]; Abakpa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]; Nwiyi \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]). Antibiotic-resistant strains isolated from lettuce samples are likely to reflect contamination by strains possessing at least one antimicrobial resistance gene [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] and originating from healthy carriers among people handling these products [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, this resistance could be explained by the indirect contamination of vegetables by fecal bacteria from animals during the manure fertilization process [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. The majority of growers used manure from livestock, particularly chicken, to fertilize vegetable soils [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. In these farms, antibiotics are widely and abusively used to prevent and treat infections, and also to accelerate animal growth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. The use of antibiotics can encourage the selection of resistant bacteria in enteric strains, which are then eliminated via their excrement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSalmonella spp.\u003c/em\u003e strains showed high rates of resistance to the antibiotics tested. The overall rate of antibiotic resistance in these strains was 40%. The highest levels of resistance were to cephalosporins (CRO, 100%), penicillins (AMC, 76.92%), fluoroquinolones (CIP, 46.15%), sulfonamides (SXT, 33.33%), carbapenems (IMP, 30.7%) and tetracycline (TET, 23.08%). These results corroborate the resistance of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e to penicillin A (ampicillin, amoxicillin; amoxicillin\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;clavulanic acid) and cephalosporins (cefixime, ceftazidime) previously reported from Niger [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Such resistance is thought to be linked to the production of a cephalosporinase or extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) by the strains in question [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. The beta-lactam family acts on bacteria by inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis after binding to a membrane protein receptor: PBP (Penicilllin Binding Protein) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. Bacterial strains resist these antibiotics by producing a beta-lactamase which inactivates the antibiotics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e] has shown that antibiotics belonging to the same class act by the same mechanism of action, and that target bacteria can resist them by an identical mechanism. In contrast to our results, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] observed no resistance to CRO and CIP (0% each), but reported higher levels of resistance to IPM and SXT, 100% and 41.46% respectively. Other authors have reported low levels of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e resistance to IPM (10%), CRO (5%) and CIP (5%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e resistance to IPC may be due to its use in both human and veterinary medicine [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]. Indeed, various authors have reported IPC-resistant \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e in vegetables in Japan (Nawas \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]) and Nigeria (Kemajou \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]). The disparity observed between the results could be justified by the controlled use of CIP in both human and animal medicine [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]. This emergence of fluoroquinolone resistance is alarming, as these are the antibiotics of choice in veterinary medicine for the treatment of invasive salmonellosis. The consistency of resistance rates among the different molecules could be explained by the use of fluoroquinolones, which are more recent molecules in animal husbandry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn various countries, several authors have reported rates of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e resistance to TET, notably in Ethiopia (Fufa et \u003cem\u003eal.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]; Gebremichael \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]), Burkina Faso (Bawa et \u003cem\u003eal.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]), Algeria (Alloui \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]), C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire (Toe, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]) and Chad (Abba \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]). These rates of resistance to TET are all higher than our observations. However, a low resistance rate of around 13% has been recorded in Algeria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. TET resistance is also alarming in developing countries, and may reflect contamination of raw vegetables by contaminated irrigation water or manure. In addition, these resistances can potentially be acquired through the food chain from human contamination arising from therapeutic practices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e]. Tetracyclines are old molecules widely used as first-line treatments. Resistance to these molecules is fairly well known, and is generally due to a plasmid gene that can be acquired quite easily by bacteria. Tetracyclines are broad-spectrum bacteriostatic antibiotics, active against both Gram\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;and Gram- bacteria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt should be noted that multi-resistance was observed in \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains (around 93.97% of strains). Numerous cases of multidrug resistance have been observed in these foods by other authors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e]. At present, multidrug resistance is frequently observed in isolates from human clinical cases worldwide, and this characteristic is having an increasing impact on the empirical treatment of community infections [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlighted the presence of resistant \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains in market gardens and markets in the urban community of Niamey. Resistance involved several antibiotic families. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e resistance concerned cephalosporins (CRO), penicillins (AMC) and fluoroquinolones (CIP). Multi-resistance reached up to six (6) antibiotics (\u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains). The presence of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains resistant to several antibiotics in the vegetable samples analyzed testifies to a lack of good hygiene practices in market gardening and markets in the urban community of Niamey. Given the importance of fresh vegetables in the human diet and the high prevalence of multi-resistant strains recorded, it is important to implement a national health monitoring policy to control the circulation of multi-resistant strains.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAPI : \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Analytical Profile Index\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eATCC: \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; American Type Culture Collection\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCASFM : \u0026nbsp; Comit\u0026eacute; d\u0026rsquo;Antibiogramme de la Soci\u0026eacute;t\u0026eacute; Fran\u0026ccedil;aise de Microbiologie\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEUCAST: European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMHA: \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Muller Hinton Agar\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRVS : \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Rappaport Vassiliadis Soja\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSPSS: \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eStatistical Package for Social Sciences\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSS : \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u003cem\u003eSalmonella \u0026ndash;Shigella\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTIAC: \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Toxi-Infection-Alimentaire Collective\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe vegetables samples were collected during the survey on the market garden sites and vegetables sales markets. All markets gardeners and vegetables sellers freely accepted, collaborated and gave their consent for collection of the vegetables samples. The international standards were used for sample analysis. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo competing of interest is related to this present manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funding was received for this work. Everything was done on a personal funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor\u0026apos;s contributions \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAAA carried out the sampling, sample collection and bacteriological analysis at the laboratory, HSD participated in sample collection, ASA and YC supervised laboratory analysis, RMM and AFM participated for data analysis, SHS and SH corrected and validated the analysis protocol and participated in drafting the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI thank the market gardeners and vegetables sellers of the urban community of Niamey for their well collaboration during the samples collection.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBouchrif B., Paglietti B., Murgia M., Piana A., Cohen N., Must M., Ennaji A., Rubino S., Timinouni M. (2009). Prevalence and antibioticresistance of Salmonellaisolated from food in Morocco. Journal of Infection in developing Countries 3(1):35-40.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAkaki KD, Sadat AW, Loiseau G, Guyot JP (2008). Study of the understanding of bacillus cereus ATCC 9139 and Escherichia coli ATCC25922 strains by the challenge-test method during the preparation of fermented millet paste-based porridges from Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Rev. Ivoir. Sci. 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Health Sciences Diseases 24(9): 16-24.\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Salmonella, prevalence, vegetables, resistance, antibiotics, Niamey/Niger","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4909303/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4909303/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSalmonellosis is the main cause of collective food poisoning in humans. They are bacterial infections caused by various \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e species. The overall aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and antibiotic resistance phenotype of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains isolated from vegetables in the urban community of Niamey.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo this end, one hundred and twenty-four (124) samples of some vegetables (carrot, lettuce, onion and tomato) were taken from market garden sites and markets in Niamey. \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e were tested using the ISO 6579:2017 4-step method: pre-enrichment, enrichment, isolation and biochemical identification, and the antibiotic resistance phenotype was determined using the standard Kirby-Bauer agar diffusion method.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome sampling sites showed high \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e prevalences, notably site 1 (75.00%) and market 4 (40.00%). The overall level of \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e contamination in vegetables was 13.71%, including carrot (25.00%) and lettuce (15.38%) samples. The most common resistance phenotypes were Ceftriazone (100%), Amoxicillin\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Clavulanic Acid (76.92%), Ciprofloxacin (46.15%), Aztreonam (33.33%) and Imipenem (30.77%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe presence of multidrug-resistant \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e strains in vegetables reflects the potential risk associated with their consumption. It is important to research the potential resistance and virulence genes of these strains for better management of infectious diseases.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Prevalence and antibiotic resistance profile of Salmonella spp. strains isolated from the vegetable food chain in Niamey, Niger","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-09-11 15:00:45","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4909303/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f8f8cd48-eed3-4328-be15-c4424deda48a","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 11th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-12-04T17:23:13+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-09-11 15:00:45","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4909303","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4909303","identity":"rs-4909303","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}