Enhancing Student Engagement and Teamwork: Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial of the BOPPPS Model in College Volleyball Courses

Enhancing Student Engagement and Teamwork: Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial of the BOPPPS Model in College Volleyball Courses | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Enhancing Student Engagement and Teamwork: Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial of the BOPPPS Model in College Volleyball Courses Enli Xie, Yushan He, Tainan Cao, Minchen Zhao, Caiyun Huang, Zhiming Wang This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8477294/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background BOPPPS, which comprises six components—Bridge-in, Objective, Pre-assessment, Participatory Learning, Post-assessment, and Summary—is a student-centered structured teaching model widely applied in theoretical courses. However, empirical research on its implementation in motor skill instruction, particularly in team ball sports such as volleyball, remains limited. Purpose This study aims to investigate the effects of the BOPPPS teaching model, compared to traditional teaching methods, on college student’s mastery of basic volleyball techniques, their interest in course learning, and their collaborative learning abilities. Method This study compares the effects of the BOPPPS model and traditional teaching on college students' basic volleyball skill acquisition, learning interest, and collaborative learning ability. Results Regarding basic volleyball techniques, post-test results showed no significant differences between the two groups in passing (p = 0.276), digging (p = 0.335), or serving (p = 0.236), indicating that the two teaching models did not differ significantly in terms of technical skill acquisition. However, the C demonstrated significant improvement in all three techniques after the experiment (p < 0.05). In terms of learning interest, the E showed significant improvement across all five dimensions: negative aspects, positive aspects, skill learning, extracurricular engagement, and attention to physical education. Furthermore, after the experiment, the E significantly outperformed the C in all these dimensions (p < 0.05). Regarding collaborative learning ability, the E exhibited significant improvement in four dimensions: collaborative cognition, collaborative affect, collaborative intention, and interpersonal interaction, and scored significantly higher than the C after the experiment (p 0.05). Meanwhile, the C showed significant changes after the experiment in interpersonal interaction, emotional regulation, conflict management, and leadership (p < 0.05). Conclusion The BOPPPS model is as effective as traditional teaching in developing basic volleyball skills but demonstrates clear advantages in enhancing learning interest and fostering deeper collaborative competencies. It is recommended for integration into team sports education to support comprehensive student development. Social science/Education Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology BOPPPS instructional model volleyball teaching fundamental techniques learning interest cooperative learning ability Figures Figure 1 1 Introduction 1.1 Research Background and Imperatives for Teaching Reform Higher education physical education courses serve not only as a platform for imparting sports skills but also as a crucial vehicle for cultivating college students' well-rounded personalities, teamwork spirit, and social adaptability 1 . With the deepening adoption of the "student-centered" and "outcome-based education" philosophies, the traditional "demonstration-imitation-practice" model of physical education faces challenges in stimulating student’s intrinsic motivation 2 , 5 , fostering deep interaction, and developing higher-order competencies 3 . Volleyball, as a typical collective net-separated antagonistic sport, requires a high degree of teamwork and instant communication for skill mastery and tactical execution placing greater demands on the interactivity and situational relevance of teaching methods 4 , 9 . Consequently, exploring and validating innovative teaching models that can effectively promote skill acquisition while deepening the learning experience and team integration has become one of the key issues in the current reform of college physical education. 1.2 Theoretical core and research progress of the BOPPPS teaching model The BOPPPS teaching model originated from the Instructional Skills Workshop in Canada 6 . With its clear closed-loop structure—consisting of Bridge-in, Objective, Pre-assessment, Participatory Learning, Post-assessment, and Summary—and strong interactivity, it provides a systematic framework for ensuring teaching effectiveness and student engagement 7 , 8 . In recent years, this model has achieved notable success in higher education disciplines such as medicine, engineering, and linguistics, where it has been proven to enhance the quality of classroom interaction, the attainment of learning objectives, and student satisfactio 9 . Current research on BOPPPS reflects two major trends: first, deep integration with technology-enhanced approaches such as blended learning and flipped classrooms 10 , 16 , thereby extending the boundaries of teaching time and space; second, a shift in focus from knowledge transmission outcomes to the cultivation of core competencies such as critical thinking and collaborative skills 11 . However, within the field of physical education, especially in the context of motor skill instruction, applied research remains in its early and exploratory stages 12 . The limited existing studies, primarily focused on sports such as tennis, badminton, and aerobics, have preliminarily demonstrated the potential of BOPPPS in improving skill acquisition efficiency and classroom atmosphere 13 . Nevertheless, these studies often suffer from shortcomings such as small sample sizes, short experimental durations, and limited evaluation dimensions 11 , 14 . In particular, for team-oriented sports like volleyball, there is still a lack of rigorous empirical evidence on whether BOPPPS—through its structured participatory learning and feedback components—can effectively promote technical skill learning while simultaneously fostering the shared cognition, positive interdependence, and effective interaction essential for teamwork. 1.3 Definition of core variables and positioning of this study (1) Acquisition of Foundational Skills: The cornerstone of physical education instruction. This study focuses on the efficiency of a structural teaching model in facilitating the mastery of standardized motor skills within limited instructional hours. (2) Learning Interest: The core intrinsic motivation that sustains learning behavior and guides individuals toward lifelong physical activity. It encompasses a multidimensional continuum of affective and behavioral tendencies, ranging from passive avoidance to active engagement, and extending from within the classroom to extracurricular contexts. (3) Collaborative Learning Ability: In team sports such as volleyball, this constitutes not merely a means to complete drills but also a significant learning objective in itself. It transcends simple "practicing together" and involves the recognition of cooperation's value, positive affective experiences, proactive willingness to collaborate, and effective interpersonal coordination skills. This study aims to address the gap in the literature by systematically examining, through a randomized controlled experiment, the comprehensive effects of applying the BOPPPS teaching model in university general volleyball courses on students’ fundamental skill acquisition, learning interest, and cooperative learning ability. We hypothesize that, compared with traditional teaching methods, the BOPPPS teaching model will demonstrate comparable or better effectiveness in promoting fundamental skill acquisition; will be more effective in enhancing students’ learning interest; and will more effectively foster students’ cooperative learning ability. 2 Methods 2.1 Participants This study employed a randomized controlled pre-post test design with two groups. The participants were 28 first-year students majoring in Physical Fitness Training from two intact classes at Nanjing Sport Institute. Through random drawing, one class was designated as the E (n = 14), receiving the BOPPPS teaching model intervention, while the other class served as the C (n = 14), receiving the traditional teaching model. All participants provided informed consent and had no prior systematic volleyball training experience before the experiment. The study protocol was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Nanjing Sport Institute (Approval No.: RT-2024-15). 2.2 Procedures E: instruction was strictly structured according to the six phases of the BOPPPS model, with the “Bridge-in” and “Objective” phases moved forward to the online pre-class stage. The core “Participatory Learning” phase emphasized task-driven group inquiry, peer video analysis, situational games, and simulated matches. For example, when learning underhand passing, a task might be “working in groups to complete 20 consecutive underhand passes while moving without letting the ball touch the net.” During the activity, tablets were used to record and immediately replay videos for analysis. The “Post-assessment” and “Summary” phases focused on group presentations and collective reflection. C: the conventional four-stage teaching model (Introduction, Warm-up, Main Activity, Conclusion) was adopted. Instruction mainly consisted of centralized teacher explanation and demonstration, followed by students practicing repeatedly in groups, with the teacher providing巡回 guidance and corrective feedback. Practice forms primarily focused on individual technical drills, supplemented by simple partner exercises. Both groups were taught by the same volleyball-specialized teacher with over five years of teaching experience. Classes were held twice per week over 12 weeks, totaling 24 class hours. Teaching content, progress, venues, and equipment were identical for both groups, with the only difference being the teaching model. To control for expectancy effects, participants were not informed of the grouping purposes. 2.3 Measurement tools and data collection Volleyball Fundamental Skills Test: Conducted before and after the experiment. It included: (1) One-minute continuous self-passing: recording the maximum number of repetitions performed with standardized technique; (2) One-minute continuous self-digging: recording the maximum number of repetitions performed with standardized technique; (3) One-minute serving: recording the number of successful serves landing in the opponent’s court (overhand serves for male students, underhand serves for female students). All tests were scored by two experienced volleyball teachers who were unaware of the group assignments. The inter-rater reliability was ICC > 0.85. Learning Interest Scale: The College Student’s Physical Education Learning Interest Scale, revised by Gu Haiyong and Xie Chao, was adopted. It consists of 27 items across five dimensions: negativity, positivity, skill learning, extracurricular activity, and attention to physical education. A Likert 5-point scale was used. In this study, the scale showed a Cronbach’s α coefficient of 0.92. Collaborative Learning Ability Scale: The College Student’s Collaborative Learning Ability Scale, developed by Xu Guobin and Huang Xiujuan, was employed. Seven dimensions closely related to in-class team learning were selected: “collaborative cognition,” “collaborative emotion,” “collaborative intention,” “interpersonal interaction,” “emotion regulation,” “conflict management,” and “organizational leadership,” comprising a total of 20 items. A Likert 5-point scale was used. In this study, the scale demonstrated a Cronbach’s α coefficient of 0.94. All scales were distributed and collected during class time in the first and final weeks of the experiment, with a valid return rate of 100%. 2.4 Data analysis Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 27.0. First, an independent-samples t-test was conducted to examine the homogeneity of the pre-test data between the two groups. Second, paired-samples t-tests were employed to analyze the changes within each group before and after the experiment. Finally, an independent-samples t-test was used to compare the post-test outcomes between the two groups, in order to evaluate the effect of the instructional intervention. The significance level was set at p = 0.05. 3 Results 3.1 Analysis of Fundamental Volleyball Technique Results Table 1 Technical performance of volleyball skills indicators Indicators E C Between-group comparisons Within-group comparisons before and after the experiment E C t p t p t p Passing Pre 20.57 ± 0.938 20.79 ± 1.19 0.53 0.601 -6.123 0.062 -5.872 0.003 Post 23.00 ± 1.20 23.50 ± 1.25 1.112 0.276 Digging Pre 15.5 ± 1.019 15.43 ± 0.94 -0.193 0.848 -4.726 0.089 -6.415 0.001 Post 17.80 ± 1.35 18.30 ± 1.40 -0.984 0.335 Serving Pre 7.93 ± 0.917 7.79 ± 1.05 -0.383 0.705 -3.214 0.127 -4.936 0.008 Post 9.20 ± 1.25 9.80 ± 1.30 1.212 0.236 Note: Pre: pre test;Post: post test As shown in Table 1 , both the E and the C demonstrated improvement in basic volleyball techniques before and after the experiment, though the patterns of improvement differed. In the E, although the improvements in passing (p = 0.062), digging (p = 0.089), and serving (p = 0.127) did not reach statistically significant levels, the post-test means were higher than the pre means in all three skills. This indicates that the BOPPPS teaching model had a positive influence on students’ acquisition of technical skills. In contrast, the C showed significant improvements in passing (p = 0.003), digging (p = 0.001), and serving (p = 0.008), suggesting that the traditional teaching model was more effective in standardizing technical movements in the short term. Between-group comparisons after the experiment revealed no significant differences between the two groups in passing (p = 0.276), digging (p = 0.335), or serving (p = 0.236). This implies that despite the different teaching approaches, after 12 weeks of systematic training, students from both groups ultimately reached a similar level of mastery in basic techniques. This outcome may be attributed to the fact that improving volleyball skills relies heavily on repetitive practice and motor pattern formation. Traditional teaching, with its emphasis on instructor demonstration, segmented drills, and repeated practice, may be more conducive to helping beginners establish proper movement patterns. On the other hand, while the BOPPPS model highlights participatory learning and feedback, it may provide relatively less intensive training on technical details within a limited number of class hours. 3.2 Analysis of learning interest and cooperative learning ability outcomes Table 2 Results of learning interest and cooperative learning ability Indicators E C Between-group comparisons Within-group comparisons before and after the experiment E C t p t p t p learning interest negativity Pre 3.69 ± 1.16 3.61 ± 0.69 -0.232 0.819 2.069 0.049 1.427 0.163 Post 3.00 ± 0.47 3.40 ± 0.50 2.185 0.038 positivity Pre 3.44 ± 0.84 3.38 ± 0.81 -0.19 0.85 -3.055 0.005 -2.318 0.027 Post 4.19 ± 0.37 3.85 ± 0.70 -2.126 0.043 skill acquisition Pre 3.69 ± 1.16 3.60 ± 0.73 -0.234 0.817 -2.393 0.024 -1.983 0.055 Post 4.47 ± 0.40 3.95 ± 0.65 -2.816 0.009 extracurricular activities Pre 3.56 ± 0.88 3.47 ± 0.49 -0.318 0.753 -2.554 0.017 -2.145 0.039 Post 4.20 ± 0.32 3.80 ± 0.55 -2.341 0.027 sports attention Pre 3.84 ± 1.06 3.80 ± 1.03 -0.109 0.914 -2.682 0.013 -2.801 0.008 Post 4.64 ± 0.36 4.50 ± 0.50 -1.963 0.048 cooperative learning ability collaborative cognition Pre 3.47 ± 1.34 3.50 ± 1.26 0.058 0.954 -2.817 0.012 -1.214 0.229 Post 4.20 ± 1.30 3.70 ± 1.20 -2.214 0.035 collaborative affect Pre 3.14 ± 0.59 3.17 ± 1.17 0.082 0.936 -2.489 0.026 -1.532 0.131 Post 3.60 ± 0.55 3.40 ± 1.10 -2.101 0.045 collaborative intention Pre 3.86 ± 1.04 3.93 ± 0.62 0.221 0.827 -2.314 0.036 -0.673 0.503 Post 4.50 ± 0.95 4.00 ± 0.75 -2.815 0.009 interpersonal interaction Pre 3.37 ± 0.51 3.31 ± 0.38 -0.337 0.739 -3.021 0.008 -2.017 0.048 Post 3.90 ± 0.48 3.50 ± 0.45 -2.489 0.019 emotional regulation Pre 3.39 ± 0.55 3.36 ± 0.38 -0.2 0.843 -0.361 0.723 -4.326 0.000 Post 3.45 ± 0.58 4.05 ± 0.72 -1.327 0.198 conflict management Pre 3.50 ± 0.77 3.48 ± 0.87 -0.076 0.94 -0.285 0.779 -2.891 0.005 Post 3.56 ± 0.80 4.02 ± 0.95 -0.724 0.476 leadership Pre 3.64 ± 0.42 3.69 ± 0.33 0.331 0.743 0.401 0.694 -3.752 0.000 Post 3.69 ± 0.45 4.11 ± 0.58 -1.138 0.266 As shown in Table 2 , the E demonstrated significant improvements across multiple dimensions of learning interest and cooperative learning ability, whereas the C only showed notable changes in certain dimensions, revealing structural differences in teaching effectiveness between the two groups. Regarding learning interest, the E exhibited significant enhancements in five dimensions: negativity (p = 0.049), positivity (p = 0.005), skill learning (p = 0.024), extracurricular activities (p = 0.017), and attention to physical education (p = 0.013). This indicates that the BOPPPS model, through its phases of stimulating engagement, clear objective setting, participatory learning, and timely feedback, effectively enhanced students' learning motivation, skill identification, and willingness to participate in physical activities. In contrast, the C only showed significant improvements in three dimensions: positivity, extracurricular activities, and sports attention (p < 0.05), suggesting that while traditional teaching methods can maintain a certain level of classroom engagement, they have limited effect in fostering deeper learning interest and extending participation beyond class hours. Post-intervention between-group comparisons revealed significant differences (p < 0.05) in all five interest indicators, with the E outperforming the C in each score. This further confirms the advantage of the BOPPPS model in enhancing students' interest in physical education learning. In terms of collaborative learning ability, the E showed significant improvement in four dimensions: collaborative cognition (p = 0.012), collaborative affect (p = 0.026), collaborative intention (p = 0.036), and interpersonal interaction (p = 0.008). This indicates that the design elements of the BOPPPS model, such as group collaboration, discussion and exchange, and shared task responsibility, effectively enhanced students' team awareness, emotional identification, and interactive skills. In contrast, the C exhibited significant changes in four different dimensions: interpersonal interaction (p = 0.048), emotion regulation (p = 0.000), conflict management (p = 0.005), and leadership (p = 0.000). This suggests that traditional teaching methods, including group exercises and collective activities, can still develop students' collaborative and organizational abilities to some extent, though these effects are largely concentrated at the behavioral level rather than the cognitive and affective levels. Post-experimental between-group comparisons revealed that the E performed significantly better than the control class in collaborative cognition, collaborative affect, collaborative intention, and interpersonal interaction (p 0.05). This demonstrates that the BOPPPS model is more effective in systematically enhancing students' cooperative awareness and team interaction skills. However, for more complex social skills such as emotion management and conflict resolution, longer-term contextualized training remains necessary. 4 Discussion The findings indicate that over the 12-week university volleyball general course, the BOPPPS teaching model and the traditional teaching model were equally effective in promoting students’ acquisition of basic skills. This may be because both models included essential elements such as skill demonstration, segmented practice, and repetitive reinforcement, which are necessary for motor skill development 15 . However, BOPPPS did not demonstrate an advantage in skill acquisition, suggesting that for basic skills requiring a high degree of automaticity 16 , sufficient and focused individual practice remains crucial within limited classroom time. Structured interactive design alone may not directly accelerate the formation of muscle memory. Nevertheless, the BOPPPS model showed significant advantages in stimulating learning interest. Its “Bridge-in” phase (e.g., exciting match videos, real-world problems) effectively established a learning context and aroused curiosity 17 , 19 . The gamified tasks and group challenges in the “Participatory Learning” phase transformed technical practice from monotonous repetition into an engaging and meaningful process 18 . Continuous “Post-assessment” and positive “Summary” provided timely formative feedback and achievement recognition, meeting students’ competence needs and thereby significantly enhancing positive emotions, engagement in skill learning, and extending sports-related attention beyond the classroom 19 . This aligns with the perspective of Self-Determination Theory, which posits that fulfilling students’ needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can effectively enhance intrinsic motivation. The core finding of this study lies in its significant promotion of collaborative learning competence. Through its inherent structured design, the BOPPPS model systematically constructs a “collaborative learning ecosystem 20 .” The “Objectives” phase sets clear team goals that require cooperation to achieve, establishing positive goal interdependence. The mandatory group tasks, role assignments, and peer assessment in the “Participatory Learning” phase create ongoing opportunities for interaction and resource interdependence. The evaluation and reflection on group outcomes in the “Post-assessment” and “Summary” phases reinforce responsibility interdependence and team efficacy. This systematic design not only brings students together to practice but also guides them to reflect on “why to cooperate” (enhancing cooperative cognition), experience “positive feelings derived from cooperation,” develop an attitude of “willingness to actively seek collaboration,” and practice “how to communicate and coordinate effectively 21 .” In contrast, collaboration in the traditional teaching model often takes the form of loose practice partnerships, lacking such deep interdependence and structured interactive design. Therefore, it only promotes basic interpersonal interaction and hardly touches the core of collaborative competence. This study also haws certain limitations, such as uneven gender distribution in the sample and a short experimental duration of only 12 weeks, which may affect the generalizability and sustainability of the results. Future research could extend the intervention period, conduct longitudinal follow-ups, and further incorporate qualitative methods such as classroom observations and student interviews to deeply explore the interaction mechanisms and psychological experience changes of students under the BOPPPS model, thereby providing more actionable implementation pathways for the reform of physical education in higher education. In future teaching practices, it is recommended to structurally integrate BOPPPS components, especially participatory learning and team feedback mechanisms, into collective sports programs to foster students’ holistic development in skills, affect, and social abilities. Subsequent research could extend intervention durations, expand sample sizes, and employ qualitative methods to further explore students’ interaction processes and psychological mechanisms in BOPPPS-based classrooms. 5 Conclusions This study showed that while the BOPPPS and traditional teaching models were equally effective for skill acquisition in volleyball, BOPPPS demonstrated clear advantages. It stimulated greater interest, motivation, engagement, and reduced negative emotions in learners. Moreover, BOPPPS more systematically fostered cooperative learning—particularly in cognitive, affective, and interpersonal dimensions—compared to the traditional model’s focus on behavioral collaboration. The findings support BOPPPS as an effective approach for enhancing both motivation and cooperative competence in addition to teaching skills. Declarations Ethics statement The studies involving humans were approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Nanjing Sport Institute (Approval No:RT-2024-15). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participant’s legal guardians/next of kin. Author contributions Enli Xie: Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Yushan He: Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Tainan Cao: Methodology, Writing – review & editing. Minchen Zhao, Caiyun Huang: Methodology, Writing – review & editing. Zhiming Wang: Methodology. Funding This research received no external funding. Conflict of interest The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Generative AI statement The authors declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. Acknowledgments We would like to thank the researchers and study participants for their contributions. Publisher’s note All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. References Anderson,Krathwohl,Airasian.A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Abridged Edition 1DucmDQFU CI5PlnxNe 7Sx0Vr2ZW EDWqPeTHp XtJxmcEGu WEyvQXnHR h0CiNv3ui oCI04Oflv ITgFKHZT1 FIobNoCri J0MRXXpN6 VshZ5VGzB wio3L6OkR[J].[2025-12-28]. Cohen, E. G. (1994). Restructuring the classroom: Conditions for productive small groups. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8477294","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":576824914,"identity":"7c7e4bfd-e824-4330-bc00-7994bf42bf18","order_by":0,"name":"Enli Xie","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nanjing Sport Institute, Nanjing University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Enli","middleName":"","lastName":"Xie","suffix":""},{"id":576824922,"identity":"83502d50-a5c5-4112-964c-e6c97387fa29","order_by":1,"name":"Yushan He","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nanjing Sport Institute, Nanjing 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12:15:45","extension":"html","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":111072,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8477294/v1/59a0ef26e5abdf77f2ec4893.html"},{"id":100681973,"identity":"6e0a7688-1ff7-41b8-9558-5c35ed151ecd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-20 12:16:46","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":178951,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlow chart of the study process according to the CONSORT statements.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8477294/v1/5b3c8671b8769e822756bb4f.png"},{"id":104418172,"identity":"64a00ddc-9723-4eba-9854-cd9120c7fdb6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 13:22:36","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":915434,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8477294/v1/7e51b83a-9c62-49ef-9f32-947111ab5dc7.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Enhancing Student Engagement and Teamwork: Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial of the BOPPPS Model in College Volleyball Courses","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1 Research Background and Imperatives for Teaching Reform\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher education physical education courses serve not only as a platform for imparting sports skills but also as a crucial vehicle for cultivating college students' well-rounded personalities, teamwork spirit, and social adaptability\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. With the deepening adoption of the \"student-centered\" and \"outcome-based education\" philosophies, the traditional \"demonstration-imitation-practice\" model of physical education faces challenges in stimulating student\u0026rsquo;s intrinsic motivation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, fostering deep interaction, and developing higher-order competencies\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Volleyball, as a typical collective net-separated antagonistic sport, requires a high degree of teamwork and instant communication for skill mastery and tactical execution placing greater demands on the interactivity and situational relevance of teaching methods\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Consequently, exploring and validating innovative teaching models that can effectively promote skill acquisition while deepening the learning experience and team integration has become one of the key issues in the current reform of college physical education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2 Theoretical core and research progress of the BOPPPS teaching model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe BOPPPS teaching model originated from the Instructional Skills Workshop in Canada\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. With its clear closed-loop structure\u0026mdash;consisting of Bridge-in, Objective, Pre-assessment, Participatory Learning, Post-assessment, and Summary\u0026mdash;and strong interactivity, it provides a systematic framework for ensuring teaching effectiveness and student engagement\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In recent years, this model has achieved notable success in higher education disciplines such as medicine, engineering, and linguistics, where it has been proven to enhance the quality of classroom interaction, the attainment of learning objectives, and student satisfactio\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrent research on BOPPPS reflects two major trends: first, deep integration with technology-enhanced approaches such as blended learning and flipped classrooms\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, thereby extending the boundaries of teaching time and space; second, a shift in focus from knowledge transmission outcomes to the cultivation of core competencies such as critical thinking and collaborative skills\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, within the field of physical education, especially in the context of motor skill instruction, applied research remains in its early and exploratory stages\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The limited existing studies, primarily focused on sports such as tennis, badminton, and aerobics, have preliminarily demonstrated the potential of BOPPPS in improving skill acquisition efficiency and classroom atmosphere\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Nevertheless, these studies often suffer from shortcomings such as small sample sizes, short experimental durations, and limited evaluation dimensions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In particular, for team-oriented sports like volleyball, there is still a lack of rigorous empirical evidence on whether BOPPPS\u0026mdash;through its structured participatory learning and feedback components\u0026mdash;can effectively promote technical skill learning while simultaneously fostering the shared cognition, positive interdependence, and effective interaction essential for teamwork.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.3 Definition of core variables and positioning of this study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1) Acquisition of Foundational Skills: The cornerstone of physical education instruction. This study focuses on the efficiency of a structural teaching model in facilitating the mastery of standardized motor skills within limited instructional hours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2) Learning Interest: The core intrinsic motivation that sustains learning behavior and guides individuals toward lifelong physical activity. It encompasses a multidimensional continuum of affective and behavioral tendencies, ranging from passive avoidance to active engagement, and extending from within the classroom to extracurricular contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3) Collaborative Learning Ability: In team sports such as volleyball, this constitutes not merely a means to complete drills but also a significant learning objective in itself. It transcends simple \"practicing together\" and involves the recognition of cooperation's value, positive affective experiences, proactive willingness to collaborate, and effective interpersonal coordination skills.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to address the gap in the literature by systematically examining, through a randomized controlled experiment, the comprehensive effects of applying the BOPPPS teaching model in university general volleyball courses on students\u0026rsquo; fundamental skill acquisition, learning interest, and cooperative learning ability. We hypothesize that, compared with traditional teaching methods, the BOPPPS teaching model will demonstrate comparable or better effectiveness in promoting fundamental skill acquisition; will be more effective in enhancing students\u0026rsquo; learning interest; and will more effectively foster students\u0026rsquo; cooperative learning ability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2 Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study employed a randomized controlled pre-post test design with two groups. The participants were 28 first-year students majoring in Physical Fitness Training from two intact classes at Nanjing Sport Institute. Through random drawing, one class was designated as the E (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14), receiving the BOPPPS teaching model intervention, while the other class served as the C (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14), receiving the traditional teaching model. All participants provided informed consent and had no prior systematic volleyball training experience before the experiment. The study protocol was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Nanjing Sport Institute (Approval No.: RT-2024-15).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Procedures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eE: instruction was strictly structured according to the six phases of the BOPPPS model, with the \u0026ldquo;Bridge-in\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Objective\u0026rdquo; phases moved forward to the online pre-class stage. The core \u0026ldquo;Participatory Learning\u0026rdquo; phase emphasized task-driven group inquiry, peer video analysis, situational games, and simulated matches. For example, when learning underhand passing, a task might be \u0026ldquo;working in groups to complete 20 consecutive underhand passes while moving without letting the ball touch the net.\u0026rdquo; During the activity, tablets were used to record and immediately replay videos for analysis. The \u0026ldquo;Post-assessment\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Summary\u0026rdquo; phases focused on group presentations and collective reflection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eC: the conventional four-stage teaching model (Introduction, Warm-up, Main Activity, Conclusion) was adopted. Instruction mainly consisted of centralized teacher explanation and demonstration, followed by students practicing repeatedly in groups, with the teacher providing巡回 guidance and corrective feedback. Practice forms primarily focused on individual technical drills, supplemented by simple partner exercises.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth groups were taught by the same volleyball-specialized teacher with over five years of teaching experience. Classes were held twice per week over 12 weeks, totaling 24 class hours. Teaching content, progress, venues, and equipment were identical for both groups, with the only difference being the teaching model. To control for expectancy effects, participants were not informed of the grouping purposes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Measurement tools and data collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolleyball Fundamental Skills Test: Conducted before and after the experiment. It included: (1) One-minute continuous self-passing: recording the maximum number of repetitions performed with standardized technique; (2) One-minute continuous self-digging: recording the maximum number of repetitions performed with standardized technique; (3) One-minute serving: recording the number of successful serves landing in the opponent\u0026rsquo;s court (overhand serves for male students, underhand serves for female students). All tests were scored by two experienced volleyball teachers who were unaware of the group assignments. The inter-rater reliability was ICC\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.85.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLearning Interest Scale: The College Student\u0026rsquo;s Physical Education Learning Interest Scale, revised by Gu Haiyong and Xie Chao, was adopted. It consists of 27 items across five dimensions: negativity, positivity, skill learning, extracurricular activity, and attention to physical education. A Likert 5-point scale was used. In this study, the scale showed a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α coefficient of 0.92.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollaborative Learning Ability Scale: The College Student\u0026rsquo;s Collaborative Learning Ability Scale, developed by Xu Guobin and Huang Xiujuan, was employed. Seven dimensions closely related to in-class team learning were selected: \u0026ldquo;collaborative cognition,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;collaborative emotion,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;collaborative intention,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;interpersonal interaction,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;emotion regulation,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;conflict management,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;organizational leadership,\u0026rdquo; comprising a total of 20 items. A Likert 5-point scale was used. In this study, the scale demonstrated a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α coefficient of 0.94.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll scales were distributed and collected during class time in the first and final weeks of the experiment, with a valid return rate of 100%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical analysis was performed using SPSS 27.0. First, an independent-samples t-test was conducted to examine the homogeneity of the pre-test data between the two groups. Second, paired-samples t-tests were employed to analyze the changes within each group before and after the experiment. Finally, an independent-samples t-test was used to compare the post-test outcomes between the two groups, in order to evaluate the effect of the instructional intervention. The significance level was set at p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Analysis of Fundamental Volleyball Technique Results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnical performance of volleyball skills indicators\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicators\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween-group comparisons\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin-group comparisons before and after the experiment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePassing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.938\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.601\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-6.123\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-5.872\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.276\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigging\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.193\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.848\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.726\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.089\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-6.415\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.984\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.335\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eServing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.917\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.705\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.214\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.127\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.936\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.212\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.236\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003eNote: Pre: pre test;Post: post test\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, both the E and the C demonstrated improvement in basic volleyball techniques before and after the experiment, though the patterns of improvement differed. In the E, although the improvements in passing (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.062), digging (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.089), and serving (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.127) did not reach statistically significant levels, the post-test means were higher than the pre means in all three skills. This indicates that the BOPPPS teaching model had a positive influence on students\u0026rsquo; acquisition of technical skills. In contrast, the C showed significant improvements in passing (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003), digging (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001), and serving (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.008), suggesting that the traditional teaching model was more effective in standardizing technical movements in the short term.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween-group comparisons after the experiment revealed no significant differences between the two groups in passing (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.276), digging (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.335), or serving (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.236). This implies that despite the different teaching approaches, after 12 weeks of systematic training, students from both groups ultimately reached a similar level of mastery in basic techniques. This outcome may be attributed to the fact that improving volleyball skills relies heavily on repetitive practice and motor pattern formation. Traditional teaching, with its emphasis on instructor demonstration, segmented drills, and repeated practice, may be more conducive to helping beginners establish proper movement patterns. On the other hand, while the BOPPPS model highlights participatory learning and feedback, it may provide relatively less intensive training on technical details within a limited number of class hours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Analysis of learning interest and cooperative learning ability outcomes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults of learning interest and cooperative learning ability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" morerows=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicators\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween-group comparisons\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin-group comparisons before and after the experiment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elearning interest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003enegativity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.232\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.819\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.069\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.185\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epositivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.055\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.318\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eskill acquisition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.234\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.817\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.393\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.983\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.816\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eextracurricular activities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.318\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.753\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.554\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.145\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.341\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esports attention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.914\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.682\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.801\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.963\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"13\" rowspan=\"14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecooperative learning ability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecollaborative cognition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.058\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.954\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.817\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.214\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.229\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.214\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecollaborative affect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.082\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.936\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.489\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.532\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.131\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecollaborative intention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.221\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.827\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.314\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.673\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.503\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.815\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einterpersonal interaction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.337\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.739\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.489\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eemotional regulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.843\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.361\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.723\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.326\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.327\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.198\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003econflict management\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.076\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.285\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.779\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.891\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.724\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.476\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eleadership\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.331\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.743\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.401\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.694\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.752\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.266\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the E demonstrated significant improvements across multiple dimensions of learning interest and cooperative learning ability, whereas the C only showed notable changes in certain dimensions, revealing structural differences in teaching effectiveness between the two groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding learning interest, the E exhibited significant enhancements in five dimensions: negativity (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.049), positivity (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005), skill learning (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.024), extracurricular activities (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.017), and attention to physical education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.013). This indicates that the BOPPPS model, through its phases of stimulating engagement, clear objective setting, participatory learning, and timely feedback, effectively enhanced students' learning motivation, skill identification, and willingness to participate in physical activities. In contrast, the C only showed significant improvements in three dimensions: positivity, extracurricular activities, and sports attention (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), suggesting that while traditional teaching methods can maintain a certain level of classroom engagement, they have limited effect in fostering deeper learning interest and extending participation beyond class hours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-intervention between-group comparisons revealed significant differences (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in all five interest indicators, with the E outperforming the C in each score. This further confirms the advantage of the BOPPPS model in enhancing students' interest in physical education learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of collaborative learning ability, the E showed significant improvement in four dimensions: collaborative cognition (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.012), collaborative affect (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.026), collaborative intention (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.036), and interpersonal interaction (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.008). This indicates that the design elements of the BOPPPS model, such as group collaboration, discussion and exchange, and shared task responsibility, effectively enhanced students' team awareness, emotional identification, and interactive skills. In contrast, the C exhibited significant changes in four different dimensions: interpersonal interaction (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.048), emotion regulation (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.000), conflict management (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005), and leadership (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.000). This suggests that traditional teaching methods, including group exercises and collective activities, can still develop students' collaborative and organizational abilities to some extent, though these effects are largely concentrated at the behavioral level rather than the cognitive and affective levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-experimental between-group comparisons revealed that the E performed significantly better than the control class in collaborative cognition, collaborative affect, collaborative intention, and interpersonal interaction (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), while no significant differences were observed between the two groups in emotion regulation, conflict management, or leadership (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). This demonstrates that the BOPPPS model is more effective in systematically enhancing students' cooperative awareness and team interaction skills. However, for more complex social skills such as emotion management and conflict resolution, longer-term contextualized training remains necessary.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings indicate that over the 12-week university volleyball general course, the BOPPPS teaching model and the traditional teaching model were equally effective in promoting students\u0026rsquo; acquisition of basic skills. This may be because both models included essential elements such as skill demonstration, segmented practice, and repetitive reinforcement, which are necessary for motor skill development\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, BOPPPS did not demonstrate an advantage in skill acquisition, suggesting that for basic skills requiring a high degree of automaticity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, sufficient and focused individual practice remains crucial within limited classroom time. Structured interactive design alone may not directly accelerate the formation of muscle memory.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNevertheless, the BOPPPS model showed significant advantages in stimulating learning interest. Its \u0026ldquo;Bridge-in\u0026rdquo; phase (e.g., exciting match videos, real-world problems) effectively established a learning context and aroused curiosity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The gamified tasks and group challenges in the \u0026ldquo;Participatory Learning\u0026rdquo; phase transformed technical practice from monotonous repetition into an engaging and meaningful process\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Continuous \u0026ldquo;Post-assessment\u0026rdquo; and positive \u0026ldquo;Summary\u0026rdquo; provided timely formative feedback and achievement recognition, meeting students\u0026rsquo; competence needs and thereby significantly enhancing positive emotions, engagement in skill learning, and extending sports-related attention beyond the classroom\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This aligns with the perspective of Self-Determination Theory, which posits that fulfilling students\u0026rsquo; needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can effectively enhance intrinsic motivation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe core finding of this study lies in its significant promotion of collaborative learning competence. Through its inherent structured design, the BOPPPS model systematically constructs a \u0026ldquo;collaborative learning ecosystem\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026rdquo; The \u0026ldquo;Objectives\u0026rdquo; phase sets clear team goals that require cooperation to achieve, establishing positive goal interdependence. The mandatory group tasks, role assignments, and peer assessment in the \u0026ldquo;Participatory Learning\u0026rdquo; phase create ongoing opportunities for interaction and resource interdependence. The evaluation and reflection on group outcomes in the \u0026ldquo;Post-assessment\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Summary\u0026rdquo; phases reinforce responsibility interdependence and team efficacy. This systematic design not only brings students together to practice but also guides them to reflect on \u0026ldquo;why to cooperate\u0026rdquo; (enhancing cooperative cognition), experience \u0026ldquo;positive feelings derived from cooperation,\u0026rdquo; develop an attitude of \u0026ldquo;willingness to actively seek collaboration,\u0026rdquo; and practice \u0026ldquo;how to communicate and coordinate effectively\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026rdquo; In contrast, collaboration in the traditional teaching model often takes the form of loose practice partnerships, lacking such deep interdependence and structured interactive design. Therefore, it only promotes basic interpersonal interaction and hardly touches the core of collaborative competence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also haws certain limitations, such as uneven gender distribution in the sample and a short experimental duration of only 12 weeks, which may affect the generalizability and sustainability of the results. Future research could extend the intervention period, conduct longitudinal follow-ups, and further incorporate qualitative methods such as classroom observations and student interviews to deeply explore the interaction mechanisms and psychological experience changes of students under the BOPPPS model, thereby providing more actionable implementation pathways for the reform of physical education in higher education. In future teaching practices, it is recommended to structurally integrate BOPPPS components, especially participatory learning and team feedback mechanisms, into collective sports programs to foster students\u0026rsquo; holistic development in skills, affect, and social abilities. Subsequent research could extend intervention durations, expand sample sizes, and employ qualitative methods to further explore students\u0026rsquo; interaction processes and psychological mechanisms in BOPPPS-based classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5 Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study showed that while the BOPPPS and traditional teaching models were equally effective for skill acquisition in volleyball, BOPPPS demonstrated clear advantages. It stimulated greater interest, motivation, engagement, and reduced negative emotions in learners. Moreover, BOPPPS more systematically fostered cooperative learning\u0026mdash;particularly in cognitive, affective, and interpersonal dimensions\u0026mdash;compared to the traditional model\u0026rsquo;s focus on behavioral collaboration. The findings support BOPPPS as an effective approach for enhancing both motivation and cooperative competence in addition to teaching skills.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe studies involving humans were approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Nanjing Sport Institute (Approval No:RT-2024-15). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participant\u0026rsquo;s legal guardians/next of kin.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEnli Xie: Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. Yushan He: Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. Tainan Cao: Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. Minchen Zhao, Caiyun Huang: Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. Zhiming Wang: Methodology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGenerative AI statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to thank the researchers and study participants for their contributions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePublisher\u0026rsquo;s note\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAnderson,Krathwohl,Airasian.A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom\u0026apos;s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Abridged Edition 1DucmDQFU CI5PlnxNe 7Sx0Vr2ZW EDWqPeTHp XtJxmcEGu WEyvQXnHR h0CiNv3ui oCI04Oflv ITgFKHZT1 FIobNoCri J0MRXXpN6 VshZ5VGzB wio3L6OkR[J].[2025-12-28].\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCohen, E. G. (1994). Restructuring the classroom: Conditions for productive small groups. Review of Educational Research, 64(1), 1-35.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDriscoll M P .Psychology of learning for instruction[J].Educational Technology Research and Development, 2005, 53(1):108-110.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGiacobbi, P. R., Jr., et al. (2021). 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Journal of Guangzhou Sport University, 32(3), 122\u0026ndash;124.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLi, H. P., \u0026amp; Hu, H. L. (2019). \u0026ldquo;Moving body, moving mind, moving heart\u0026rdquo;: Reform of public tennis courses based on the BOPPPS effective teaching model. Educational Modernization, 6(72), 52\u0026ndash;55.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eXiao-Xia Y , School I E , University Y .Research on Flipped Classroom Teaching Model Based on BOPPPS Model\u0026mdash;\u0026mdash;A Case Study on College English Curriculum[J].Journal of Yuncheng University, 2019.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eXu, G. B., \u0026amp; Huang, X. J. (2012). Psychological survey and behavioral guidance for college students. Science Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZhang, J. X., \u0026amp; Zhu, L. (2016). Effective classroom instructional design based on the BOPPPS model. Vocational and Technical Education, 37(11), 25\u0026ndash;28.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZhong, Q. Q. (2018). Zone of proximal development: The theoretical basis for classroom transformation. Global Education, 47(1), 11\u0026ndash;20+34.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"BOPPPS instructional model, volleyball teaching, fundamental techniques, learning interest, cooperative learning ability","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8477294/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8477294/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBOPPPS, which comprises six components\u0026mdash;Bridge-in, Objective, Pre-assessment, Participatory Learning, Post-assessment, and Summary\u0026mdash;is a student-centered structured teaching model widely applied in theoretical courses. However, empirical research on its implementation in motor skill instruction, particularly in team ball sports such as volleyball, remains limited.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePurpose\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to investigate the effects of the BOPPPS teaching model, compared to traditional teaching methods, on college student\u0026rsquo;s mastery of basic volleyball techniques, their interest in course learning, and their collaborative learning abilities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethod\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study compares the effects of the BOPPPS model and traditional teaching on college students' basic volleyball skill acquisition, learning interest, and collaborative learning ability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding basic volleyball techniques, post-test results showed no significant differences between the two groups in passing (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.276), digging (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.335), or serving (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.236), indicating that the two teaching models did not differ significantly in terms of technical skill acquisition. However, the C demonstrated significant improvement in all three techniques after the experiment (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). In terms of learning interest, the E showed significant improvement across all five dimensions: negative aspects, positive aspects, skill learning, extracurricular engagement, and attention to physical education. Furthermore, after the experiment, the E significantly outperformed the C in all these dimensions (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Regarding collaborative learning ability, the E exhibited significant improvement in four dimensions: collaborative cognition, collaborative affect, collaborative intention, and interpersonal interaction, and scored significantly higher than the C after the experiment (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). However, no significant differences were found between the two groups in the dimensions of emotional regulation, conflict management, or leadership (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Meanwhile, the C showed significant changes after the experiment in interpersonal interaction, emotional regulation, conflict management, and leadership (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe BOPPPS model is as effective as traditional teaching in developing basic volleyball skills but demonstrates clear advantages in enhancing learning interest and fostering deeper collaborative competencies. It is recommended for integration into team sports education to support comprehensive student development.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Enhancing Student Engagement and Teamwork: Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial of the BOPPPS Model in College Volleyball Courses","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-20 10:30:09","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8477294/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ab00b453-8194-43b5-a294-a7d40ec21e20","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 20th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":61368848,"name":"Social science/Education"},{"id":61368849,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":61368850,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-11T13:14:05+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-20 10:30:09","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8477294","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8477294","identity":"rs-8477294","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}